Division II and IV Lecture 14

Physics II
Electromagnetism (Lecture 14)
Udit Raha
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Feb 2016
Macroscopic Electric Fields

I
In vacuum, true Electric fields ETrue = Evac are easily calculated without
much complication where Evac has in general both contributions from
distant free as well as bound charge distributions .

I
Within matter, the bacground MICROSCOPIC Electric field EMicr is
extremely complicated if not utterly impossible to calculate.
ETrue = Evac + EMicr

I
It becomes then convenient to define a space average Electric field

so-called the MACROSCOPIC Electric field hEi, i.e.,
1
E(r) hE(r)i =
ETrue (r r0 )dv 0
V
Definition
MACROSCOPIC Electric field: It is defined as the space average field over a

macroscopic volume V of the dielectric material which is large enough to contain
a statistically large number ( 104 105 ) of atoms/molecules of that material,
yet small enough compared to the dimensions of the material sample, in order
to preserve all significant large-scale spatial variations in the field.

I
It becomes then convenient to define a space average Electric field

so-called the MACROSCOPIC Electric field hEi, i.e.,
1
E(r) hE(r)i =
ETrue (r r0 )dv 0
V
Definition
MACROSCOPIC Electric field: It is defined as the space average field over a

macroscopic volume V of the dielectric material which is large enough to contain
a statistically large number ( 104 105 ) of atoms/molecules of that material,
yet small enough compared to the dimensions of the material sample, in order
to preserve all significant large-scale spatial variations in the field.
I
The space average Electric field at any position r within a dielectric can be
taken over any arbitrary volume V about that point. However, it is usually
convenient to choose a spherical region.
Macroscopic Electric Fields (contd.)

The entire dielectric medium can be thought of being composed of
finely grained averaging volumes (marbles).
Macroscopic Electric Fields (contd.)

Example
If E 0 hEi be the Macroscopic Electric field at point O defined over a
macroscopic sherical volume V of radius R within a dielectric, where
Micr (r0 ) (r r0 ) 0
1
E(r) ETrue (r) = Evac (r) +
dv ; < = r r0 ,
40
|r r0 |3
V
where Micr is the microscopic charge distribution within V.

I
I
E 0 is conservative and derivable from an macroscopic scalar potential V0 .

E 0 satifies Gausss Law in terms of all charge densities vac = f + b
outside V and a macroscopic average charge density hi inside V.
Gausss Law for Dielectrics

I
For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

free charges with density f , the total charge density is
= b + f

I

= b + f
If E(r) = hE(r)i is the Macroscopic Electric field generated from all free
and bound charges. Then, Gausss Differential Law reads
0 E =
= b + f

I

= b + f
0 E =
= b + f
= P + f

I

= b + f
0 E =
= b + f
= P + f
(0 E + P) = f

I

= b + f
0 E =
= b + f
= P + f
(0 E + P) = f
=
I
The field D = 0 E + P is known as the ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.

I

= b + f
0 E =
= b + f
= P + f
(0 E + P) = f
=
The field D = 0 E + P is known as the ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.
Gausss Integral Law: If S be any closed surface bounding region V within

a dielectric, then
D dS =
Ddv =
f dv = Qf , encl
S
where Qf , encl denotes the total free charge enclosed in V .
Gausss Law for Dielectrics: Summary
'
D
D dS
Qf , encl
E dS
1
(Qb + Qf )encl
0
0 E + P
f
b + f
0
surface
surface
&
Gausss Law for Dielectrics: Summary
'
D
D dS
Qf , encl
E dS
1
(Qb + Qf )encl
0
0 E + P
f
b + f
0
surface
surface
&
Warning: Henceforth, we shall use the old symbol E instead of E for the
Electric field, but always keeping in mind that it is Macroscopic Electric field
that we are referring to, which is not the same as the true Electric field within
a dielectric. While for free space (vacuum), they are the same.
Polarized Sphere
Example
Consider an uncharged dielectric sphere with a frozen-in polarization P = kr r,
where k is a constant. Find the Electric field as a function of r .
Polarized Sphere
Example
I
Method I: Bound charge densities:

k
1
k
k
r = 2
r2
= 2
b =
r
r r
r
r
Polarized Sphere
Example
I

k
1
k
k
r = 2
r2
= 2
b =
r
r r
r
r
b = (P r)r =R =
k
r
Polarized Sphere
Example
I

k
1
k
k
k
r = 2
r2
= 2 ; b = (P r)r =R =
b =
r
r r
r
r
r
Apply Gausss Law for E:
1
1
1
0
0
E da =
Qencl =
dv =
b dv 0
0
0
0
Polarized Sphere
Example
I

k
1
k
k
k
r = 2
r2
= 2 ; b = (P r)r =R =
b =
r
r r
r
r
r
1
1
1
0
0
E da =
Qencl =
dv =
b dv 0
0
0
0

r
1
k
2
E (4r ) =
02 4r 02 dr 0
0
r
0
Polarized Sphere
Example
I

k
1
k
k
k
r = 2
r2
= 2 ; b = (P r)r =R =
b =
r
r r
r
r
r
1
1
1
0
0
E da =
Qencl =
dv =
b dv 0
0
0
0

r
1
k
2
E (4r ) =
02 4r 02 dr 0
0
r
0
E(r)
k
r
0 r
Polarized Sphere
Example
I

k
1
k
k
k
r = 2
r2
= 2 ; b = (P r)r =R =
b =
r
r r
r
r
r
1
1
1
0
0
E da =
Qencl =
dv =
b dv 0
0
0
0

r
1
k
2
E (4r ) =
02 4r 02 dr 0
0
r
0
k
r
E(r) =
0 r
Method II: Apply Gausss Law for D:
D da0 = f = 0 =
k
r
0 r
Notice: Method II is much faster without any reference to bound charges!
D = 0 E + P
D=0
E(r) =
Long Cylindrical Wire

Example
A long straight wire, carrying uniform line charge density , is surrounded by
rubber insulation out to radius a. Find the Electric Displacement and Electric
field everywhere.

Example
field everywhere.
Construct cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius s and length L:
D dS
Qf ; encl
D(2sL)
L

D(s)
2s

s

Example
field everywhere.
D dS
Qf ; encl
D(2sL)
L

D(s)
2s

s
Note: This formula is applicable both inside and outside the cladding.

Example
field everywhere.
D dS
Qf ; encl
D(2sL)
L

D(s)
2s

s
Inside the cladding P being unknown, E can not be calculated.

Example
field everywhere.
D dS
Qf ; encl
D(2sL)
L

D(s)
2s

s
Inside the cladding P being unknown, E can not be calculated.

Outside the cladding P = 0:
E(s) =
1
D(s) =
0
20 s

s.
Analogy between D & E fields: A Deceptive Parallel!

I
If E is the Electric field and P is the Polarization in a dielectric material,

the Electric Displacement D is given by D = 0 E + P.
:0

D = (0 E + P) =
0
(

E) + P 6= 0.

I

:0

D = (0 E + P) =
0
(

E) + P 6= 0.
I
Unlike E, the Electric Displacement D is not a conservative field that can

be derived from a scalar potential, i.e., D 6= U.

I

:0

D = (0 E + P) =
0
(

E) + P 6= 0.
I

There is no Coulombs Law for D in general, i.e.,
f (r0 )(r r0 ) 0
1
D(r) 6=
dv
4
|r r0 |3
(r0 )(r r0 ) 0
1
dv .
E(r) =
40
|r r0 |3

I

:0

D = (0 E + P) =
0
(

E) + P 6= 0.
I

f (r0 )(r r0 ) 0
1
D(r) 6=
dv
4
|r r0 |3
(r0 )(r r0 ) 0
1
dv .
E(r) =
40
|r r0 |3
To determine D uniquely, we need to solve the Poissons Equation

D = f , provided D is also specified Helmholtzs Theorem.

I

:0

D = (0 E + P) =
0
(

E) + P 6= 0.
I

f (r0 )(r r0 ) 0
1
D(r) 6=
dv
4
|r r0 |3
(r0 )(r r0 ) 0
1
dv .
E(r) =
40
|r r0 |3
To determine D uniquely, we need to solve the Poissons Equation

D = f , provided D is also specified Helmholtzs Theorem.
Note: While f + b determines E uniquely, D requires both f , as well as

the unusually rare information on P, that is in general seldom known
beforehand!
Applicability of Gausss Law for D & E fields

I
Problems involving high degrees of symmetry, automatically demand

P = 0, where D is easily worked out using Gausss Law:
D dS = Qf , encl .

I

D dS = Qf , encl .
Remember: In the problem involving frozen-in polarized sphere where

P = kr r, P = 0. Here, D was determined easily using Gausss law,
which worked because we relied on the fact that
D da0 = f = 0 = D = 0.

I

D dS = Qf , encl .
Remember: In the problem involving frozen-in polarized sphere where

P = kr r, P = 0. Here, D was determined easily using Gausss law,
which worked because we relied on the fact that
D da0 = f = 0 = D = 0.
This is precisely NOT TRUE in the absence of spherical symmetry, say for
P = P(r , , ), when P 6= 0:
D da0 = f = 0 ; D = 0!
In such cases E can still be calculated with Gausss law, but not D.
D = P 6= 0: The Bar Electret

Example
Bar electret: An electrical analogue of a bar magnet, consisting of a cylinder of
radius a and length L, with a permanant or frozen-in uniform polarization P
parallel to its axis. Here, f = 0, and the bound charge densities are:
b = 0
&
ends = P.
b = P n
D = P 6= 0: The Bar Electret

Example
Bar electret: An electrical analogue of a bar magnet, consisting of a cylinder of
radius a and length L, with a permanant or frozen-in uniform polarization P
parallel to its axis. Here, f = 0, and the bound charge densities are:
b = 0
&
ends = P.
b = P n
Consider the following three cases: (i) L a, (ii) L a, and (iii) L a.

Particularly, in case (iii) even though D = f = 0, D 6= 0, and D 6= 0
on the sides of the electret due to fringing effects.
Boundary Conditions on Field Vectors
Consider the interface of two media, 1 & 2 with free surface charge density f
at the interface and free volume charge densities f 1 and f 2 , respectively. S be
a pillbox-shaped Gaussian surface enclosing an area dS at the interface.
I
The width is negligibly small, 0 in comparison with the base

diameters, such that the total free charge enclosed is
dqf = f dS +

0
(f 1 + f 2 )dS f dS.
2
I

dqf = f dS +

0
(f 1 + f 2 )dS f dS.
2
Applying Gausss Law for D and E:

1 dS + D2 n
2 dS
D1 n
1 = D1n D2n
(D1 D2 ) n
=
=
f dS
f ,
I

dqf = f dS +

0
(f 1 + f 2 )dS f dS.
2
Applying Gausss Law for D and E:

1 dS + D2 n
2 dS
D1 n
1 = D1n D2n
(D1 D2 ) n
=
=
1 dS + E2 n
2 dS
E1 n
1 = E1n E2n
(E1 E2 ) n
f dS
f ,
1
(f + b )dS
0
1
(f + b ).
0
Boundary Conditions on Field Vectors (contd.)

I
Due to the conservative nature of the Electric field, the line integral of
E dL around any closed loop must vanish. Choosing a rectangular loop of
vanishing end widths 0 straddling across the interface,
E1 dL + E2 (dL)
(E1 E2 ) dL
E1t
=
=
=
0
0
E2t

I
E1 dL + E2 (dL)
(E1 E2 ) dL
E1t
=
=
=
0
0
E2t
Since D = 0 E + P, it follows that

Dt
0 Et + Pt
D1t D2t
P1t P2t

I
E1 dL + E2 (dL)
(E1 E2 ) dL
E1t
=
=
=
0
0
E2t
Since D = 0 E + P, it follows that

Dt
0 Et + Pt
D1t D2t
P1t P2t
I Summary of Boundary Conditions:

'
&
D1n D2n
D1t D2t
P1n P2n
=
=
=
E1n E2n
E1t
V1
V2
n
n
V1
=
=
=
$
f ,
P1t P2t ,
b ,
1
(f + b ),
0
E2t ,
1
(f + b ),
0
V2 .
Application of Boundary Conditions: Empty Cavities in Dielectrics
Spherical Cavity
I
The dielectric slab has uniform polarization P = P

z parallel to the macroscopic
Electric field E.
Spherical Cavity
I
I

Electric field E.
Uniform field Ez = f
z/0 applied between two oppositely charged plates.
Spherical Cavity
I
I
I

Electric field E.
Epol is the Depolarizing field due to the bound surface densities on the outside
surfaces of the slab given by b;out

= P.
z = P, i.e.,
!

+
b;out
+ b;out
P
z
P
z
P
(
z) =
(
z) +
z= .
Epol =
20
20
20
0
Spherical Cavity
I
I
I

Electric field E.

= P.
z = P, i.e.,
!

+
b;out
+ b;out
P
z
P
z
P
(
z) =
(
z) +
z= .
Epol =
20
20
20
0
on the cavity surface, i.e.,
Field Es due to bound surface density bs = P n
Es =
P
= Magnitude same as in Spherical Electret.
30
Spherical Cavity
I
I
I

Electric field E.

= P.
z = P, i.e.,
!

+
b;out
+ b;out
P
z
P
z
P
(
z) =
(
z) +
z= .
Epol =
20
20
20
0

P
30
Then the net field in the cavity is given by E0 =Ez + Epol + Es .
Es =
Spherical Cavity
I
I
I

Electric field E.

= P.
z = P, i.e.,
!

+
b;out
+ b;out
P
z
P
z
P
(
z) =
(
z) +
z= .
Epol =
20
20
20
0

P
30
Apply BC for D at air-slab interface with no free charges in dielectric imply
Es =
Dair = 0 Ez
Ez
Dslab = 0 E + P
1
E + P = E Epol
0
Spherical Cavity
I
I
I

Electric field E.

= P.
z = P, i.e.,
!

+
b;out
+ b;out
P
z
P
z
P
(
z) =
(
z) +
z= .
Epol =
20
20
20
0

P
30
Apply BC for D at air-slab interface with no free charges in dielectric imply
Es =
Dair = 0 Ez
Ez
, E0
, E0
Dslab = 0 E + P
1
E + P = E Epol
0
Ez + Epol + Es = E + ES
P
E+
.
30
Disc & Needle shaped Cavities

I
Disc-shaped Cavity of vanishing width: Apply Gausss law over the

Gaussian surface at the cavity interface
E0 zdS E zdS
E0 E
E0
1
(
A free + b ) dS
0

bs
P
P z
z =
z =
0
0
0
P
E+
0
Disc & Needle shaped Cavities

I
Disc-shaped Cavity of vanishing width: Apply Gausss law over the

Gaussian surface at the cavity interface
E0 zdS E zdS
E0 E
E0
1
(
A free + b ) dS
0

bs
P
P z
z =
z =
0
0
0
P
E+
0
Needle-shaped Cavity of vanishing cross section: Evaluate E dL around

the closed loop at the cavity interface
E0 dL + E (dL)
E0
Linear Dielectrics
I
LINEAR DIELECTRICS: These constitute homogeneous dielectric

materials in which the induced Polarization P is proportional to the net
macroscopic Electric field E generated in the material (provided, E is not
too strong), i.e.,P E, where the dimensionless proportionality constant
e is know as ELECTRIC SUSEPTIBILITY
P = 0 e E.
Linear Dielectrics
I

P = 0 e E.
For anisotropic crystalline substances, the constant e is replaced by a

b e , such that P = 0 (b
Suseptibility Tensor
e E):
exx
Px
Py = 0 eyx
Pz
ezx
exy
eyy
ezy
exz
Ex
eyz Ey .
Ez
ezz
Linear Dielectrics
I

P = 0 e E.
For anisotropic crystalline substances, the constant e is replaced by a

b e , such that P = 0 (b
Suseptibility Tensor
e E):
exx
Px
Py = 0 eyx
Pz
ezx
I
exy
eyy
ezy
exz
Ex
eyz Ey .
Ez
ezz
Warning: It may naively seem that for linear dielectrics, P E and

E = 0, must imply P = 0! This conclusion is wrong since the
proportionality factor 0 e is different in different media, i.e.,
Linear Dielectrics: Constitutive Relations

I
CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS: For a linear homogeneous isotropic

dielectric, the Electric Displacement D is proportional to the net Electric
field E:
D
=
=
0 E + P = 0 E + 0 e E
0 (1 + e ) E

I

field E:
D
=
=
0 E + P = 0 E + 0 e E
0 (1 + e ) E
=
=
E,
0 (1 + e ) 0 r ,
(1 + e ) =
> 1.
0

I

field E:
D
=
=
0 E + P = 0 E + 0 e E
0 (1 + e ) E
=
=
E,
0 (1 + e ) 0 r ,
(1 + e ) =
> 1.
0
The overall proportionality constant is called the PERMITTIVITY of the

material, while r is termed as the RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY or
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT.

I

field E:
D
=
=
0 E + P = 0 E + 0 e E
0 (1 + e ) E
=
=
E,
0 (1 + e ) 0 r ,
(1 + e ) =
> 1.
0
The overall proportionality constant is called the PERMITTIVITY of the

material, while r is termed as the RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY or
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT.
For a homogeneous isotropic dielectric, the bound charge density b is
proportional to the free charge density f . This explains why net charges
reside only on the surfaces in the absence of embedded free charges.
P

h
0 i
e
D 0 E = 1
D=
D,
1 + e

e
P =
D
1 + e

e
f
1 + e
Linear Dielectrics
Examples
1. A free charge q embedded in a dielectric medium produces a field that is
reduced by a factor of 1/r compared to that in vacuum due to partial
shielding effects from neighbouring bound charges of opposite sign.
2. If the space confined between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor is
filled with an insulating material of dielectric constant r , the Electric
field, and hence, the potential difference reduces by a factor 1/r .
Consequently, the capacitance C = Q/V is increased by r > 1.
Linear Dielectrics: Snells Law

Example
Snells Law of Dielectrics: At the interface between two linear dielectric media,
the Electric field lines bend. Show that in the absence of free charges at the
interface
r 2
tan 2
=
.
tan 1
r 1
Linear Dielectrics: Snells Law

Example
Snells Law of Dielectrics: At the interface between two linear dielectric media,
the Electric field lines bend. Show that in the absence of free charges at the
interface
r 2
tan 2
=
.
tan 1
r 1
Using the previously derived boundary condition (with f = 0):

D1n D2n = 0
1 E1 cos 1 = 2 E2 cos 2 ,
E1t = E2t
E1 sin 1 = E2 sin 2 ,
tan 2
2
r 2
=
=
.
tan 1
1
r 1

Division II and IV Lecture 14

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Division II and IV Lecture 14

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Physics II

Electromagnetism (Lecture 14)

Macroscopic Electric Fields

Macroscopic Electric Fields

Macroscopic Electric Fields

It becomes then convenient to define a space average Electric field

MACROSCOPIC Electric field: It is defined as the space average field over a

Macroscopic Electric Fields

It becomes then convenient to define a space average Electric field

MACROSCOPIC Electric field: It is defined as the space average field over a

Macroscopic Electric Fields (contd.)

Macroscopic Electric Fields (contd.)

where Micr is the microscopic charge distribution within V.

E 0 is conservative and derivable from an macroscopic scalar potential V0 .

Gausss Law for Dielectrics

For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

Gausss Law for Dielectrics

For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

Gausss Law for Dielectrics

For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

Gausss Law for Dielectrics

For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

Gausss Law for Dielectrics

For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

The field D = 0 E + P is known as the ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.

Gausss Law for Dielectrics

For a polarized dielectric with bound charges with density b , as well as

The field D = 0 E + P is known as the ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.

Gausss Integral Law: If S be any closed surface bounding region V within

where Qf , encl denotes the total free charge enclosed in V .

Gausss Law for Dielectrics: Summary

Gausss Law for Dielectrics: Summary

Method I: Bound charge densities:

Method I: Bound charge densities:

Method I: Bound charge densities:

Method I: Bound charge densities:

Method I: Bound charge densities:

Method I: Bound charge densities:

Long Cylindrical Wire

Long Cylindrical Wire

Construct cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius s and length L:

Long Cylindrical Wire

Construct cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius s and length L:

Long Cylindrical Wire

Construct cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius s and length L:

Inside the cladding P being unknown, E can not be calculated.

Long Cylindrical Wire

Construct cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius s and length L:

Inside the cladding P being unknown, E can not be calculated.

Analogy between D & E fields: A Deceptive Parallel!

Analogy between D & E fields: A Deceptive Parallel!

If E is the Electric field and P is the Polarization in a dielectric material,

Analogy between D & E fields: A Deceptive Parallel!

If E is the Electric field and P is the Polarization in a dielectric material,

Unlike E, the Electric Displacement D is not a conservative field that can

Analogy between D & E fields: A Deceptive Parallel!

If E is the Electric field and P is the Polarization in a dielectric material,

Unlike E, the Electric Displacement D is not a conservative field that can

There is no Coulombs Law for D in general, i.e.,

Analogy between D & E fields: A Deceptive Parallel!

If E is the Electric field and P is the Polarization in a dielectric material,

Unlike E, the Electric Displacement D is not a conservative field that can

There is no Coulombs Law for D in general, i.e.,

To determine D uniquely, we need to solve the Poissons Equation

The field D = 0 E + P is known as the ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.

The field D = 0 E + P is known as the ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT.

Consider the following three cases: (i) L a, (ii) L a, and (iii) L a.

The width is negligibly small, 0 in comparison with the base

The width is negligibly small, 0 in comparison with the base

The width is negligibly small, 0 in comparison with the base

Since D = 0 E + P, it follows that

Since D = 0 E + P, it follows that