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Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - Leuven University Press, 2015
Embodied Cognition and Cinema

EDITED BY
MAARTEN COGNARTS AND PETER KRAVANJA
WITH A FOREWORD BY
MARK JOHNSON
Leuven University Press
Kravanja_FINAL_DEF.indd 3
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2015 by Leuven University Press / Universitaire Pers Leuven / Presses Universitaires

de Louvain. Minderbroedersstraat 4, B-3000 Leuven (Belgium)
All rights reserved. Except in those cases expressly determined by law, no part of this publication
may be multiplied, saved in an automated datafile or made public in any way whatsoever without
the express prior written consent of the publishers.
ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4
D/2015/1869/22
NUR: 670
Cover illustration: The Go-Between
1971, Renewed 1999 Columbia Pictures, a division of Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.
All Rights Reserved. Courtesy of Columbia Pictures
1970 STUDIOCANAL Films Ltd.
Cover design en lay-out: Frederik Danko
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We had the experience but missed the meaning,

And approach to the meaning restores the experience
In a different form, beyond any meaning
We can assign to happiness.
T.S. Eliot, Four Quartets
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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
FOREWORD 9
Mark Johnson
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 15
FILM AS AN EXEMPLAR OF BODILY MEANING-MAKING
17
Maarten Cognarts and Peter Kravanja
PART I
FILM FORM AND EMBODIED COGNITION
FILM NARRATIVE AND EMBODIED COGNITION:

THE IMPACT OF IMAGE SCHEMAS ON NARRATIVE FORM
43
Mikls Kiss
EMBODIED VISUAL MEANING IN FILM
63

FILM MUSIC AS EMBODIMENT
81
Juan Chattah
PART II
CINEMATIC EMPATHY: ON EMBODIED SIMULATION

MECHANISMS AND THE VIEWER
THE FLOATING WORLD: FILM NARRATIVE AND VIEWER DIAKRISIS
115
Hannah Chapelle Wojciehowski

MODES OF ACTION AT THE MOVIES, OR RE-THINKING
FILM STYLE FROM THE EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE
139
Michele Guerra
ART IN NOISE: AN EMBODIED SIMULATION ACCOUNT
OF CINEMATIC SOUND DESIGN
155
Mark S. Ward
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THE CHARACTERS BODY AND THE VIEWER:

CINEMATIC EMPATHY AND EMBODIED SIMULATION
IN THE FILM EXPERIENCE
187
Adriano DAloia
PART III
FROM EMBODIED MEANING TO ABSTRACT THOUGHT
FILMS AND EMBODIED METAPHORS OF EMOTION
203
Mara J. Ortiz
EMBODIED CINEMATIC SUBJECTIVITY: METAPHORICAL AND
METONYMICAL MODES OF CHARACTER PERCEPTION IN FILM 221

ON THE EMBODIMENT OF TEMPORAL MEANING IN CINEMA:
PERCEIVING TIME THROUGH THE CHARACTERS EYES
245

EMBODIED ETHICS AND CINEMA: MORAL ATTITUDES
FACILITATED BY CHARACTER PERCEPTION
271

COGNITIVE SEMIOTICS REVISITED: REFRAMING THE FRAME
295
Warren Buckland
NOTES 309
BIBLIOGRAPHY 325
FILMOGRAPHY
357
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
359
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
363
INDEX 365
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Art in Noise: An Embodied Simulation

Account of Cinematic Sound Design
MARK S. WARD
INTRODUCTION: IS THERE ART IN NOISE?
What is the nature and function of sound design in cinematic media? Is it possible for the styling of sound to create meaning? Is there art in noise? This chapter departs from standard notions of cinematic sound by examining its meaning-making functions from the perspective of the embodied cognition research
programme within contemporary cognitive science.1 Using embodied simulation theory (Gallese Embodied Simulation), an hypothesis within the embodied cognition paradigm, and placing particular emphasis upon the affective
aspects of Feeling of Body (Wojciehowski and Gallese), an account of cinematic media emerges which puts into play Mark Johnsons concept of embodied
meaning (The Meaning). Central to Johnsons concept is the assertion that all
human meaning, abstract conceptual thinking and imagination have basis in our
sensory-motor interactions with the world (The Meaning 11-14). Johnson rejects
the notion that meaning is quarantined to the symbolic operations of language
noting [m]eaning traffics in patterns, images, qualities, feelings, and eventually
concepts and propositions (The Meaning 9). In the context of cinematic media,
an embodied cognition approach suggests the primary function of sound design
is to elicit affective imagery which, in turn, shapes cognition and consciousness.
The paradigm of embodied cognition represents a profound divergence
from mainstream theorising of cinema, and offers Film Studies unique opportunities for a broader and more flexible understanding of its object of study.2
Historically, Film Studies has tended to emphasise the visual whilst dwelling
upon the narrative, asking questions of cinema that may only be answered by
vision or narrative while eliding other equally crucial questions. An embodied
cognition approach offers a common denominator across all forms of cinematic media, narrative and non-narrative alike. An embodied cognition approach
also responds to another conspicuous lack in contemporary Film Studies. Of
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the Big Three in 19th century thought Marx, Freud, and Darwin it is
the legacy of Marx and Freud which continues to underpin debate within the
humanities while the consequences of Darwins ideas (On the Origins) remains
neglected.3 An embodied cognition approach redresses this lack by putting
Film Studies in contact with evolutionary and neurobiological theories of
emotion and cognition, and in doing so manifests an ecological metatheory
of the kind called for by Joseph and Barbara Fisher Anderson.
Within the field of Film Studies, sound design is under-represented and
under-theorised yet it is because of its marginalised status that sound offers an
unencumbered opportunity by which to investigate the underlying principles of
cinematic media. In particular, this chapter focuses not upon the usual targets
of speech and music in soundtrack discourse, but that mongrel form of sound
variously referred to as effects or noise. Noise is environmental sound, everyday
sound. Sound of this kind is the most under-theorised element of the soundtrack
which, in turn, is the most under-theorised element of the cinematic experience.
As a consequence, sound design offers extremely fertile space within which an
alternate theory of cinematic media may be modelled. Specifically, this chapter
argues for the primacy of affect4, driven by embodied processes, in the functional
architecture and meaning-making capacities of cinematic media in general and
sound design in particular. These claims are distilled from professional praxis5,
and find substantiation through contemporary theories in cognitive science.
Any discussion of cinematic media and embodied cognition is almost immediately bedevilled by the interwoven nature of moving imagery, perception,
emotion, and cognition. How may such relationships be grasped when theories of embodied cognition have a tendency to blur traditional boundaries?
To capture such complexity, this chapter, marshalled into four sections, is organised in a similarly interwoven way. The first section focuses upon the tacit
knowledge which underpins the design of sound, and makes claims about the
multimodal and affective primacy of cinematic media. These professional intuitions may appear counter-intuitive, if not contentious, and so insights from
the perceptual sciences are recruited to substantiate them. I also introduce
two terms, perceptual design and proto-narrative, to assist in describing the
mediated activation of nonconscious affective processes. In the second section,
Vittorio Galleses theory of embodied simulation (Embodied Simulation)
is used as a unifying theoretical framework for mediated experience. Within
this framework three theories for the induction and structuring of affective
content are nested: i) the BRECVEMA framework developed by Patrik Juslin
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(From Everyday), and Patrik Juslin, Daniel Vstfjll and colleagues; ii) the
mood-cue approach developed by Greg M. Smith; and iii) emotional communication theory proposed by Anne Bartsch and Susanne Hbner. An embodied
simulation framework provides smooth scaffolding of these three models from
the fine-grain level of subpersonal processes to the macro level of the sociocultural in the production of a coherent and cohesive affective experience.
This coherence and cohesion I equate with what Wojciehowski and Gallese
call Feeling of Body which they explain as enabling a more direct and less
cognitively-mediated access to the world of others (7). Feeling of Body, in the
context of cinema, recruits our bodys innate capacity for feeling into anothers
affective state, and offers an embodied and noncognitive route to empathy. In
the third section, an embodied cognition approach is used to illustrate how
affective content is generated and structured by briefly examining some of
my own sound design strategies used in Jane Campions In the Cut (2003). To
conclude, the fourth section summarises the central features of an embodied
cognition approach to cinematic sound design, and identifies future research
goals in exploring its relationship to narrative and consciousness.
1. T
HE MULTIMODAL AND AFFECTIVE PRIMACY OF CINEMATIC
MEDIA
1.1. The status of sound in conventional Film Studies

One of the legacies of Grand Theory6 for cinematic sound is a tendency toward
writings focussed upon speech and music. The work of Mary Ann Doane, Kaja
Silverman, Amy Lawrence, Jacques Attali, and extending through to Anahid
Kassabian, Jonathan Sterne, and the edited volumes The Auditory Culture Reader
(Bull and Back) and Hearing Cultures: Essays on Sound, Listening, and Modernity
(Erlmann), provide examples of this method of theorising. There is, of course,
a third strand to the soundtrack: environmental sound. Environmental sound is
comprised of sound effects, Foley, and atmospheres. Somewhat dismissively, these
sounds are often collectively referred to as noise, and few theorise their worth.7
To fill this conceptual vacuum, the term perceptual realism (Grimshaw;
Langkjr) has emerged in contemporary writings as a rallying point by which
to approach cinematic sound. Perceptual realism denotes the manipulation of
basic rules of human perception to create coherent units of meaning during
the practice of sound design. The term also hints at ways the core of cinema may be theorised to answer questions Grand Theory is ill-equipped to
satisfy, such as: Does a surround soundfield with a wide frequency response
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and high dynamic range possess meaning that low fidelity monaural does not?
Why does Richard King, sound designer of Inception (Christopher Nolan
2010), call the movies subsonic frequencies the subtext sound (Coleman, at
2min:35sec)? Why does Neos voice disintegrate into stepped granularity at the
point of his first passing from the world of the Matrix into the Real World (The
Matrix the Wachowskis 1999)? Why is there an insistent mismatch between
point-of-audition and point-of-view in Paul Thomas Andersons Punch-Drunk
Love (2002)? And: how did I, in conjunction with my colleagues8, construct
the character of Frannie Avery and communicate her emotional state through
the design of everyday sounds whilst soundtracking In the Cut?
1.2. Praxis and tacit knowledge

A careful reader might notice my tendency to speak of cinematic media rather than cinema. This allows a cautious approach to the Bazinian question
What is cinema? by asking What is cinematic about cinema? Customarily,
this question is answered in visual and narrative terms. Visual narrativism is
the dominant model within Film Studies yet it is a paradigm I find profoundly uncomfortable as a sound designer because it explains little about what I
do that may be squared with my professional praxis. Sound designers rarely
openly theorise about their work, yet it is impossible to perform creatively
without some sort of hypothesis as to how movies function.9 This knowledge
is constantly under test and revision, with each subsequent movie acting as a
laboratory for tacit theory-making, and these lessons lead to quite a different
set of assumptions to those of visual narrative. In the interests of transparency,
what follows are several of my key assumptions about the nature of cinema:
i. Sound modifies visual perception, and vice versa. Sound has the capacity to
shape visual perception and steer visual attention, and may interact with
vision to produce synaesthetic experience. This crossmodal interaction is
complex and dynamic, and leads to the assumption that
ii. Cinema is not a visual medium, but multimodal. What is cinematic about
cinema is moving imagery, not moving pictures. And because one may
have a satisfying cinematic experience without a concomitant experience
of narrative, I assume that
iii. Cinema is not primarily narrative, but affective. Indeed, it is unlikely one
may have a meaningful narrative experience without it also being an
emotional one.
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1.3. A working definition of cinematic media

What defines media as cinematic? Human beings perceive the world within a
framework comprised of space and time. As the cognitive psychologist Stephen
Handel remarks spatial and temporal change defines the properties of events
and objects and, [m]oreover, the spatiotemporal variation of auditory and
visual events gives them meaning (315). By re-imagining the stuff of cinema
as a dynamic relationship between space and time, the visual aspect of cinema
recedes in primacy whilst movement becomes its defining feature. Movement
is the unfolding relationship between space and time as event. Although Handel argues against the hard version of a visual:spatial / auditory:temporal dichotomy by noting both audition and vision are capable of processing spatial
and temporal information, generalisations may be made. For example, when
engaged in ambiguous tasks, such as audiovisual illusions, vision outperforms
audition in spatial processing while audition outperforms vision in temporal
processing (Repp and Penel). In coarse terms, visions strength tends to lie in
structuring space while auditions strength tends to lie in structuring time.
As a basic working definition, what makes cinema cinematic is an ability
to manipulate a subjective experience of time, space, and movement. By foregrounding cinema as a spatiotemporal system, cinema becomes intrinsically
multimodal, but, more than this, it is an affective spatio-temporal system.
Unconventional assumptions like these, of course, demand closer inspection: how does sound design contradict the maxim cinema is a visual medium? Sound design, through careful crafting, may steer and deflect the eyes
passage across a screen, or draw the eye to some objects but disregard others.10
It is this capacity for steering visual attention and guiding the perceived timing of onscreen events in the shaping of a temporal sequence that provides
sound design with its sense-making function and, by extension, the capacity
to narrate. Furthermore, the design of sound has the capacity to influence the
phenomenal quality of visual objects. Sound, for example, may communicate
the material nature and texture of an object or alter its perceived speed, mass or
momentum, or it may suggest the physical contact of objects when no contact
occurred. Sound may concretise or dematerialise a visual image. It may supply
or suppress a visual images apparent tactile or gustatory qualities. Sound may
be manipulated to cause the visual image to appear crisper or brighter. Even
more astonishing is the capacity of sound to intensify the energy of a scene,
even if the visual image is slow or empty.11 This last phenomenon the energy of a scene is as subtle as it is significant for it refers, in movie-making
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terms, to an audiences engaged attention. Energy is just another way of describing an audiences affective engagement with the unfolding of events.
As fantastical as these professional intuitions might seem, evidence is accumulating within the cognitive sciences to support the claim of cinemas intrinsic affective multimodality.
1.4. Multimodal integration and cinematic imagery

Conventionally, silent moving visual imagery is held to be both necessary and
sufficient to a definition of cinema, while sound is an incidental accretion
(Currie 3): it is enough to experience a cinematic work through vision without engaging any other sensory modality. Whilst commonplace, such a claim
oversimplifies the cinematic experience. Evidence from the perceptual sciences
indicates the human senses exhibit crossmodal interaction to such a high degree that it is untenable to continue to conceptualise them as operating independently or in isolation (Ghazanfar and Schroeder; Shimojo and Shams).
A specific example of this kind of crossmodal interaction may be found
in the processes by which silent moving visual imagery elicits auditory imagery. Auditory imagery is the subjective experience of hearing in the absence
of auditory stimulation (Kraemer et al. 158).12 Calvert and associates found
linguistic visual cues are sufficient to activate auditory cortex in normal hearing individuals in the absence of auditory speech sounds (Activation 593).
In the context of silent cinema, even as we watch actors soundlessly mouth
dialogue, an auditory mechanism is activated to perform a type of lip-reading. Furthermore, the crossmodal phenomenon whereby visual imagery spontaneously generates auditory imagery is robust not only for human speech
but also for non-speech sounds. Meyer and colleagues found the subjective
experience of sound, in the absence of auditory stimulation, was associated
with content-specific activity in early auditory cortices and when subjects
viewed sound-implying, but silent, visual stimuli, activity in auditory cortex
differentiated among sounds related to various animals, musical instruments
and objects (667). These findings support the idea that early sensory cortex
activity reflects perceptual experience, rather than sensory stimulation alone
(Meyer et al. 667).
Complementary to this work is Hoshiyama, Gunji and Kakigi who found
the mere observation of silent moving pictures triggers the retrieval of auditory imagery, and Voisin and associates who show that searching for sound in
silence activates the auditory cortex. Similarly, Raij et al. show the observation
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of a visual scene with expected sounds omitted activates the neural circuitry for
auditory processing, leading the authors to conclude that [o]mission responses show that a template is formed in sensory cortex of expected events (142).
Possibly, it is the violation of rules governing such templates which triggers
auditory search when confronted by silent moving visual imagery (Kraemer et
al.; Mustovic et al.).
While the dominance of vision over audition is a well-known phenomenon13, accruing evidence suggests audition also wields the capacity to shape
visual perception. Shams, Kamitani and Shimojo, for example, note multiple
ways audition alters vision, particularly in the temporal domain, and Shams
and Kim expand this review to include the interaction of proprioceptive and
tactile modalities.14
Taken together, these findings strongly indicate a cinema of the purely
unimodal visual kind is an impossibility: human beings hear silent moving pictures. Conversely, as the BRECVEMA framework (Juslin From Everyday 242)
reveals, audition exerts a counter-effect to induce visual imagery. Our senses, it
seems, rarely work in isolation, suggesting our perceptual system seeks verification of the reality-status of an event through crossmodal confirmation15, and so
promotes the view that human beings are profoundly multimodal creatures.
In summary, a central tenet of Film Studies is the primacy of vision, a consequence of which is an unchallenged ocularcentrism. However, the conception of
a purely unimodal visual cinema cannot stand in the face of empirical evidence
which reveals the radical extent to which the human senses are interconnected.
As neurobiologists Shinsuke Shimojo and Ladan Shams remark sensory modalities are not separate modalities (505), and this should dissuade us from
speaking of cinema as a visual medium. Knowledge of such deep and interpenetrating crossmodal effects must inform an account of cinematic media with ocularcentrism abandoned in favour of a more comprehensive and heterogeneous
approach. Embodied cognition provides such an approach.
1.5. Sound design

Sound design, as a working definition for this chapter, is considered to be a
process by which many sound fragments are created, selected, organised, and
blended into a unified, coherent and immersive auditory image.16 Distinctive features of contemporary cinematic sound are a playful recombination
of auditory and visual fragments, and a heightened manipulation of auditory
spatialisation, temporal resolution, and timbre.
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A consequence of the migration of sound design from magnetic film to

computer-based digital audio workstations (DAWs) is the radically enhanced
ability to manipulate aural imagery. For example, DAWs permit accurate editing at the subframe level so that the precise isolation of a sonic fragment may
be extracted and re-composed at increments approaching 1 millisecond. These
fragments may be further shaped through software-based processing, such as
equalisation, reverb and echo, phasing and flanging, time compression/expansion, pitch-shifting, harmonic manipulation and other specialised psychoacoustic effects. A consequence of this is immensely detailed sonic textures.
It also permits innovative recombination of those sonic and visual fragments
through a manipulation of audiovisual fusion. Audiovisual fusion is a form
of multimodal integration, is impenetrable to cognition, and occurs within a
temporal window of between 30 ms and +170 ms (Van Wassenhove, Grant
and Poeppel 598).17 Audiovisual fusion also produces a feeling of presence,
and it acts as a neuropsychological driver behind the most powerful and basic
building block of cinematic sound design: audiovisual metaphor.
Kathrin Fahlenbrach has written extensively on audiovisual metaphor and
its affective dimensions. Audiovisual metaphor synaesthetically maps qualities
from a source onto a target domain, acting as a form of sense-making. From audiovisual metaphor it is barely a hop to conceptual metaphor, and from there as
Fauconnier and Turner might put it to running the blend and seeing as-if.
To illustrate how the re-association of aural and visual imagery is capable of synthesising multimodal and conceptual metaphor consider the sound design of the
Recognizer, a futuristic police airship in TRON: Legacy (Joseph Kosinski, 2010),
comprised of electrical crackles, high-performance turbine whines, wind wisps,
and a tearing of air that borders on distortion. These aural qualities of the Recognizer, when mapped onto its visual image, not only concretises its reality-status
but defines the vehicle as heavy, powerful and capable of extreme force. In addition, embedded within this sound effect is a chunkiness reminiscent of 8-bit old
skool computergames, and so a cultural allusion is made between TRON the
sequel and TRON the original (Steven Lisberger, 1982).18 Thus, incorporated
into a single sound effect, are environmental cues for heat and force, cultural
cues which allude to power and control over social space, as well as associations
to an earlier generation of computer-based entertainment which inform the audience of this flying machines heritage. It is this essentially synaesthetic form of
re-association that is the engine of cinematic meaning-making, acting to generate affectively-laden multimodal metaphor and facilitate conceptual blending.
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A general consequence of digital technology for sound design through increased density of auditory cuing, and the capacity to generate soundfields with
exceptionally wide frequency response and dynamic range is the production of
auditory imagery with higher definition and presence. However, the most unusual
aspect of contemporary cinematic sound is its heightened manipulation of timbre.
In some ways, the contemporary focus upon timbre may be considered to parallel
the Futurist call-to-arms made by Luigi Russolo to abandon the restricted sound
palette of 19th century musical instrumentation and embrace the modern world
through an art of noises (6). The contemporary DAW, as a device for generating
and assembling noise, is example par excellence of Russolos intonarumori. Such a
shift in contemporary sound design toward a heightened manipulation of timbre suggests something significant is at play.19 Timbre characterises not only sonic
identity, but the pre-attentive categorisation of timbre is associated with emotional
imagery and expression (Goydke et al.; Meyer, Baumann and Jancke).
The praxis of sound design, from an historical perspective, exhibits a tendency toward techniques and technologies with greater and greater immersive
characteristics in the production of an aesthetic experience. This design impulse
toward immersion is traceable through the practitioners of sound effects in silent
cinema and radio such as Ora Nichols (Orson Welles), through Murray Spivack
(Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack), to Walter Murch (Francis Ford
Coppola) and Randy Thom (Robert Zemeckis). These techniques the design
of effects, atmospheres, Foley and ADR are now routinely and profusely used
and expanded upon by a subsequent generation of sound designers, such as Ren
Klyce (David Fincher Se7en 1995; David Fincher The Social Network 2010),
Richard King (Christopher Nolan), Karen Baker Landers (Ridley Scott; Sam
Mendes) and Skip Lievsay (Alfonso Cuarn), to name only a few. Similarly, the
impulse toward immersion is also traceable through successive generations of
sound technologies, from optical to magnetic to digital. Sound design that was
once crushingly limited to the bandwidth of a single monaural channel may now
be presented as stereo, 5.1 or some other surround sound format.20
The aesthetic impulse toward immersion requires explanation. Useful in
this regard is Ed Tans (Emotion, Entertainment) understanding of the
function of art and entertainment to be the production of an episode of emotions in response to an ongoing guided imagination (Entertainment 28).
Following Tan, I propose the primary concern of cinematic sound to be the
production and structuring of affective content.21 In short, sound design is,
first and foremost, a form of emotion design. Each set of decisions which goes
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into the crafting of a sonic element is focused upon the task of designing affect
at both the sensory and narrative levels.
Affective content may be achieved through two immersive impulses: what
I call perceptual design and narrative design. For the purposes of this chapter, I
shall concentrate upon the function of perceptual design and its relationship to
Wojciehowski and Galleses concept of Feeling of Body, firstly, because much
critical analysis has already been focussed upon narrative at the expense of the
perceptual and, secondly, recognising Wojciehowski and Galleses claim that
Feeling of Body provides the embodied basis for narrative (7-8), it is possible
that understanding perceptual design may be the more essential.22
1.6. Perceptual design and narrative design

Perceptual design and narrative design are forms of immersion achieved by
different routes.23 Perceptual immersion inducts core affect, mood and feeling-states within the body of the audience through (mostly) pre-attentional, nonconscious mechanisms which process multimodal information whilst
narrative immersion structures emotion and meta-emotion through (mostly)
attentional, conscious mechanisms. From a functional perspective, perceptual
immersion is the abstraction and simulation of physical experience (Bastiaansen, Thioux and Keysers; Gazzola, Aziz-Zadeh and Keysers; Keysers and Gazzola; Keysers et al.) whilst narrative immersion is the abstraction and simulation of social experience (Lee; Lombard and Ditton; Mar and Oatley). From
these definitions it is possible to claim the output of perceptual immersion is
Feeling of Body, while the output of narrative immersion is theory of mind. As
a consequence of the mechanism of embodied simulation, perceptual immersion gives rise to narrative immersion. The primary function of both these
forms of simulation is to produce affective experience.
Theorising narrative as a kind of virtual machine for the production of
affect and emotion episodes is not new. Ed Tan explicitly describes narrative
cinema as an emotion machine (Emotion), and David Miall and Patrick Colm
Hogan have shifted the usual focus of classical narratology toward an affective narratology. For Hogan, story structures are fundamentally shaped and
oriented by our emotion systems (Affective Narratology 1). However, Tans
conceptualisation of narrative cinema, in adopting Frijdas notion of emotion
as a form of appraisal (The Emotions, The Laws), uses a distinctly cognitive
understanding of emotion which does not appear to capture the underlying
function of embodied processes.
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Is it possible to experience cinematic meaning before the emergence of

conscious awareness and narrative? Patrick Keating notes theoretical models of
narrative and cinematic spectacle are typically grouped into three categories:
a Classical model, which argues that a certain type of narrative
operates as a dominant in relation to various subordinate systems;
an Alternation model, which argues that the dominance of narrative alternates with the dominance of other systems; and an Affective model, which argues that linear narrative is itself subordinate
to a more important goal, the production of emotion (4).
Keating rejects the metaphor of dominance inherent in these models, suggesting instead a co-operative model where
[n]arrative and other attractions can work together to produce an
intensified emotional response. We can call this the Co-operation
model, since the model explains how narrative and attractions can
support each other (4).
Keatings observations regarding the affective raison dtre of both narrative and attractions also resonate with Richard Walshs pronouncements upon the general failure of musicologys turn to narratology in the latter part of the 20th century. Walsh
observes that narratives are fundamentally representational while music is not, but
[w]hat narrative and music share, then, is a relation to the articulation of temporal affect; while music elaborates upon this in a
systemic, experiential mode at the cost of intentional specificity,
narrative elaborates and objectifies its sequential structure at the
cost of the immediacy of systemic immersion (66).
Walsh recognises music and narrative to be neither directly analogous nor unrelated, but exist as forms rooted in a common set of attributes, which substantially constrain and determine the nature of narrative understanding and
communication (67). These common attributes are somatic, affective and social
in nature, and are, as Walsh reminds us, also the bases of proto-narrative (56).
Described in detail below, I propose cinematic proto-narrative to be a template comprised of affectively-linked embodied schema. Proto-narrative acts
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as a cinematic interface between perceptual design and narrative design because it transduces sensory-motor patterns into abstract concepts as a function
of liberated embodied simulation (Wojciehowski and Gallese 2). From this
perspective, perceptual design is a strategy which manipulates what Lawrence
Barsalou calls perceptual symbols (Perceptual) and what Gallese and Lakoff
call cogs, both of which theorise the re-use of neural resources of the sensory-motor system in the production of abstract conceptual knowledge.24 In addition, Charland has proposed the necessity for expanding Barsalous account
of perceptual symbols to include the dimension of affect because emotion can
be argued to form a distinct symbol processing system of its own (613). In an
embodied cognition account of sound design, the core affect and mood generated by perceptual design acts to form a discrete structure I call proto-narrative.
1.7. Proto-narrative and the cinematic

Above I defined cinema as an affective spatio-temporal system. What makes
cinema cinematic is the expressive manipulation of perceived space and time.
Cinematic content is affective content: it is generated in response to audiovisual
stimuli and the subsequent activation of sensory-motor schemas, processes that
happen before and below conscious thought. This is the type of content Tom
Gunning describes when he speaks of the cinema-of-attractions possibility for
an intense interaction between an astonished spectator and the cinematic smack
of the instant, the flicker of presence and absence (11). By this definition, the
smallest cinematic unit is a burst of presence, and it is these bursts, when sequenced together, which form the basis of what I call proto-narrative. Useful here
is the concept of interoception, the bodys own composite internal physiological
image which provides basis for the self as a feeling and sentient entity (Craig
How Do You Feel?, Interoception; Wiens). Interoception has been proposed
as the neural basis for time perception and the emergence of awareness because it
links emotionally salient beats across time (Craig Emotional Moments).
Cinematic proto-narrative, then, refers to an affective linking of the bodys
experience of mediated space through time, and because it proceeds by a wide,
fast and networked logic of association I suggest proto-narrative is analogous
to Ned Blocks concept of phenomenal consciousness (P-consciousness) (On a
Confusion). Block defines the content of P-consciousness as the experiential
properties of sensations, feelings and perceptions (On a Confusion 230)
and contrasts it to access consciousness (A-consciousness) which is only available for use in reasoning and rationally guiding speech and action (On a
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Confusion 227). Using Blocks typology of consciousness, perceptual design

addresses P-consciousness while narrative design addresses A-consciousness. A
similar correspondence is to be found, respectively, between perceptual design
and narrative design and Antonio Damasios concepts of core consciousness and
extended consciousness (Investigating).
The logic of proto-narrative is not, strictly speaking, narrative in nature,
but is analogous to the logic of P-consciousness. Proto-narrative is the flow
of affect which occurs before and below the logic of consciousness and the
narrative self. As in the relationship between P-consciousness and conscious
thought, proto-narrative is the embodied basis for narrative proper. Proto-narrative is the flow of body-based image schema bound together into an experiential episode by an unfolding affective logic.
As Gunning reminds us, cinema is neither intrinsically nor necessarily narrative: there is always that which eludes narratives ability to structure events
as a temporal chain of cause-and-effect.25 It is cinemas ability to produce a
sudden burst of presence that is relevant to a theory of cinematic sound (6).
Such a cinema of attractions returns to the fore in the post-classical as audiences are encouraged not just to listen to sounds but to feel them, to hear the
unhearable (Sergi A Cry 162).
1.8. Feeling of Body

Feeling of Body is a concept developed by Hannah Wojciehowski and Vittorio
Gallese to explain the visceral experience of reading, and emerges from a conjoining of neuroscience and literary studies which they describe as embodied
narratology.26 Noting the current uptake of cognitivism within the humanities,
Wojciehowski and Gallese counter the resulting focus upon Theory of Mind
by arguing for the primacy of Feeling of Body. Wojciehowski and Gallese differentiate Feeling of Body from Theory of Mind by contrasting the formers
capacity to bring forth intercorporeity with the latters capacity to bring forth
intersubjectivity, noting that intersubjectivity should be viewed first and
foremost as intercorporiety (7). However, because both Feeling of Body and
Theory of Mind arise from embodiment, no dualism should be inferred. As
Wojciehowski and Gallese describe it, Feeling of Body arises as a liberated
form of embodied simulation:
Embodied simulation as it is described here is quite different from
standard accounts of the Simulation Theory of mind-reading. Em167
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bodied simulation is a mandatory, pre-rational, non-introspective

process that is, a physical, and not simply mental experience
of the mind, emotions, lived experiences and motor intentions of
other people. Embodied simulation challenges the notion that interpersonal understanding consists solely of our explicitly attributing to others propositional attitudes like beliefs and desires, which
we map as symbolic representations within our own minds. Parallel to the detached third-person sensory description of our social
world, embodied simulation creates internal non-linguistic representations of the body-states associated with actions, emotions,
and sensations within the observer, as if he or she were performing
a similar action or experiencing a similar emotion or sensation.
This is what the Feeling of Body (FoB) amounts to. By means of
the neural format we share with other human beings, and, to an
extent, with some animals, as well, we can map others actions
onto our own motor system, as well as others emotions and sensations onto our own viscero-motor and somatosensory systems. It
has been proposed that empathy is rooted in embodied simulation.
Consequently, the FoB is not to be uniquely conceived of as a mere
sensing of how our body reacts to external stimuli. It is a bodily
way of making sense of our social world (14).
Feeling of Body stands in contrast to Theory of Mind by foregrounding the
role of the body in sense-making and social interaction. In this way, Feeling
of Body puts into play the ramifications of Mark Johnsons theory of embodied meaning which proposes all abstract conceptual thinking and imagination
have basis in our biology (The Meaning 10). As I argue in section 2, embodied
simulation provides an engine for media aesthetics derived from the bodys
capacity for the simulation of anothers emotional and mental state, even that
of a fictional other.
2. EMBODIED SIMULATION AND CINEMATIC MEDIA
2.1. Embodied simulation theory

Embodied simulation theory, proposed by Vittorio Gallese, is situated within
the sub-discipline of embodied cognition. Gallese describes embodied simulation as a common functional mechanism [which] is at the basis of both body
awareness and basic forms of social understanding (Embodied Simulation
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23). It provides a neurobiological foundation for the capacity to understand

others as intentional agents because the
same neural structures that are involved in processing and controlling executed actions, felt sensations and emotions are also
active when the same actions, sensations and emotions are to be
detected in others (Gallese The Roots 171).
From an historical perspective, embodied simulation theory is an elaboration
of Galleses own shared manifold of intersubjectivity hypothesis (Gallese The
Shared Manifold, The Manifold, The Roots) which describes an embodied, subpersonal mechanism that supports the emergence of intersubjectivity.
Related to Wolfgang Prinz work in perception-action coupling (Modes) and
common coding theory (Hommel et al.; Prinz Common-Coding, Perception, Action), embodied simulation theory argues perceptual and motor
representation share a common neuronal encoding. This common encoding
implies an equivalence between executing, observing and imagining a goal-oriented action. It also implies such perception-action coding is accessible to an
observer, allowing for the retrieval of the intentions of the action, and so to
potentially provide the basis for Theory of Mind and social interaction. Prinz
common coding theory directly links perception and action. It denies and
subverts the classical sandwich model of cognition that privileges cognition
as the supreme mediator between perception and action. Instead, it embeds
cognition as embodied action. Common coding is significant because it resuscitates a previously abandoned line of inquiry traceable back to William James
concept of ideomotor response, and anticipates the discovery of trimodal neurons, neurons sensitive to the meaning of actions (Di Pellegrino et al. 179).
Galleses embodied simulation theory, supported by empirical research on
the trimodal neuron system, extends Prinz account. Trimodal neurons respond to motor, visual, and auditory stimulation, such as when an action is
performed, observed, heard or read about (Le Bel, Pineda and Sharma 299).
The trimodal neuron system is also referred to as the Mirror Neuron System
(MNS) because of its ability to mirror-match observed action to produce motor resonance and simulation of the observed within the observer.
At its core, embodied simulation is a neural mechanism for coding space
in egocentric terms. Peripersonal space is anchored to specific parts of the body
to create a motor space within which a repertoire of potential motor schemas
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may be simulated and executed (Gallese Embodied Simulation 25-26). The

function of motor space is to map affordances and relationships between objects and actions. Related to embodied simulation theory is perceptual symbol
systems theory (Barsalou; Barsalou, Solomon and Wu; Barsalou et al.), conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors; Conceptual Metaphor;
Lakoff Women), mental space theory (Fauconnier) and conceptual blending theory
(Fauconnier and Turner; Turner and Fauconnier). Each of these theories take
the human body acting in space, and the sensory-motor schemas produced, as
the basis for abstract thought. However, for embodied cognition to be a useful
paradigm through which to approach cinematic media, it must be capable of
explaining the function of affect.
Theories of embodied cognition demand enactive models of emotion but,
as Wojciehowski and Gallese wryly observe, [c]lassic cognitivism, like a dead
star, still emits light (11). There is long-standing contention within the cognitive sciences as to the relationship between emotion and cognition. Is emotion
a form of cognition (Frijda Laws; Lazarus Thoughts)? Is cognition a form
of emotion (Panksepp)? Are emotion and cognition distinct and separate systems (Ledoux)? Or are emotion and cognition so massively interconnected as
to render the question meaningless (Pessoa)? Which is more true: the primacy
of cognition (Lazarus Primacy), or the primacy of affect (Zajonc)? In the
face of such intense debate, and for the sake of transparency, I take the view
that cognition and conscious thought evolved from the bodys affective system
as specialised processes. From this perspective, the purpose of consciousness is
to generate novel information to be used as feedback by the affective system to
modify, amplify or constrain behaviour. This leads me to follow Zajoncs claim
for the primacy of affect which presupposes powerful and flexible nonconscious affective processes operate before and below consciousness.
Contemporary emotion research has produced a dizzying and imprecise
taxonomy (Russell and Barrett 805). 27 Affect, emotion, feeling and mood, for
example, are terms with exceptionally fuzzy definitions, and, to make matters more difficult, are sometimes used interchangeably.28 For the sake of consistency, I shall follow the terminology and definitions used by Patrik Juslin
and John Sloboda (10). Juslin and Sloboda specify affect as the umbrella term
under which all other valenced states are located, where valence is the simple
ascription of being either pleasurable or displeasurable, attractive or repellant,
or of being in a state of tension or release. Emotion is a brief and intense
affective state focussed upon a specific object. Mood is a prolonged but low
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intensity state which lacks an object. Feeling is the subjective experience of an

emotion or a mood. Additionally, and most significantly, I make use of James
A. Russells concept of core affect (Russell and Barrett; Russell Core Affect,
Emotion, Psychological Construction).
Russell recognises emotion to be not a unitary event but a multicomponent
process (Psychological Construction 1260). Within this process, Russell proposes core affect to be primitive, universal, and simple, simple at a subjective level
but complex at the biological level. Russell considers core affect to be the irreducible atom from which the psychological construction of emotional experience proceeds. Because it is free-floating, the same core affect (induced through subliminal
stimulation) can emerge into consciousness as a mood in some circumstances but
as liking for a beverage in other circumstances (Core Affect 148).
Core affect is a pre-conceptual primitive process, a neurophysiological state, accessible to consciousness as a simple non-reflective
feeling: feeling good or bad, feeling lethargic or energised. There is
something it is like to feel core affect. Its presence in consciousness
varies from being focal to peripheral to out of sight (Psychological Construction 1264)
In noting standard emotion theory has lost the body (Colombetti and Thompson 50), Giovanna Colombetti and Evan Thompson have developed an enactive theory of emotion based upon sensory-motor subjectivity (Colombetti;
Colombetti and Thompson; Thompson, E.). Central to enactive theories of
emotion is the concept of sense-making. Sense-making, as Thompson and
Stapleton describe it, is behaviour or conduct in relation to environmental
significance and valence, which the organism itself enacts or brings forth on
the basis of its autonomy (25). This is to say, meaning is both generated and
consumed by an organism in interaction with is environment (Colombetti
Enaction 148). In the context of cinematic imagery, which is first and foremost moving imagery, Maxine Sheets-Johnstones argument for the primacy
of movement (Primacy, Emotion) forcefully connects motion and emotion
as embodied sense-making, suggesting one performs thinking in movement
(Thinking). Such an approach harmonises with Colombettis assertion that
sense-making is a bodily cognitive-emotional form of understanding (Enaction 147), and so frames sense-making in terms similar to Mark Johnsons
concept of embodied meaning (The Meaning 10).
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2.2 Embodied simulation and cinematic sound

What does embodied simulation theory offer a theory of cinematic sound?
Central to embodied simulation is the MNS and its capacity to integrate auditory, visual and motor systems. This places audition at the heart of the creation of embodied meaning because audiovisual mirror neurons code abstract
contents the meaning of actions (Kohler et al. 846). Current investigations
into the role of the MNS indicate it to be highly functional in facilitating imitation and learning (Iacoboni Imitation, Neurobiology; Iriki; Rizzolatti,
Fogassi and Gallese), language evolution and acquisition (Chwilla, Virgillito
and Vissers; Corballis; Cuccio; Fogassi and Ferrari; Gallese and Cuccio; Gazzola, Aziz-Zadeh and Keysers; Rizzolatti and Arbib; Rizzolatti and Craighero),
action-recognition, action-understanding, and the understanding of anothers
intentions (DAusilio; Fogassi et al.; Fogassi; Galati et al.; Iacoboni et al.; Keysers et al.; Kohler et al.; Lahav, Saltzman and Schlaug; Ocampo and Kritikos;
Petroni, Baguear and Della-Maggiore; Umilt et al.), mind-reading of anothers emotional and mental state (Agnew, Bhakoo and Puri; Rizzolatti and Fabbri-Destro; Rockwell), Theory of Mind and social cognition (Gallese Before
and Below; Oberman and Ramachandran; Ocampo and Kritikos), intersubjectivity (Brten; Decety and Lamm; Pfeifer et al.; Seligman), and empathy
(Bastiaansen, Thioux and Keysers; Decety and Jackson; Gallese and Goldman;
Gallese Shared Manifold, The Roots; Gazzola, Aziz-Zadeh and Keysers;
Iacoboni Imitation; Preston and de Waal). Particularly significant to a theory
of cinematic sound is the observation by Gazzola, Aziz-Zadeh and Keysers that
individuals who scored higher on an empathy scale activated this system [the
human auditory mirror system] more strongly, adding evidence for a possible
link between the motor mirror system and empathy (1824). To be explored
here is a link between embodied simulation and the 19th century German
concept of Einfhlung, or feeling-into, which is the aesthetic and empathic
response to art and, by extension, entertainment.
Embodied simulation theory provides a unifying framework for cinematic practices because it operates using the body-minds own building blocks
for producing conceptual knowledge: sensory-motor schemas and perceptual
symbols. In the cinematic, we experience the mediated world as if through another body, or, to use Wojciehowski and Galleses term, Feeling of Body. This
other body is facilitated by the technological production of presence which
exploits the tight fit with which our sensory and perceptual systems evolved
to interface with the real world. During the practice of sound design, it is
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aural presence that is designed to simulate a bodily experience of feelings,

mood and emotions and, consequently, thoughts for, as Keith Oatley observes,
emotions configure our cognitive systems (208). To paraphrase Hans Gumbrechts analysis of presence and meaning, cinematic sound provides access to
the world in a way that interpretative meaning cannot (138-141). Embodied
simulation gives rise to a direct form of emotion understanding (Gallese
Embodied Simulation 37).
According to an embodied simulation approach, sound design activates
our MNS to produce motor resonance and affect, and the activation of such
systems gives rise to the emergence of social cognition. Embodied simulation
theory may also be used to integrate three further models in explaining how
cinematic sound elicits and structures affective content. The first, the BRECVEMA framework (Juslin and Vstfjll; Juslin et al.; Juslin From Everyday), is
concerned with the auditory induction of emotion. The second, the mood-cue
approach (Smith, G. Local Emotions, Mood-Cue), is concerned with the
multimodal induction of emotion in the context of cinematic imagery. The
third is the emotional communication model (Bartsch and Hbner) which describes how neurobiology supports the social construction of emotion. Taken
together, an embodied simulation approach provides a theoretical framework
within which multiple models for affect induction and representation may be
nested, which describes cinematic media and sound design as primarily bodybased and affective, and which allows for the emergence of intercorporeity,
intersubjectivity, and empathy.
2.3. Cinematic sound and the induction of affect

2.3.1. BRECVEMA framework
Music has long been valued for its ability to arouse strong emotions in the
listener, and yet our understanding of how this occurs is under-developed. In
response, Juslin and colleagues have laboured to produce the BRECVEMA
framework which identifies eight underlying mechanisms for the musical induction of emotion (Juslin From Everyday; Juslin and Vstfjll; Juslin et al.).
These mechanisms (Juslin From Everyday 241-244) are:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Brainstemreflex
Rhythmicentrainment
Evaluativeconditioning
Contagion (emotional contagion)
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v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Visualimagery
Episodicmemory
Musicalexpectancy
Aesthetic judgement
The BRECVEMA framework is so-called because the mechanisms are listed in

order of evolutionary development (Juslin From Everyday 242), progressing
from the phylogenetically ancient brain stem reflex to the most recently evolved
mechanisms of musical expectancy and aesthetic judgement. Whilst this framework has been devised to explain the musical induction of emotion, it offers
insights to a theory of cinematic sound. Firstly, the eight mechanisms yield
focus at both fine and coarse levels of granularity, detailing induction processes
at the neurobiological level as well as the psychological levels of autobiography and sociocultural forces. Secondly, it indicates a crossmodal mechanism
at work in the sonic induction of emotional visual imagery. Thirdly, sensory-motor processes implicated in embodied simulation also appear to be involved in numerous BRECVEMA mechanisms, particularly brain stem reflex,
rhythmicentrainment, emotional contagion, visual imagery, and episodicmemory. Lastly, the BRECVEMA framework provides insight into how cinematic sound, as a perceptual design strategy, mobilises a range of nonconscious
mechanisms for the sonic induction of affect. Central to the claim of perceptual design as a strategy to harness nonconscious affect is the recognition that
the mechanisms of brain stem reflex, emotional contagion and episodic memory
account for approximately 70% of emotion episodes induced by music. Contrary to previous assumptions, the least significant cause of emotion induction
is cognitive appraisal. Indeed, cognitive appraisal is so causally weak it is excluded from the BRECVEMA framework (Juslin From Everyday 239).
The brain stem reflex is a mechanism which autonomically parses the auditory environment for significant changes or events (Juslin et al. 620-621).
Acoustic features such as sudden stimulus onset, loudness, dissonance, and
accelerating temporal patterns signal important or threatening events, and
cue this reflex in the control of arousal, breathing, heart rate, attention, and
movement. Brain stem reflexes are rapid, automatic and innate. What is significant for an embodied simulation account of cinematic sound is the brain
stem reflex cues the body for action without any input from consciousness.
Contagion (emotional contagion) denotes the internal imitation of an emotional expression perceived in voice-like qualities of a musical source (Juslin
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et al. 622). Preliminary evidence suggests this transfer of emotion implicates

the MNS (Juslin From Everyday 241-242). Episodic memory denotes emotion induction via a musically-triggered retrieval from memory of a significant
event in the listeners life (Juslin et al. 623). This mechanism is particularly
vivid because the memory also retrieves the physiological response patterns
to the original events () along with the experiential contents suggesting
embodied processes are at play (Juslin et al. 623).
There is, however, a slight complication in adopting the BRECVEMA
framework for a theory of cinematic sound. The framework has been developed
in relation to the musical induction of affect, and it may not capture all mechanisms for sonic induction generally.29 As rich a world as music may produce,
I assume music to be only a fraction of the possibilities of a sounding universe.
However, whatever sonically exists outside the boundaries and rules of music
per se, it must exist inside a broader evolutionary context. Indeed, as Juslin and
Vstfjll acknowledge, music evokes emotions through mechanisms that are
not unique to music (559), and many of the BRECVEMA frameworks mechanisms involve low-level processes that developed before music even existed,
and that consequently dont treat music as a distinct type of event (Juslin
From Everyday 241). In all likelihood, the BRECVEMA framework may omit
mechanisms which are primarily ecological in value, but it is with this general
understanding of music-as-sound that I import the BRECVEMA framework
into an embodied simulation account of cinematic sound.
Nevertheless, the BRECVEMA framework does pose something of a challenge to some cognitive film theory. Cognitive film theory has tended to focus
upon narrative cinema, placing great emphasis upon the explanatory power of
cognitive appraisal theories of emotion and Theory of Mind. The BRECVEMA framework appears to stand outside this paradigm because it supports the
notion that nonconscious affect may be mobilised by audition and that these
mechanisms may be manipulated by cinematic sound design in the production of Feeling of Body and proto-narrative, even before they become available
to cognitive appraisal and narrative comprehension. It is affective structure of
this kind that is actualised in the mood-cue approach to cinema.
2.3.2. Mood-cue approach

The mood-cue approach, developed by Greg M. Smith (Local Emotions,
Mood-Cue), describes a general audiovisual design strategy by which movies appeal to the audiences affective systems to evoke mood and cue emo175
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tions. As Smith insists the primary emotive effect of film is to create mood
(Film Structure 42). The approach describes how cinematic media affords an
affective ecology: mood increases the likelihood of experiencing an emotion
proper which further sustains mood. The experience of such affective content
performs a sense-making function because it forges a meaningful relationship
between the audience and the objects and actions in the cinematic environment. Smith argues mood induction may be brought about by large-scale and
redundant emotional cuing delivered via multiple channels of audiovisual
design. Cinematography, visual effects, picture montage, production design,
costume and make-up, music score, and sound design are just some of the
audiovisual design channels through which affective content may be created
(Film Structure 42).
Although Smith does not reference James A. Russells concept of core affect (Russell; Russell and Barrett), core affect does appear to be at work in the
mood-cue approach. Because core affect is a pre-conceptual process (Russell
Psychological Construction 1264) it may be experienced as free-floating
(mood) or can be attributed to some cause (and thereby begin an emotional
episode) (Russell Core Affect 145). The free-floating nature of core affect
has special significance for cinematic media because core affect responds to
virtual reality in art, imagination, fantasy, and entertainment (Russell Psychological Construction 1266).30
Smiths mood-cue approach stands in contrast to other cognitivist accounts of filmic emotion such as the cognitive philosophical stance taken by
Nol Carroll (Mystifying Movies), and the cognitive psychological proposed by
Ed Tan (Emotion) and Torben Grodal (Moving Pictures). Whereas these other
major cognitive film theories focus upon the role of emotion within narrative
cinema the mood-cue approach is equally applicable to narrative and non-narrative because it explains the function of media emotion not in terms of character and narrative but in terms of style and audiovisual design. Indeed, the
mood-cue approach suggests a way cinema-of-attractions and post-classical
cinema, with their foregrounding of perceptual design over narrative design,
may be effectively theorised. As Smith claims an important advantage of the
mood-cue approach over Carrolls is that it can provide explanations of filmic
emotion without relying solely on character-oriented cues (Film Structure 70).
The mood-cue approach takes the sensory induction of affect, particularised in the BRECVEMA framework, and implements it in the context of
cinematic imagery. Like the BRECVEMA mechanism of the brain stem reflex,
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the mood-cue approach mobilises and organises affect at the sensory-motor

level of perceptual design, and is fully operational without recourse to higher
cognitive functioning. For this reason the mood-cue approach also bears striking similarity to Mark Johnsons concept of embodied meaning (The Meaning)
because it details how meaning is created at the subpersonal level.
2.3.3. Emotional communication theory

Emotional communication theory, proposed by Anne Bartsch and Susanne
Hbner (Bartsch Emotional; Bartsch and Hbner), proposes human communication is not only concerned with exchanging information but also exchanging emotions as a process of mutual influence between communicating
partners (Bartsch Emotional). Observing that emotion theories are traditionally grouped into four competing accounts i) neuroscience models; ii)
appraisal theories; iii) prototype approaches; and iv) social constructionist theories Bartsch and Hbner reconcile these accounts by understanding them as
descriptions of emotion at different levels of cognitive complexity.
Central to Bartsch and Hbners theory is the recognition that superordinate levels of emotional communication involve automatically communication on the more basic levels, but emotional communication on a symbolic
level will not work if it does not activate nonverbal emotion scripts, which, in
turn, depends on the activation of emotional brain systems (4-5). This is to
say, the symbolic communication of emotion at the level of social construction
cannot operate without the operation of the bodys affective neurobiology to
support it, whereas the reverse is not true.31 However, despite its dependence
on basic levels, each of the higher levels of emotional communication does
add new constraints and new degrees of freedom to communication processes
on its subordinate levels and so an important function of the higher levels
is to regulate emotional communication on the more basic levels (5). This
caveat provides insight into how meta-emotions and moral reasoning might
take place, something which Bartsch has subsequently explored in the context
of cinematic media (Genre, Meta-Emotion, Vivid; Bartsch, Appel and
Storch; Bartsch and Beth Oliver).
The utility of emotional communication theory within the proposed embodied simulation account of cinematic media is its ability to connect the
profoundly subpersonal scale of sensory-motor processes with the more traditional concerns of the humanities which tend to focus upon the human scale
of social and cultural processes.
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3. AN EMBODIED SIMULATION APPROACH TO IN THE CUT
3.1. Cinematic imagery, image schemas, and conceptual thought

How may an embodied simulation account assist in explaining the meaning-making operations of an actual cinematic work? To illustrate, I shall briefly examine
one of the sound design strategies32 used in Jane Campions In the Cut (Campion),
limiting my discussion to only those elements for which I was directly responsible,
or responsible in conjunction with fellow sound designer Peter Miller.33
Mark Johnson (The Body) and George Lakoff (Women) have identified a
wide variety of image schemas regularly used in conceptual thinking. These
schemas may be usefully grouped into categories such as space, spatial motion and transformation, force, and balance. In contemplating which
image schema might function as the most fundamental, Simone Schnall identifies several basic properties:
First, the body is a container with a clear boundary that keeps it separate from other objects and people. Second, the body is situated in
space and moves in it while maintaining varying distances to objects
and people. From these basic properties of the body the following
image schemas and associated metaphors are derived: First, verticality
provides a source domain to distinguish between good and bad on the
most fundamental level. Second, the notion that the body is a container shapes the understanding of many emotional and social processes.
Third, spatial distance facilitates an understanding of immediate and
close, versus distant and remote concerns. Spatial distance relates to
objects external to the body that are either kept close, incorporated
or instead, are rejected, expelled and condemned. This has relevance
for other people, because physical closeness further implies physical
warmth, which in itself stands for social connection (227).
In effect, the affordances for action, both physical and social, arise from an
affective mapping of space. Kathrin Fahlenbrach (Embodied Spaces) applies
similar thinking to affective cinematic space and networks of audiovisual metaphors when noting mental schemata and the patterns of sensory-motor experience that are the source of most conceptual metaphors are the very basis
of filmic space (Embodied Spaces 118). Fahlenbrach, therefore, accurately
identifies the mode by which cinematic multimodal cues mobilise core affect
what I call perceptual design. Affect of this kind, as indicated by Russell (Core
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Affect, Psychological Construction), has the capacity to be mapped onto

fictional characters, although I suggest such mapping is not mandatory.
To illustrate how an embodied simulation account may be used to analyse
the meaning-making capacities of cinematic sound, and acknowledging the
ideas of Gallese, Wojciehowski, Russell, Fahlenbrach and Schnall, following is
a brief analysis of the sound design of the filmic spaces of In the Cut.
3.2. Affective acoustics as embodied spatial schema

The world of Frannie Avery the protagonist of In the Cut is organised by a
strong spatial design consisting of vertical and horizontal schemas. Additionally, there is a third category, but it is less a schema and more a type of slippage: it
is a space of leakage or cognitive overflow. In sound design terms, these spatial
schemas are constructed through affectively-charged acoustics. Each of these
spatial zones is an acoustic container designed to induct a specific feeling-state
in the body of the audience. Once mood is inducted, it acts as an affective filter through which the audience interprets events and situations as they unfold
within the mediated world.
3.2.1. The verticality schema
The verticality schema of the movie partitions space into four zones:
i. High Above Street-Level a highly protected zone. In this zone the
world is kept forcibly at bay. This is the level where Frannies apartment
is located, and it is the movies most secured and hushed space. It has a
high degree of order and control imposed upon it. There are no sharp
or transient sounds in this space, no surprises.
ii. Above Street-Level a zone only partially protected, and the world cannot
be kept at bay. This is the level where the apartment of Frannies half-sister, Pauline, is located, above a strip-club called the Baby Doll Lounge.
Pauline resorts to sleeping pills to deaden herself to the invasion of noise
seeping up through the floor from the Lounge below.
iii. Street Level a zone of intrusion and confusion, with no clear demarcation of spatial limits. This is the level of streets and cafs, of the Red
Turtle bar, and the Baby Doll Lounge. At this level, psycho-physical
boundaries break down, and the ability to control space and personal
security is weakened. Sound seems chaotic, and liable to jump suddenly and unpredictably into awareness.
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iv. Below Ground a zone which blends fear, desire, fantasy, and sexuality. It is a morally ambiguous space. This is the level of the Red Turtles basement and the subway. In this zone, acoustic and psychological
space seems to distort, and the differentiation between inside and outside blurs. What is psychologically interior and physically exterior is
unclear or unformed.
Each of the above are demarcations of both physical and emotional space
shaped by a specific sonic signature and mood. Such vertical spatial schema
also act as symbolic organisation. However, while vertical organisation of space
is dominant and palpable, a horizontal spatial schema also operates.
3.2.2. The horizontality schema

The horizontality schema of the movie partitions space by proximity. Close
proximity affords not only intimacy and sexual encounter but also violence
and death, while remoteness affords safety and security but also loneliness. The
horizontality schema is controlled by a binary interior/exterior logic, and is
expressed through three zones:

i. Super interior a thought space, such as Frannies interior monologues

on the subway.
ii. Interior / Exterior space segmented by personal bubbles of proximity.34 Proximity is gauged as radiating out from Frannies own body,
thus mapping motor space. One of the functions of point-of-audition
is to map such egocentric spatial radiation. Another example of the interior/exterior schema is the conspicuous and extended use of doors to
seal/unseal spatial containers, such as rooms and cars, and characters
moving across thresholds. Conventionally, characters moving through
doorways are edited from the scenic montage to speed up dramatic
action. In the case of In the Cut, the sealing/unsealing of secure space
is essential to the dramatic action.
iii. Near / Far controlled by movement, this is a variation of the above
kind of space segmented by proximity. People or objects are categorised as either moving toward Frannie or away. This type of schema is,
in part, enabled by a psychoacoustic effect known as auditory looming
(Hall and Moore; Neuhoff).
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3.2.3. Affective zones and cognitive overflow

As indicated above, there is also a third schema at work, but it is less a schema than
a form of leakage or non-containment. Examples of this include Frannie becoming
overwhelmed by the sonic pressure of the city soundscape as she emerges from the
subway; the sonic freezing of time as Frannie senses an intruder in her apartment;
or the aural elasticity and dematerialisation of Paulines apartment as Frannie enters
the steam-shrouded bathroom to discover her half-sisters murder.35 These are all moments of cognitive overflow: when the pipeline of narrative consciousness cannot
contain phenomenal experience. A potent characteristic of this kind of affectively-driven overflow is the cinematic manipulation of subjective time.
Although the neuroscience seeking to explain human time perception
remains incomplete, several significant findings have been established.36
Through the study of temporal illusions, for example, we know subjective
time is not isomorphic to physical time, and appears to be impacted by factors such as valence, salience, and complexity. Droit-Volet and Meck have
shown that stimuli charged with negative affect result in subjective time dilation. Similarly, highly complex, novel, or intense stimuli expand subjective
time, but stimuli which are predictable or low in salience produce compression
(Eagleman; Van Wassenhove et al.). With specific regard to acoustic imagery,
both emotionally negative and positive sound produces time dilation when
compared to neutral sound, and negative sound is perceived as longer in duration than positive (Mella, Conty and Pouthas; Noulhiane et al.). Eagleman
and Pariyadath speculate that the experience of duration is a signature of the
amount of energy expended in representing a stimulus (1841), and propose
that increases in perceived duration drive attention, essentially allowing more
perceptual opportunity for the system to grab onto a stimulus (1848). Furthermore, Stetson, Fiesta and Eagleman suggest the dilation of subjective time,
as experienced during threatening events, may be created as a consequence of
secondary encoding of memory to produce richer representations which are
erroneously interpreted to have spanned a greater period of time (3). These
illusions not only reveal the rules by which perceptual information is organised, stored and interpreted but provides designers of cinematic imagery with
useful tools. One such tool, of course, is the bearing affect has upon shaping
subjective time, attention, awareness, and consciousness.
In instances such as those detailed above from In the Cut, sound design
makes use of the illusion that time expands during ambiguous (that is, highly
complex), overwhelming or threatening events. In some ways, cinematic im181
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agery can be said to reverse-engineer the relationship between affect and its
driving of subjective time. Because emotions and feeling states of the body
are [strongly intertwined] with the processing of duration (Wittmann 222) a
feeling-state may be inducted within the body of the audience by not only manipulating affective acoustic qualities (e.g. via BRECVEMA mechanisms) but
also through cinematic imagery which displays distortions of subjective time
(e.g. slow-motion, speed-ramping, jump cuts, etc.). In these ways, cinematic
time dilation may simulate the perceptual consequences of nonconsciously
processed affect, leading the audience to feel something is not right about a
situation in the absence of being consciously aware of causation.
My use of the term cognitive overflow is adapted from Ned Blocks concept
which proposes the capacity of phenomenal consciousness exceeds that of
cognitive access (Block Perceptual 567), and thus is not wholly available
to the narrative self. Cognitive overflow, as I use it here, refers to the interplay
between highly affectively charged perceptual information and the inability of
conscious thought to apprehend and contain it within a narrative structure. If
I am correct in extrapolating from Block, phenomenal consciousness contains
information which is in excess of the capacity of the narrative self to render it,
and this bears a striking similarity to Kristin Thompsons concept of cinematic
excess as well as Tom Gunnings insistence that cinematic attractions are not
extinguished by narrative (4).
3.3. Feeling of Body and the construction of character

The primary function of sound design in In the Cut is to simulate the experience of persistent yet non-specific threat. Once simulated within the body of
the audience, these feelings of anxiety and exhaustion may be mapped onto a
fictional character. This is predicted for by Wojciehowski and Galleses concept
of Feeling of Body. Such embodied simulation provides the audience with a
mechanism by which they may know the mind of a fictional character by
forming a folk-psychology based upon affective tone and perceptual realism.
This explanation also concurs with Fahlenbrachs observation that
[f ]ilmic spaces are rarely recognized consciously by the viewers.
At the same time, their perception and interpretation of the narrative is highly guided by their bodily experience of the filmic space
(Embodied Spaces 105).
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The global effect of In the Cuts sound design is to construct Frannie Avery
as a character who lives in a state-of-siege. Frannie walks around a post-9/11
New York, padded and cocooned. Within the movies soundscape there is no
mid-ground, only a close and intimate foreground or a non-threatening background. Because the sonic middle-space is missing, Frannies personal zone is
vulnerable to being unexpectedly punctured, triggering alarm. An effect of this
sonic dampening is the creation of an aural version of the post-trauma thousand-yard stare suffered by combat soldiers. In the case of In the Cut, however,
such militaristic connotations of trauma are cross-mapped as gender politics.
Unfortunately, the limitations of this chapter do not permit a full analysis
at the rhythmic and timbral level, nor at the micro-temporal level where emotional beats provide anchor points in the affective landscape.37 However, it is
significant to note that the spatial, emotional and psychological bubble within
which Frannie lives is densely mediated by words and language. Words function not only as a shield from the sensory, emotional and social, but also as a
heavily guarded conduit to it. Frannie uses language like a door in the control
of space and limitation risk.
The Theory of Mind and folk-psychology by which we come to understand
Frannie Averys character, motivation and desires emerge from the Feeling of
Body and proto-narrative generated by the perceptual design of multimodal
cinematic cues. This type of affective induction of Feeling of Body is a fundamental cinematic technique, and may manifest in weak or strong form. To
illustrate further, a similar design strategy may be found in Paul Thomas Andersons Punch-Drunk Love where an insistent mismatch between point-of-audition and point-of-view is mapped onto the central character of Barry so that
he comes to be understood as deeply afflicted by anxiety and an overwhelming
social paralysis.
4. E
MBODIED COGNITION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR
CINEMATIC MEDIA
This chapter is borne from a professional intuition that the core function of
cinematic sound is to generate meaning through the affective experience of
sensory-motor cues, and this intuition extends to cinematic media generally.
Film Studies, however, has conventionally focussed upon vision and narrative as the engine for meaning-making, and this determining ocularcentrism
and narrativism has granted comparatively little significance to the design
of sound. Embodied cognition provides an innovative way to explore these
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professional insights and conventional assumptions. Embodied cognition is

a research paradigm within contemporary cognitive science which proposes
cognition to emerge from sensory-motor processes, and that consciousness,
abstract thought and imagination scaffold upon these processes through the
use of perceptual symbols and image schema in the act of simulation. Imaginative acts, in particular, re-purpose image schema to simulate fictional or
counter-factual scenarios in an off-line fashion.
Accruing empirical evidence reveals human beings to be thoroughly multimodal creatures, and encourages us to abandon the notion that sense modalities function in isolation. In turn, this encourages scepticism of the maxim
that cinema is a visual medium and a recognition of the integral role sound
performs in the cinematic experience. Because aural, visual and motoric information is automatically integrated by the MNS, sound design is inherently
involved in the process of simulation. Furthermore, arguments from embodied
cognition indicate these processes operate before and below the level of conscious
awareness, and that affect plays a role, firstly, in binding multimodal information
into percepts (Collignon et al.; Pourtois et al.) and, secondly, by providing a
background of core affect that lends valence to the environment and shapes cognition as embedded action (Russell Psychological Construction; Winkielman,
Niedenthal and Oberman). This reflects Zajoncs argument for the primacy of
affect, and suggests itself as a creative force behind Mark Johnsons concept of
embodied meaning (Embodied Meaning, Meaning).
Embodied simulation (Gallese Embodied Simulation) is a specific theory within the paradigm of embodied cognition. Embodied simulation theory
describes a universal, automatic and nonconscious mechanism which mediates our capacity to share the meaning of actions, intentions, feelings, and
emotions with others, thus grounding our identification with and connectedness to others (Gallese Mirror Neurons 524). Such resonance is what
Wojciehowski and Gallese call Feeling of Body: a simulation of what it feels
like to be a body other than your own. Embodied simulation theory uses this
mirroring function to explain the emergence of social cognition, Theory of
Mind, and empathy in human beings. Embodied simulation theory provides
a framework within which more granular theories for the cinematic induction and structuring of affect may be nested. In particular, I proposed the
BRECVEMA framework (Juslin From Everyday; Juslin and Vstfjll; Juslin
et al.) may be usefully recruited to explain how aural imagery inducts affect,
how the mood-cue approach (Smith, G. Local Emotions, Mood-Cue)
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provides insight into how cinematic aural and visual imagery stylistically generates an ecology of affective meaning independently of narrative but is vital
to its emergence, and how emotional communication theory (Bartsch and
Hbner) provides a framework to integrate neuroscientific, psychological and
social constructivist theories of emotion in the recognition that a central function of communication is the mutual sharing and influencing of emotions.
Taken together, an embodied simulation approach provides a comprehensive
architecture for cinematic sound in the induction and structuring of affective
content by scaffolding the BRECVEMA framework, the mood-cue approach,
and emotional communication theory.
This chapter also illustrated an embodied aesthetics of cinematic sound by
examining some of the sound design strategies used in Jane Campions In the
Cut. In the context of a narrative movie, these strategies assist an audience in
coming to know a fictional character by simulating a Feeling of Body which
then affords the extrapolation of a Theory of Mind. In this way, sound design
creates embodied meaning through perceptual and narrative immersion.
Embodied cognition offers Film Studies novel and comprehensive ways to
explain its object of study, even as it must be acknowledged to be a youthful
research paradigm. As an account of cinematic sound, embodied simulation
theory powerfully describes how acoustic style generates affect and meaning.
However, while it may be legitimate from an evolutionary perspective, the
BRECVEMA framework I have drawn upon requires further research to explain the full array of meanings generated by everyday, ecological sound. For
example, an avenue of great interest for future research is the function of the
hard-wired reflexes of the brainstem and thalamus in audition. Another avenue is the functional relationship between cinematic proto-narrative which
I equate with Blocks concept of phenomenal consciousness and Damasios concept of core consciousness and the unconscious thought theory developed by
Dijksterhuis and Nordgren, and Bargh. Similarly, cinematic proto-narrative
may act as a useful probe by which to explore Baumeister and Masicampos
concept of consciousness as an animal-culture interface.38
In conclusion, cinematic perceptual design, which is to say those practices
which produce style, directly manipulates nonconscious affective processes in
the creation of embodied meaning and the emergence of conscious thought.
Emotions configure our cognitive systems in fundamental ways and function
to unify our consciousness (Oatley). The context of cinema recruits our bodys
innate capacity for feeling into anothers affective state, offering an embodied
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and noncognitive route to empathy, even if that other is fictional. Following

Mark Johnsons argument for a bodily-based theory of aesthetics (Stone),
cinematic sound design is an embodied process of experiential knowing. The
body is not a tabula rasa, but the font of meaning.
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NOTES
F I L M A S A N E X E M P L A R O F B O D I LY M E A N I N G -M A K I N G
1 For a good overview of these studies see Davis et al.
2 Lakoff and Johnson originally speak of levels instead of dimensions. However, because the
word level might assume a hierarchical order, a positioning of one level above the other, we
prefer to use the more neutral word dimension instead.
3 Following Barsalou and Wiemer-Hastings we will define abstract concepts as entities that
are neither physical nor spatially constrained (129).
4 In Conceptual Metaphor Theory it is common to use small capital letters to indicate that
these particular wordings are not a matter of language, but of concepts, belonging to the
realm of human thought. These concepts underlie the very nature of our daily metaphorical
expressions (linguistic or otherwise).
5 As the author stresses, the order of both stages (first, body and second, culture) is at this point
still a proposal. Future experimental research will have to address to what extent this order is
empirically legitimate (The Relationship 323).
6 We thank Ibarretxe-Antuano for giving us permission to use this image.
7 As we shall demonstrate in our own contribution about time metaphors in film, evidence from
various films seem to suggest a spatial model of time, very similar to the one reported in the
Aymara language, in which the past appears to be in front of the character or Ego on-screen.
8 Although the discipline of cognitive science began to acquire an institutional identity in the
1970s, as the term was first coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins, it roots can be traced
back to the 1940s and 1950s, to Gestalt psychology and the work of such scholars as Jean
Piaget and Frederick Bartlett, among others. For a good historical overview see Bechtel and
Herschbach.
9 For a good overview of some of the current views and issues within cognitive media theory
see recent volumes such as The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Film (Livingston and
Plantinga), Psychocinematics: Exploring Cognition at the Movies (Shimamura), and Cognitive
Media Theory (Nannicelli and Taberham).
10 Within the phenomenological dimension one should further distinguish between those
film studies that are primarily inspired by the embodied phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty,
and those studies that are centred on the Henri Bergson-inspired work of Gilles Deleuze.
Although the work of the latter is usually considered as a phenomenological study of
cinema in its emphasis on the felt and sensuous qualities of film, Deleuze himself rejected
this characterization for the reason that phenomenology, in contrast to cinema, is based on
natural perception and the anchoring of the subject (Cinema 1 57) (for a discussion see
also Sobchack The Address 30-31).
F I L M N A R R AT I V E A N D E M B O D I E D C O G N I T I O N :
T H E I M PA C T O F I M A G E S C H E M A S O N N A R R AT I V E F O R M
1 In its relation to neuroscience, embodied cognitive theory operates at the level of abstract
generalisation without the need for a neural mapping of the brains hardware. Still, the theorys claims about psychological processes, stemming from cognitive psychologys empirical
investigations, certainly outdo armchair speculations.
2 B
eing consistent with Johnsons guideline (The Body 23), I use the terms schema, embodied
schema, image schema, and kinesthetic image schema interchangeably.
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EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA
3 S ee Bordwells skepticism about the encompassing precision of identifying only 7 plots

(Booker), and about the usefulness of discriminating as many as 36 basic structures (Polti).
4 The same canonical neuron that fires when we see an object is the one that would fire (and
activate our motor system) when we actually grasp that object. The same mirror neuron that
fires when we see (or hear) somebody is doing (or feeling) something is the one that would
fire (and activate our own motor system) when we actually perform the same action ourselves.
5 I t is not easy to define the pleasure one feels while encountering pictorial, or, for that matter
also, textually represented symmetry. From an embodied cognitive angle, symmetry and
balance are pleasing to the eye or the mind as they imitate the symmetry and balance of the
perceivers physiological makeup (which is projected to the visual or textual information).
6 Th
ese latter, higher order schemas are literary and cinematic equivalents of real-world segmentations habitual scenarios, described by mental models (Johnson-Laird) or situation
models (Dijk and Kintsch)
s for how this cognitively impenetrable bodily resonance works through our Mirror Mech7 A
anism, that is best left to neuroscientific explanations and evidences, and even a brief case
study exemplifying the theorys applicability to narrative analysis see Rizzolatti et al., Gallese (The Manifold), Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, and Wojciehowski and Gallese, respectively.
rough their cognitive development, children acquire their first narrative schemas from
8 Th
about the age of seven (Branigan Narrative 18-19).
lthough it seems that the part-whole schema functions as a prerequisite for apprehending
9 A
a hierarchic centre-periphery structure, their primary gestalts appear on the same category-level both in Lakoffs and in Johnsons standard inventory. The same applies to the link
schema, which is also part of the core set in Lakoff and Johnsons list, even though it is clear
that a collection of parts can only constitute a whole if the parts are somehow linked with
each other in advance.
10 About the degrees of narrativity, from non-narrative to minimally narrative and to fully
narrative, see Monika Fluderniks sub-chapter (243-248).
11 Taking the same visual approach in their study on virtual reality, Alison McMahan and
Buckland contemplate upon our changing reliance on the container schema. When it
comes to new medias immersive 3D experiences, they claim that VR environments ()
eliminate one level of container projection demanded by the viewer of the film.
12 For a detailed overview of extended and embedded cognitive theories see Shapiro (Embodied
193-197).
13 Bordwell sees narrative complexification (in forking-path stories) as a cognitively manageable, pretty limited affair (Film Futures 90, 89). In their reactions Edward Branigan
(Nearly True) and Kay Young (That Fabric of Times) both argue that Bordwell has this
mostly right (hence the title of Branigans article, Nearly True), however his examples are
restricted to classical Hollywood narratives and thus neglecting other types of plotting not
dependent on the river of time metaphor (Branigan Nearly True 107).
14 Naturally, Grodal does not mean that the experience of art cinema is fully detached from
embodied cognition. Although he talks about disembodiedness (Embodied 208-211), what
he describes is the detachment of our comprehension from an actual and concrete bodily
immersion (see how mainstream narrative films offer concrete embodiment [208]), where
the experience finds outlets in more abstract, somewhat disembodied meaning making
strategies (see how art cinema gives rise to feelings of deep significance [149-150]).
15 See Johnsons argument for the flexibility of image schemas (The Body 30).
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NOTES
EMBODIED VISUAL MEANING IN FILM

1 F
or a detailed discussion and critique of the conceptual/propositional view of meaning see
Johnson (The Body, The Meaning).
2 F
or this reason the linguistic fallacy has also been related to anti-intentionalism, i.e., the view
according to which the artists actual intention is irrelevant to the interpretations of artworks
(e.g., Wimsatt and Beardsley The Intentional).
3 I n this way one might argue that CMT is closely related to other theories of meaning that
are primarily psychological rather than linguistic or semiotic. This recalls, for example, Paul
Grices inferential model of communication, John Searles theory of speech acts or, more
recently, Wilson and Sperbers relevance theory. In the same derivative sense, Searle, for example, speaks of the distinction between sentence meaning or word meaning, on the one
hand, and speaker meaning or utterance meaning, on the other (140). For Searle utterance
meaning is a form of derived intentionality, in that it is defined by the mental content of the
speaker, namely, his original intentions. When a speaker performs a speech act, he inflicts
meaning by transferring the original or intrinsic intentionality of his or her thoughts (the
conceptual) to the sounds emanating from his or her mouth or the marks made on paper
(the form of expression). It differs from sentence meaning or word meaning in that it is related to the speakers mental stock, whereas the meaning of a sentence is entirely determined
by linguistic and literary conventions. If uttered meaningfully, Searle writes, those sounds
and marks have not just conventional linguistic meaning but intended speaker meaning as
well (141). For an application of these insights to art see also Carroll (Art Interpretation).
4 Arnheim was obviously influenced by Kants Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787).
5 F
or a discussion of the containment schema in other Westerns of John Ford see Cognarts
and Kravanja (On the Embodiment).
FILM MUSIC AS EMBODIMENT
1 In describing the music, I avoid delving into complex music-theoretical explanations. The
reader might benefit from knowledge of musical notation, yet this is not indispensable to an
understanding of the annotated scores. These scores, however, are by no means intended to
replace experiencing the music in the context of the film; I strongly encourage the reader to
consult the various films. Timings for the scenes under discussion are supplied after the title of
the film. These timings are not time-code based; they provide the hour, minutes, and seconds,
as read by a DVD player. For example 0:03:35 - 1:20:20 should be read: the scene starts at
0 hour, 3 minutes, and 35 seconds, and ends at 1 hour, 20 minutes, and 20 seconds.
e abstract nature of music has been frequently discussed as stemming from: 1) the
2 Th
temporal and almost intangible nature of sound, which makes the perception of music an
ephemeral phenomenon, and 2) the lack of specificity of representational and propositional
content in music (see e.g., Kivy; Pratt; Walton).
3 S aslaw investigates various mental structures (or schemas) in the context of musical analysis,
in particular when applying analytical methodologies put forth by Hugo Riemann.
4 J ohnson (The Body) uses the terms schema, embodied schema, and image schema interchangeably. His notion of schema has been expanded to include expectation schemas (Cox and Huron).
5 K
vecses account for unidirectionality in metaphors stems from the concrete/abstract duality: our experiences with the physical world serve as natural and logical foundations for
the comprehension of more abstract domains. This explains why in most cases of everyday
metaphors the source and target are not reversible (A Practical Introduction 6). A few scholars, however, have challenged the notion of unidirectionality in the conceptual metaphor
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binary structure. Ortony, for instance, addresses the subject of unidirectionality based on
the recognition of the features projected from source to target. He claims that, in general,
these features are highly salient for the source domain but not for the target. In the metaphor
This man is a monkey, the salient characteristics of monkey (noisy, physically flexible, or
other) are projected onto man. Reversing the order of source and target (as This monkey
is a man) would produce different and arguably less clearly delineated projections.
6 M
ost scholars address one-dimensional abstract structures via the verticality or path schemas. Instead, I prefer the more abstract linearity schema, which does not imply physical orientation (as in verticality) or goal-directed motion (as in path). A possible argument for the
widespread use of verticality is that locating objects along vertical axis of the body is easiest
because of the bodys perceived asymmetry with respect to the ground (Barsalou Grounded
625). For a discussion about one-dimensional schemas please see Chattah (Semiotics).
7 Th
e cyclic goal-directed motions mentioned here are broadly defined by their characteristic patterns of repetition. No taxonomy of movement involving complex motions of the whole body,
however, seems to be available; naturally, any objective and formalized categorization of wholebody motion should consider (and possibly disregard) a range of variability in human motion.
8 S herringtons notion of proprioception as sensory information provided by internal organs
is addressed only tangentially in this chapter. For further insights on proprioception and
music please see Pealba Acitores.
9 S imilarity correlations between conceptual domains are expressed in the form of a conceptual metaphor A IS B as established by Lakoff and Johnson (Metaphors).
10 Juslin (Perceived) identified tempo as the most significant parameter in a modulating
effect, triggering a wide range of emotional responses. For an in-depth exploration on the
psychophysiological responses to musical tempo see Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Broek.
11 In the Mandarin version of the film, the character performed by Ziyi Zhang is named Jen Yu.
12 Empirical studies by Husain, Thomson, and Schellenberg show that exposure to fast tempi
result in increased arousal and tension. See also Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Broek.
13 The reader might have encountered three words that seem equivalent: pitch, note, and tone.
Although these words are often used interchangeably, pitch indicates the frequency of a
sound, note is the conventionalized name for a particular pitch frequency (for instance,
middle C is 261.6 Hz), and tone addresses the timbre or color of a sound.
14 Zbikowski observes that this conceptual metaphor varies among cultures. For instance,
pitch relationships are relationships of physical size is used in Java and Bali, while
pitch relationships are age relationships is used in Suya of the Amazon. This further
emphasizes the notion that conceptual metaphors rely on abstract structures (in these cases
the linearity schema).
Direct world-wide-web link: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/Videos/tjnc.mov. Also
15
available at: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/videos.cfm.
part from glissandi, the chromatic scale provides the most continuous rendition in the pitch do16 A
main, as it includes all (twelve) pitch classes in the Western system of tuning; pitches repeat in different registers by way of multiples of their frequency. Alternative tuning systems (e.g., the Middle
Eastern gadwall, or some traditional Indian systems) allow for microtonal pitch inflections.
17 Direct world-wide-web link: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/Videos/tjpb1.mov. Also
available at: http://www.tomandjerryonline.com/videos.cfm.
18 Johnson and Larson explore the notion of motion in music as reflected in the lyrics George
Harrisons song Something in the Way She Moves. From a psycho-perceptual focus,
Gjerdingen gives an account of motion in music with an analogy to the phi effect in vision:
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NOTES
a succession of musical events (successive pitches for instance) when placed at appropriate
distance of each other (both in terms of frequency and temporality) will trigger a sense of
movement.
19 Employing the CAM model, Lipscomb found that perceived congruence is higher when
accent structures between sounds and visual images synchronize.
20 Bolivar, Cohen, and Fentress attempt to apply the CAM model to observe semantic and
formal (audiovisual) congruency.
21 Studies on Heart Rate Variability (HRV) shows that the heart-beat follows more constant patterns during tensed states, hence resulting in low HRV. Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Brook
explored the influence of music in HRV, finding that HRV was higher during slow tempo
music than during fast tempo music (261). In a related study on brain stem reflex (which
controls changes in pulse, respiration, heart rate, skin conductance, motor patterns, etc.) Juslin
and Vstfjll explored the processes whereby emotions are induced by music. See also Levitin.
By extending these results to film music, I speculate that music during a film may induce emotions through physiological mechanisms including heart-beat, respiration, skin conductance,
blood pressure, motor patterns, and even brain waves or neurochemical levels.
22 Note that when establishing semantic correlations, the music appears as the concrete domain
within the A IS B binary structure. This shift, from music acting as target domain to music
acting as source domain, defines the boundary of the Mickey Mousing technique.
23 Attempts to quantify degrees of dissonance date back to Pythagoras, who observed frequency ratios in strings of various lengths.
24 Syntagmatic analysis attends to the temporal organization and placement of semiotic units
within a structure; paradigmatic analysis, on the other hand, attends to relations of a semiotic unit to potential replacing units not present in the structure.
25 The major and minor scales have been the primary archetypes of Western music since the
seventeenth century. Many film composers, however, avoid the happy or sad coloring
typical of the major and minor scales by employing alternative pitch configurations, including the Greek modes. These configurations expand the composers tonal-color palette while
providing new means for music-narrative interaction.
26 Qualifiers drawn from Cooke and Huron.
27 Qualia drawn from Huron (145).
28 Final cadences mark the ending point of musical phrases, and generally exhibit a descending
melodic contour (Huron). In fact, the term cadence derives etymologically from the Italian
cadenza, which means to fall or declination.
29 Other pitches (the mediant, for instance) provide a relatively high degree of closure.
30 Thompson, Russo, and Sinclair conducted three experiments to examine the influence of
musical underscoring on the judgment of closure in film. In order to provide a general
understanding of the concept of closure in music he draws on general music theoretical
concepts and on the theories of expectation by Leonard Meyer.
31 The music features a plagal cadence, commonly referred to as the Amen cadence, outlining
a harmonic movement from subdominant to tonic. It is not coincidental that the films
opening musical gesture and its concluding cadence are in the same key.
hile a linearity schema is defined by locations along a one-dimensional structure, a con32 W
tainer schema is defined by content and boundaries. Lakoff and Johnson regards our body
as the primary container, as we are bounded and set off from the rest of the world by the
surface of our skins () We project our own in-out orientation onto other physical objects
that are bounded by surfaces (Metaphors 29).
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33 Th
e notion of homorhythmic denotes a single rhythm for all melodic lines.
34 Thomas Newmans musical language brings to mind Aaron Coplands open voicings featuring a profusion of fourths, fifths, and ninths. Although the A Dorian scale is most prominent, Newmans use of chromaticism results in tonal ambiguity in regards with the mode at
a precise moment in the piece.
35 Hayward defines this tradition as expressing futurist/alien themes through use of dissonance and/or electronic sounds (24).
Donizetti intended this aria to be accompanied with a glass harmonica; instead the
36
soundtrack features a flute. The eerie sound of a glass harmonica would have worked against
the desire to ground his aria in human, rather than alien sonic environment.
37 As Huron notes, most melodies exhibit stereotypic patterns, the most common being the arch
shape. Over time and with frequent exposure, listeners form expectations that reflect such patterns.
38 Sessions addresses musical phrases figuratively as performed in a single breath thus pointing to the vocal origin of musical phrasing.
39 The wordless vocals create associations with the sound of a Theremin. The use of a Theremin (and
more broadly, of electronically generated timbres) has permeated in sci-fi films as a convention
to represent alien beings since the 1950s. In her survey of soundtracks to sci-fi films, Schmidt
notes there is some suggestion that our brains physically interpret electronic sounds as in some
way profoundly artificial in relation to the sounds produced by other instruments () Thus,
no matter how pleasing it may be to the ear, the electronic may always signify both itself and an
anxiety about authenticity, and might have always been pre-destined to be alien (36).
40 De Souza draws on Gibsons notion of affordance to investigate the impact of instrumental
interfaces in music production.
41 Research has shown that individuals with restricted mobility (paraplegics) experience difficulty in rhythm production in comparison with non-paraplegics (Huron).
42 Scholars have noted that sound is a direct result of objects moving; hence it can be argued
that any sound (musical or otherwise) denotes a moving object. Cox maintains that most
musical sounds are evidence of human behavior (Metaphoric Logic).
43 In outlining the associations triggered in instrumental music by Beethoven, for instance,
Hatten asserts that styles are themselves defined by certain structural oppositions and with
clear associations with levels of society () A composer could exploit high, middle, or low
styles the way a speaker exploits what sociolinguists call social register in language (77).
44 I n this case the 5/4 meter is arranged in ten subdivisions organized as 3+3+2+2.
45 Cox is hesitant about extending the finding of Mirror Neurons in Macaques to the human
brain; he instead proposes the Mimetic Hypothesis, grounded on metaphorical and embodied representation (Embodying Music).
46 Drawing on Galleses notion of Mirror Neuron System, Pulvermller seeks to obtain empirical
evidence of neuronal discharge triggered by hearing (rather than seeing): hearing a word seems
to be associated with activation of its articulatory motor program, and understanding an action
word seems to lead to the immediate and automatic thought of the action to which it refers (1).
47 Sachs speculates that particular contours derive from animal instinctive howls or wails; he
identifies examples in Western classical music as well as Russian, Australian aboriginal, and
Lakota (Sioux) music.
48 Kubrick is known for using pre-composed classical music in his films. See for instance his
use of Penderecki and Bartok (in The Shining) or Strauss and Khachaturian (in 2001).
49 Van der Zwaag, Westerink, and Broek survey the effect of percussiveness in music percep-
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NOTES
tion and further speculate the amount of percussiveness in music indicates the power of
the musics impact (253). Their empirical studies confirm this hypothesis by showing that
skin conductance level (an indicator of emotion) increases with higher percussiveness, as
skin conductance is a direct reflection of the sympathetic nervous system, which is positively
related to energetic as well as tensed arousal (262).
50 A
leitmotif is a short recurring musical idea associated with a character, place, or object, established
by the concurrent and consistent appearance of a particular melodic idea and its counterpart in the
films story-world. Film music archetypes exist outside of a single film; these develop via frequent exposure to music, becoming cultural units the listener identifies via the musics stylistic characteristics.
Arguably, accompaniment to silent film sought to trigger phenomenological responses; yet a close
inspection of (at the time available) compilations for pianists, organists, and conductors (e.g., Ern
Rapes Encyclopedia of Music for Pictures of 1925) illustrate that pieces were arranged according to
categories akin to archetypes, such as Bridal Scenes, Oriental, Religious Music, etc. As a result,
the purpose of performing these pieces during a silent film was to set locale, set time period, as genre
identifiers, and as indicators of the ethnicity or socio-cultural background of characters. Leitmotifs
and archetypes may rely on analogy or resemblance; but it is largely agreed that leitmotifs and archetypes draw on arbitrarily established relations, and thus become conventional within culturally
defined repertoires. For an in-depth investigation on the relationships between the musics connotations and a films narrative, please see Chattah (Conceptual).
T H E F L O AT I N G W O R L D : F I L M N A R R AT I V E A N D V I E W E R D I A K R I S I S
1 See Plato, Republic III, and Aristotle, Poetics III, discussed below. Bordwell, Narration in the
Fiction Film (16).
2 A
lthough the term diakrisis is not a concept in classical poetics, I introduce the term in this
chapter to name a set of phenomena that take place in the mind of the spectator, as well as
the creators of a film (director, actors, editors, etc.).
3 I use the term superstructure in a non-marxian sense here.
4 I n literary studies, the fallacy of relying on the authors stated or inferred intentions in order
to determine what a works means was a credo for more than half a century, starting with
T.S. Eliots 1921 essay Tradition and the Individual Talent and articulated most fully in
Wimsatt and Beardsleys article The Intentional Fallacy, and republished in expanded form
in The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry (3-18). This insistence on bracketing out
authorial intent from the finished work seems not to have been a strong principle within
film studies.
5 S eymour Chatman explains: The difference between narration proper, the recounting of
an event (), and enactment, its unmediated presentation (), corresponds to the classical
distinction between diegesis and mimesis (in Platos sense of the word), or, in modern terms,
between telling and showing. Dialogue, of course, is the preeminent enactment (32).
6 I bid., 9-10. Gaut goes to some lengths to dismantle the notion that the viewer can share the
position of this implied filmic narrator. The viewer doesnt get to tell the story, and thus cannot
be the narrator. We may pretend that we are having the same perceptual experiences that the
implied narrator/observer does, but that illusion is not really sustainable (Gaut 203-206).
7 F
or an excellent recap of these debates see Gaut (197-243).
8 B
ordwell notes that diegetic theories of narrative came into their own during the era of
French structuralism and poststructuralism (Narration 17-18).
9 P
aradoxically, visual elements such as film edits are often considered through a diegetic
framework, as well, because they become a vehicle of narration that is language-like.
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10 Still more confusingly, diegesis is applied by some to non-fictional storyworlds, as, for example, in documentary films. However, it is more typically applied to fiction.
11 Jason Mittell explains the distinction between diegetic and non-diegetic elements of narrative with examples from The Wizard of Oz: The diegesis refers to the storyworld which the
characters experience, whether we witness it or noteven though we do not see Dorothys
house land on the Witch of the East, it is a diegetic element of the films narrative, later recounted by the Witch of the North. () By contrast, non-diegetic elements are used to tell
the story, but do not actually appear within the films internal storyworld. Typically, films
employ non-diegetic techniques such as camera movements, edits, and soundtrack music to
represent aspects of the storyworld and guide our reactions to onscreen events (Film 160).
There is some slippage in the term diegetic, defined earlier in this chapter as the telling of
a narrative. In Mittells description, diegesis occurs within the storyworld, while the non-diegetic elements of narrative remain outside of it, yet still help tell the story.
12 Carrolls concept of the erotetic assumes that films actually have a narrator, which, as we have
seen, is a complicated assumption, especially in the case of implied narrators.
13 Bordwell calls these templates schemata. Schemata are broad categories of information we
carry inside our head that we use to make rapid judgments about specific information presented in a film (Narration 31-39 et passim).
14 Dehaene and his colleagues theorize consciousness as a global neuronal workspace. We
propose that consciousness is global information broadcasting within the cortex: it arises
from a neuronal network whose raison dtre is the massive sharing of pertinent information
throughout the brain (13).
15 On the phenomenon of embodied simulation, our innate capacity to understand the actions, basic motor intentions, feelings, and emotions of others, and thereby to ground our
identification with and connectedness to narrated characters, see Wojciehowski and Gallese.
16 Viewer X is loosely based on my own recent screening of Titanic as I was writing this article.
It is a highly approximate reconstruction of my thoughts as I was watching, which I wrote
down a day later. Viewer Y is loosely based on the thoughts of my partner Eric Chapelle, a
composer and connoisseur of film scores, who generously contributed his own reconstructed
internal narrative in response to my invitation.
17 Imaginary stream-of-consciousness narrative was pioneered by James Joyce and Virginia
Woolf, and many others in the meantime.
18 Dehaene notes that subjective responses were looked down on by scientists, particularly in
the wake of mid-twentieth century behaviorism. The correct perspective, Dehaene argues,
is to think of subjective reports as raw data (12). If subjective reports are one half of the
equation, experimental data is the other, he asserts.
19 See also the previous note, which discussed Wimsatt and Beardsleys companion essay The
Intentional Fallacy.
20 For a summary of some of these experiments, see Chapters 1 and 2 of Dehaenes book Consciousness and the Brain (17-88). Scientists can track the progress of visual information in the
brain, determining how far it must progress in order to register consciously. Interestingly,
such information may be processed and even acted upon, whether or not it reaches an individuals conscious awareness.
21 Interestingly, Donalds example of intermediate-term memory in action is a conversation
between eight people about a film that they have recently viewed (Donald 46-91).
22 The movie they used in their experiment was a 27-minute episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm
(Season 1, Chapter 7).
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NOTES
M O D E S O F A C T I O N AT T H E M O V I E S , O R R E-T H I N K I N G
1 Measurement Theory. Cinemetrics. Cinemetrics, n.d. Web. 08 March 2014.
2 See at least Cutting, Brunick, and Candan; Smith T.; Smith, Levin, and Cutting.
3 I borrow the term from David Bordwell (Poetics 46).
4 See, e.g., Ihde (iii).
5 On the relationship between the cinematic illusion and the viewers body see Voss.
6 I think of two American books like The Photoplay (1916) by Hugo Mnsterberg and The Art
of Photoplay Making (1918) by Victor Oscar Freeburg.
7 See, e.g., Grodal (Embodied).
8 See at least Chateau; Barker; Stadler.
9 Among others, Bochet et al.; Furman et al.; Iwase et al.; Nishimoto et al.; Rothstein et al.
10 For a recent publication, which allows one better to grasp Merleau-Pontys ideas on cinema,
see the 2011 edition of Merleau-Pontys 1953Cours au Collge de France Le Monde sensible
et le Monde de lexpression.
11 Beyond the already mentioned Sobchack and Barker, see also Marks and Rutherford.
12 See, e.g., Smith, Murray.
13 This is the approach of some analysis by the already mentioned Barker, and by DAloia (La
Vertigine).
14 Bordwell put forward the idea that low-level, modular processes play a key role in eliciting
suspense the so-called firewall hypothesis and this would be one of the reasons why we
experience the same feeling when we see a movie for the second or third time. He attributes
such an effect to a kind of resonance in which mirror neurons would also play a role (Bordwell and Thompson Minding Movies 100).
15 Gallese et al.; Gallese, Keysers and Rizzolatti.
16 See Michotte van den Berck (La Participation); Wallon. See also the parts on cinema in
Merleau-Ponty (Le Monde).
17 Canonical neurons in the premotor and posterior parietal cortex selectively activate both
when the agent grasps an object and when he merely perceives it. For evidence on canonical
neurons in monkeys see Murata et al. For evidence in humans see Grzes et al.
18 On film metaphors and camera movements see also Cognarts and Kravanja (The Visual).
19 See also Heimann et al.; Gallese and Guerra (The Feeling).
20 For more details see references in previous note.
21 This is the proposal by MacDougall.
22 Daves Observations on the Camera Acting as a Person are mentioned and commented by
Vivian Sobchack (The Man 72-74).
23 See at least Magliano and Zacks.
ART IN NOISE
1 L
awrence Shapiro describes embodied cognition as less a theory than a research programme
unified by its commitment to elevate the importance of the body in the explanation of various
cognitive abilities (The Embodied 340).
2 E
mbodied simulation theory has been recently applied to cinema by Gallese and Guerra, but
their focus has been unimodally limited to visual imagery. Fahlenbrach, however, has written
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extensively upon cinematic sound and affect from the perspective of embodied metaphor
(Feeling Sounds, The Emotional Design, Aesthetics) and, latterly, embodied simulation (Embodied Spaces, Emotions). In this chapter, my contribution to the research
approach rests in locating a basis for embodied meaning in the sonic induction of affect
described by the BRECVEMA framework.
3 B
ut see the individual work of Brian Boyd, Joseph Carroll, and Jonathan Gottschall, for an
overview of the recently emerged cognitive and evolutionary approaches to literary theory
(see also their edited volume Evolution, Literature, and Film: A Reader).
y reference to theories of affect should not be confused with affect theory currently in
4 M
use within humanities discourse. My use of the term affect is not identical to its use by affect
theorists such as Brian Massumi, Nigel Thrift, or William Connolly.
us far my professional career encompasses 30 years in sound design with the last decade
5 Th
also encompassing media education.
6 David Bordwell, in referring to Grand Theory as SLAB theory, an acronym formed from
Saussurean semiotics, Lacanian psychoanalysis, Althusserian Marxism, and Barthian textual theory (Historical 385), underscores its doctrine-based nature and limitations.
7 However, Gianluca Sergi (In Defense), Barbara Flueckiger, and Birger Langkjr are notable exceptions to this trend.
isted here are some of In the Cuts sound design personnel:
8 L
Supervising sound editor: Andrew Plain
Dialogue editor: Linda Murdoch
Sound designer / SFX and atmospheres editor: Peter Miller
SFX and atmospheres editor: Mark Ward
Foley supervisor: Blair Slater
Foley artist: Mario Vaccaro
Sound re-recording mixer: Martin Oswin
A more complete listing of the movies creative personnel may be found at the International
Movie Database. See http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0199626/.
9 Walter Murch and Randy Thom, of course, have consistently presented their ideas about
cinematic sound to a wider audience, yet they remain decidedly designers of sound rather
than writers of theory. Rare examples of practitioner-theorists might include Michel Chion
and Daniel Levitin. Chion is a composer as well as a noted author of film-sound theory,
while Levitin is a music producer who turned to a systematic programme of research in the
neuropsychology of music cognition.
10 As illustration, consider the role of audition in controlling visual attention in Timecode
(Mike Figgis, 2000) where synchronous sound activates the screen sector to which the
audience will (mostly) attend. Sound design is also strikingly used to steer visual attention through highly complex or rapidly changing visual displays such as in the genres of
action-adventure or thriller. A good example of this is the T-Rex battle in King Kong (Peter
Jackson, 2005) where sound guides visual attention through a highly dynamic series of
threats and opportunities. However, this steering function also occurs in tranquil movies,
such as in the harsh scraping of a boys shoes on a doormat in Mon Oncle (Jacques Tati,
1958, at approximately 00:18:30 (hh:mm:ss)), attracting our visual attention even though
the boy is in deep background and a highly animated conversation is underway in foreground. See Noesselt et al. for a description of how sound increases the saliency of visual
events.
11 Many examples of this aesthetic effect may be found in the works of David Lynch, particularly Mulholland Drive (2001), Lost Highway (1997) and Eraserhead (1977).
318
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NOTES
12 For reviews of the empirical literature on auditory imagery see Timothy Hubbard and the
edited work Auditory Imagery (Reisberg).
13
For example, the spatial illusion of the ventriloquism effect (Bertelson; Bertelson and
Aschersleben; Thurlow and Jack) whereby visual spatial location captures auditory location,
and the speech illusion of the McGurk effect (McGurk and MacDonald) whereby vision
modifies speech perception.
14 Mechanisms for multimodal interaction are many and varied, and limitations of this chapter
do not permit a full cataloguing of their relevance for cinematic media. However, for a comprehensive review see the edited volumes The Handbook of Multisensory Processes (Calvert,
Spence and Stein), and The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes (Murray and Wallace).
15 In this regard, it is interesting to note Joseph Andersons prescient assessment of crossmodal
confirmation as a fundamental mechanism for the creation of cinematic events (Sound and
Image).
16 For a discussion of contemporary sound design and the interaction of the soundtracks three
major components of dialogue, music and sound effects, see Altman, and Altman, Jones and
Tatroe. For a comprehensive review of the sound of silent cinema see The Sounds of Early
Cinema (Abel and Altman).
17 Van Wassenhove, Grant and Poeppel identify this temporal window as holding for audiovisual speech, but it may be assumed to extend to other ecologically valid audiovisual stimuli.
See also Slutsky and Recanzone.
18 A dominant aesthetic within the virtual world of TRON is a form of digital chunkiness
in which its crystalline nature stands in contrast to the smoothness of the real world. This
aesthetic grounds concepts of threat where characters literally risk disintegrating into blocks
of digital debris. Such a digital aesthetic also underpins notions of racial and social identity.
From an aesthetic perspective, it is worthwhile noting a parallel use of digital granularity
within The Matrix where Neos voice similarly disintegrates at the point of his first passing
from the Matrix into the Real World. In this instance, the disintegration of Neos voice is
synonymous with the disintegration of his virtual self.
19 Parallel with the increasing significance of timbre in cinematic sound is Rebecca Leydons
observation that contemporary music is increasingly focused on timbre as a crucial semantic feature (1), and argues an urgent need to explain its function.
20 To date, the most sophisticated soundfield technology is Dolby Laboratories Atmos, a format which supports the processing of 128 discrete audio channels distributed to up to 64
speaker feeds.
21 Tan goes on to say the distal cause of entertainment activity is an unconscious need for
training useful capabilities, whereas the proximal cause is enjoyment of the activity for its
own sake (Entertainment 28).
22 Gallese has written further upon Feeling of Body and liberated embodied simulation in
relation to narrative and psychoanalysis, noting the bodily affective self is at the roots of the
narrative self (Embodied Simulation Theory 196).
23 The term narrative design is commonly encountered in the computer game industry where it
stands in the stead of screenwriter or author. My use of the term here signals a desire to make
commensurate the design processes of narrative and perceptual imagery. Narrative immersion is sometimes also referred to as transportation (Green and Donahue; Holland; Mar and
Oatley; Sestir and Green; Tal-Or and Cohen).
24 Cinematic proto-narrative acts as a workspace where bottom-up and top-down processes interact. Hence, my notion that proto-narrative is an interface. However, there are limitations
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to the capacity of top-down processes to act upon the primitive. For example, it is doubtful
top-down processes have any influence over the primordial feelings or life-regulation processes controlled at the level of the brainstem. As to what is produced as a consequence of
this interface, which grounds cognition in perception, I suggest Barsalous concept of perceptual symbols (Perceptual 577).
25 For a discussion of the return of the cinema of attractions in post-classical cinema see the
edited volume The Cinema of Attractions Reloaded (Strauven) and Ndalianis.
26 Parallel to Wojciehowski and Gallese is Patrick Colm Hogans proposal for an affective narratology (Affective Narratology). Hogan considers the structure and purpose of stories as inseparable from our emotion systems (A Passion 65).
27 For a survey of emotion concepts and the trends these concepts indicate see Kleinginna and
Kleinginna, and Russell and Lemay. For an overview of the abiding problems in defining the field
of emotion study and producing satisfactory definitions of emotion concepts see Frijda (Point of
View). For a history of the development of the scientific study of emotion see Gendron and Barrett.
28 For a current account of the working definitions of emotion see Izard, and Gendron.
29 There is a dearth of research which specifically examines the relationship between environmental sound and affect. The current research programme of emoacoustics, a portmanteau of
emotional acoustics and represented by the work of Asutay et al., Tajadura-Jimnez, Tajadura-Jimnez et al., Vljame and Tajadura-Jimnez, responds in part to this lack.
30 See Russells virtual reality hypothesis (Core Affect 155-156) for further discussion of the
role of core affect in art and entertainment.
31 In this regard, Bartsch and Hbners observations echo Mark Johnsons theory of embodied
meaning (Embodied Meaning, The Meaning) which argues that even the highest levels
of complexity found in human abstract thinking have their basis in the lowest levels of the
biological.
32 For a discussion of the design strategy for voice see Macallan and Plain (253-255). Plain is
the supervising sound editor of In the Cut.
33 The sound design process for the creation of sound effects (SFX) and atmospheres of In
the Cut is somewhat unconventional. Ordinarily, a single individual (or small group) is
responsible for either the SFX or atmospheres across the duration of a movie. In the case of
In the Cut, Miller and I divided the movie according to scene location so that we were each
individually responsible for both the SFX and atmospheres of specific environments. This
allowed for an intimate evolution of each locales environmental soundscape through which
we shaped an emotional landscape.
34 Edward Hall (Hall Proxemic Behavior, Hidden) termed the study of a segmentation of
human space as proxemics. These spatial zones exist pan-culturally, but are modulated by
cultural rules. In this way, proxemics can be understood as both a biological-ecological understanding of inhabited space as well as providing basis for a study of social semiotics. The
proxemics of In the Cut arises from the cinematic manipulation of peripersonal space.
35 For example, consider the sequences at approximately 00:11:10-00:14:05 (hh:mm:ss),
01:15:53-01:17:50, and 01:19:25-01:23:02, respectively.
36 Although opportunity does not permit examination of the impact of affect upon subjective temporality, several significant studies should be mentioned in passing, in particular
(Bar-Haim et al.; Droit-Volet and Meck; Droit-Volet and Gil; Droit-Volet, Fayolle and Gil;
Droit-Volet, et al; Noulhiane et al.; Schirmer; van Wassenhove et al.; Yamada and Kawabe).
37 Hovering in the background of this chapter, of course, is the irony in attempting to explain
the embodied meaning of sound through the written word.
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NOTES
38 For recent examples of this kind of cross-fertilisation of artistic and scientific practice see
Heimann et al.. See also Guerra (this volume) for a discussion of how cinematic visual
movement may be explored for its ecological validity in the activation of the MNS and social cognition, and T.J. Smith, and Smith, Levin and Cutting for an exploration of audience
reception of filmmakers intentions through the eye-tracking of actual movies. However, as
with much theory in Film Studies, these examples reveal a focus upon the visual at the exclusion of the auditory, illustrating the need for yet more innovative experiments to capture
the role of multimodality in cinematic experience.
T H E C H A R A C T E R S B O D Y A N D T H E V I E W E R :
C I N E M AT I C E M PAT H Y A N D E M B O D I E D S I M U L AT I O N
IN THE FILM EXPERIENCE
1 M
ental simulation developed within Philosophy of mind in the context of the Simulation-theories debate (Currie and Ravenscroft; Gallagher and Zahavi; Goldman; Gordon).
F I L M S A N D E M B O D I E D M E TA P H O R S O F E M O T I O N
onceptual metaphors are conventionally printed in small capitals, and metaphorical ex1 C
pressions in italics.
2 Gibbs (Embodiment 244) reminds us that the word emotion itself stems from the Latin movere.
3 The degree of redundancy may vary from one film to another and within the same film.
4 Th
e following are some of the comments on the film included in http://www.imdb.com/
title/tt0180093/reviews: One of the most devastating and beautiful experiences Ive had
watching, Aronofsky knows how to tell a story in a way that is dazzling in its use of sound,
editing, and cinematography, It is the essence of independent filmmaking, a daring, engrossing, artful film that stays with you long after you leave the theater, (..) this film went
straight for the heart, ripped it out and kicked it around the floor for 90 minutes, A masterpiece of all the elements of what filmmaking is about, mixed together in some sick souffl
and thrown into your face, burning hot and scalding, It had a profound impact on me and
I havent been able to stop thinking about it since I watched it on opening night.
5 Available at http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/.
6 See the directors comments on the DVD.
M B O D I E D C I N E M AT I C S U B J E C T I V I T Y: M E TA P H O R I C A L A N D
E
METONYMICAL MODES OF CHARACTER PERCEPTION IN FILM
1 S ee also Sweetser and her claim that physical touching and manipulation are common semantic sources for English perception verbs (i.e. visually picking out a stimulus) (32).
2 S ee in this regard, also the notion of the modularity of mind, i.e., the question regarding the
functional and compositional architecture of the mind (e.g., Fodor Modularity 10-11).
ote that it is not always necessary for the viewer to actually see the perceptual organ in
3 N
order to identify the metonymical relationship. Top-down knowledge can help to aid in this
identification. For instance, we know enough about the structure of human bodies to know
that the eyes are attached to the head, so even if we only see, for example, the backside of a
characters head in the foreground of the frame with the object of his gaze in the background,
we are able to infer the perceptual organ, and by extension the metonymy eyes stand for
seeing.
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4 F
or a discussion of the term homospatiality in relation to visual metaphor see also Carroll
(A Note), Forceville (The Identification) and Cognarts and Kravanja (From Thought).
5 A
similar categorization of the perception is reception metaphor in film can be construed
by reversing source and goal in Table 4.
or a detailed discussion of this scene, albeit without yet explicitly referring to the conceptu6 F
al metaphor perceiving is touching, see also Cognarts and Kravanja (Towards 9-11).
similar metaphorical application of this type can be discerned in the scene from Barry
7 A
Lyndon when Lady Lyndon catches her husband cheating on her (for a discussion of this
scene see also Cognarts and Kravanja Towards 8-9).
N THE EMBODIMENT OF TEMPORAL MEANING IN CINEMA:
O
PERCEIVING TIME THROUGH THE CHARACTERS EYES
1 I n sequential scanning the different configurations are viewed successively (as in watching a motion picture) (Langacker 145). It differs from what Langacker in his theory of Cognitive Grammar refers to as the process of summary scanning where aspects of a scene are scanned simultaneously (as in looking at a photograph) (144-146). Where the former is connected to events that
represent time as something dynamic, the latter is linked to static scenes that conceptualize time
as a unified whole (see also Evans and Green 535).
ne might counterargue that the absoluteness of this interpretation is somewhat tempered by
2 O
the fact that the shot of the past (i.e., the object of her memory) does not represent a subjective
shot of Deborahs POV, but an objective shot of Deborahs face and body. In other words, the
viewer is not literally looking through her eyes as she remembers herself as an external entity.
This, however, does not stand in contradiction with human evaluation of past experiences. As
the cognitive neuroscientist Shimamura writes: Our recollections are sometimes viewed as if we
are seeing a different person. For example, sometimes we might recollect an episodic memory
not from a first-person perspective in which we visualize the event in the same manner as we
viewed it originally, but as seen from a third-person point of view, as if we are observing the scene
from a distance (Experiencing Art 137). Nevertheless, as our chapter will show, there exist other
examples in cinema where the shot of the past coincides with the POV of the character that
remembers.
or a similar discussion of Lone Star from the perspective of CMT see Ortiz (Visual Manifesta3 F
tions 12-13).
is analysis differs from our previous study (Cognarts and Kravanja The Visual) in which
4 Th
the flashback scene from The Passenger (Michelangelo Antonioni, 1975) was studied as an example of the time-moving metaphor on the grounds that the character is stationary. However,
this account did not take into consideration the concept of perception, and the possibility that
the perceivers sight can be expressed metaphorically by camera movement in which the camera
brings the perceivers point of view in direct contact with the perceived object (i.e., the time).
alsettos comprehensive analysis of the sequence was very useful for describing and structuring
5 F
the different shot transitions (112-115).
e latter can be considered an example of what Edward Branigan, following Nol Burch, calls
6 Th
proximate spatial articulations; that is, the space revealed by shot A is near that of shot B perhaps within the same room but at no point does it overlap or coincide with the space of shot B
(Formal 54).
or a more elaborated discussion of the role of the containment schema in the conceptualiza7 F
tion of binary oppositions in film see Cognarts and Kravanja (On the Embodiment).
8 For this reason one might argue that the third case is closely related to Gradys notion of resem-
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NOTES
blance metaphor (A Typology). In contrast to the group of correlation-based metaphors, which

involves a set of correspondences between a concrete source domain and an abstract target domain (e.g., time is space, knowing is seeing), resemblance metaphors are grounded in a single
resemblance between target and source. In the expression Achilles is a lion, for example, one
feature, namely the inner characteristic quality of courage, is mapped from the lion onto Achilles. One kind of resemblance metaphor that has received much scholarly attention is the image
metaphor (Deignan; Gibbs and Bogdonovich; Lakoff Image Metaphors, The Contemporary
Theory; Gleason; Lakoff and Turner). Here, the mapping of a single resemblance is based on
a shared image structure rather than on a shared inner quality. For instance, in the often cited
Andr Breton example of My wifewhose waist is an hourglass, one aspect of an hourglass,
namely its shape and more specifically its narrow centre, is mapped onto the form of a woman.
According to Lakoff and Turner image structure is characterized by both part-whole structure
(e.g., the relation between a roof and a house) and attribute structure (e.g., colour, physical shape,
intensity of light, etc.) (90).
9 E
xemplary in this regard would be the pub scene from David Leans film Ryans Daughter (1970)
in which Major Randolph Doryans (Christopher Jones) aural perception of Michaels (John
Mills) repetitious banging of his leg on the pub bench causes him to recall the dreadful memories
of his time in the trenches during World War I.
M B O D I E D E T H I C S A N D C I N E M A : M O R A L AT T I T U D E S
E
FA C I L I TAT E D B Y C H A R A C T E R P E R C E P T I O N
or the sake of introducing and situating embodied ethics we are simplifying deontology
1 F
somewhat here (see also Slingerland 306).
2 A
s we will point out ourselves in the analysis of our own examples later, assessing what is
wrong or not often crucially entails that we contextualize what we are witnessing. This is
especially the case when we are evaluating other people (whether real life or fictional) on the
basis of a description of their perceptual acts. That is, in order to provide a proper account
of the moral weight of the perception of a person or character, one often has to bring in additional a priori information, the kind of knowledge which is often fuelled by a priori cases
of perception itself.
is broadening and non-dualistic conception of perception also recalls Rudolf Arnheims
3 Th
writings on visual thinking. As we have already seen earlier in this volume, perception, according to Arnheim, offers more than just the passive processing of the stimuli arriving at the
sensory receptors. For Arnheim, the separate treatment of seeing and thinking is absurd
because in order to see we have to think, and we have nothing to think about if we are not
seeing (A Plea 492; see also Visual Thinking).
4 F
or a discussion of the importance of emotions in ethical matters see also Oakley.
5 Carl Plantinga claims something similar when he states: The ability of narrative films to
elicit sympathies, antipathies, allegiances, and other responses to fictional characters is a key
element in their aesthetic success, and in their moral and ideological impact (I Followed
34).
or a typology of various affective responses to fictional characters see Plantinga (I Fol6 F
lowed 43).
7 For more on the evaluative nature of emotional responses in film see also Dadlez (Seeing)
and Carroll (Movies).
8 N
ote the link with the moral perception view according to which perception (i.e., the lower
level) always precedes moral judgement (the higher level) (see also Vetlesen 4).
323
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9 Th
e term dramatic is used here in the literary sense of relating to drama or the study of
drama.
10 It would be an interesting empirical problem to examine how much additional narrative
information the viewer needs in order to make this kind of mapping from the perceptual
level of the character onto the intentional/mental level of the character.
11 F
or a good summary of these studies, see Winter (152-153).
12 For a good discussion of both concepts see also Plantinga (I Followed 36).
13 The idea that thought is mirrored in the face goes back to Ancient Greece, and up to modern
facial expression research. For a good historical overview of some of this literature see Scherer
(141-144).
COGNITIVE SEMIOTICS REVISITED: REFRAMING THE FRAME
e need to be aware that cognitive science is itself undergoing theoretical reduction via
1 W
neuroscience. See, for example, Bickle.
2 I wish to thank Edward Branigan for his feedback on an earlier version of this chapter.
urthermore, it is important to note that image schemata are not literal images (for images
3 F
are always of something specific). Instead, this term refers to mental structures, which are
more abstract than an actual image. We begin with images, but abstract structures from
them to form schemata.
or a more detailed analysis of Inland Empire from a formalist perspective, see Buckland
4 F
(The Acousmatic Voice).
5 Werner Wolf defines metalepsis as a fictional representation consisting of several distinct
worlds and levels, among which unorthodox transgressions occur (95).
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25/06/15 20:26
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Reprint from Embodied Cognition and Cinema - ISBN 978 94 6270 028 4 - Leuven University Press, 2015

Embodied Cognition and Cinema

Leuven University Press

2015 by Leuven University Press / Universitaire Pers Leuven / Presses Universitaires

We had the experience but missed the meaning,

Maarten Cognarts and Peter Kravanja

FILM FORM AND EMBODIED COGNITION

FILM NARRATIVE AND EMBODIED COGNITION:

Maarten Cognarts and Peter Kravanja

CINEMATIC EMPATHY: ON EMBODIED SIMULATION

THE FLOATING WORLD: FILM NARRATIVE AND VIEWER DIAKRISIS

Hannah Chapelle Wojciehowski

THE CHARACTERS BODY AND THE VIEWER:

FROM EMBODIED MEANING TO ABSTRACT THOUGHT

FILMS AND EMBODIED METAPHORS OF EMOTION

Maarten Cognarts and Peter Kravanja

Maarten Cognarts and Peter Kravanja

Maarten Cognarts and Peter Kravanja

Art in Noise: An Embodied Simulation

INTRODUCTION: IS THERE ART IN NOISE?

1.1. The status of sound in conventional Film Studies

1.2. Praxis and tacit knowledge

1.3. A working definition of cinematic media

1.4. Multimodal integration and cinematic imagery

1.5. Sound design

A consequence of the migration of sound design from magnetic film to

1.6. Perceptual design and narrative design

Is it possible to experience cinematic meaning before the emergence of

1.7. Proto-narrative and the cinematic

Confusion 227). Using Blocks typology of consciousness, perceptual design

1.8. Feeling of Body

bodied simulation is a mandatory, pre-rational, non-introspective

2.1. Embodied simulation theory

23). It provides a neurobiological foundation for the capacity to understand

may be simulated and executed (Gallese Embodied Simulation 25-26). The

intensity state which lacks an object. Feeling is the subjective experience of an

2.2 Embodied simulation and cinematic sound

aural presence that is designed to simulate a bodily experience of feelings,

2.3. Cinematic sound and the induction of affect

The BRECVEMA framework is so-called because the mechanisms are listed in

et al. 622). Preliminary evidence suggests this transfer of emotion implicates

2.3.2. Mood-cue approach

the mood-cue approach mobilises and organises affect at the sensory-motor

2.3.3. Emotional communication theory

3. AN EMBODIED SIMULATION APPROACH TO IN THE CUT

3.1. Cinematic imagery, image schemas, and conceptual thought

Affect, Psychological Construction), has the capacity to be mapped onto

3.2. Affective acoustics as embodied spatial schema

3.2.2. The horizontality schema

i. Super interior a thought space, such as Frannies interior monologues

3.2.3. Affective zones and cognitive overflow

3.3. Feeling of Body and the construction of character

professional insights and conventional assumptions. Embodied cognition is

and noncognitive route to empathy, even if that other is fictional. Following

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

3 S ee Bordwells skepticism about the encompassing precision of identifying only 7 plots

EMBODIED VISUAL MEANING IN FILM

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

EMBODIED COGNITION AND CINEMA

i. Super interior a thought space, such as Frannies interior monologues

3 S ee Bordwells skepticism about the encompassing precision of identifying only 7 plots