Simple harmonic motion

From Periodic Motion to SHM

Any motion that repeats itself after equal interval of time is called periodic motion.
If a particle, undergoing periodic motion, covers the same path back and forth about a mean
position, it is said to be executing an oscillation (or vibration).
Using advanced mathematics, it can be shown that the displacement of a particle in an oscillation
can always be expressed in terms of sines and cosines.
This, coupled with the fact that the term harmonic is generally applied to expressions containing
sine and cosine functions actuates us to use the term harmonic motion for the oscillation.
Every harmonic motion is characterised by:
(i) time period
(ii) frequency
(iii) amplitude and
(iv) phase.
The Time Period (T) of a harmonic motion is the time required to complete one oscillation (or
cycle).
The frequency ( or n or f) of a harmonic motion is the number of oscillations per unit time.
From these definitions, it follows;
Our topic under discission is simple harmonic motion (SHM) and at this stage we just state it is a
special type of harmonic motion.
Recalling Equilibrium :
Before investigating what exactly an SHM is, let us have a brief review of equilibrium of a
particle (or body).
Without disturbing the continuity of discussion, it may be stated here that when a body is slightly
disturbed from its stable equilibrium it may execute SHM.
This statement shows that equilibrium plays an important role in SHM and thats why we are
doing this review.

Meaning of Equilibrium :
For a particle or body,
If F = 0 it is said to be in translational equilibrium.
If = 0 it is said to be in rotational equilibrium.
If F is zero for a particle then is also zero (or is zero then F is also zero). Therefore
for a particle to be in equilibrium either we have to show F = 0 or = 0
A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium only when it simultaneously confirms translational as
well as rotational equilibrium. So, for showing a rigid body in equilibrium we have to show
F = 0 as well as = 0
Stable , Unstable & Neutral Equilibrium

Stable , Unstable and Neutral Equilibrium

Equilibrium can be further classified as stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium.
On being slightly disturbed from its equilibrium position, if a body
(i) tends to acquire the original configuration then the body is said to be in stable equilibrium.
(ii) tends to acquire a new position then the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium
(iii) remains at that position then the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
Stable, Unstable and neutral equilibrium in terms of potential energy
If potential energy of a body does not change with any change in its configuration then it is said
to be in neutral equilibrium.
If potential energy of a body changes with change in its configuration then the body will have
maximum potential energy at unstable equilibrium and minimum potential energy at stable
equilibrium.
Stable Equilibrium And Oscillation :

Oscillation is intimately related with stable equilibrium.

To illustrate it, let us consider a typical curve between the position (x) of the particle and its
potential energy (U) for a one dimensional particle motion in a conservative field.

Tangents drawn at B, C, D and E are parallel to the x-axis. This means, at these points, slope
(dU/dx) is zero.
Recalling F = (dU/dx) , we can further say that at B , C , D and E , force acting on the particle
is zero i.e. these are equilibrium positions.
For portions BC and DE, an increase in the value of x corresponds to an increase in the value of
U.
The slope of the curve at any point in this portion is positive and hence , force( F = dU/dx ) is
negative.
It means, in BC and DE region, the force acting on the particle tends to pull it in a region of
lower potential energy.
Similarly it can be shown that for the portions AB and CD (where slope is negative and hence
force is positive) again the force pulls the particle in the region of lower potential energy.
Thus any slight displacement of the particle, either way from the position of minimum potential
energy results into a force tending to bring the particle back to its original position.
This force is often referred to as restoring force and site of minimum potential energy, as recalled
earlier, is the position of stable equilibrium.
Linear SHM & Angular SHM
Linear SHM

From earlier discussion, it is now clear that when a particle is disturbed from its stable
equilibrium, it oscillates to and fro about that position.
Let us consider such an oscillation on a straight line. If x represents the displacement of the
particle from equilibrium position, then acceleration of the simplest possible motion can be given
by

a x . . . (1)
i.e. acceleration is always
(i) proportional to the displacement.
(ii) directed towards the equilibrium point.
A motion showing such a feature is known as simple harmonic motion.
Angular SHM

Instead of straight line motion, if particle or centre of mass of body is oscillating on a small arc
of circular path, then condition for angular SHM is
Angular acceleration (angular displacement) . . . (2)
Force law of SHM

From (1), it follows that

F = ma = k x . . . (3)
where k is a constant of proportionality
similarly, from (2), for angular SHM
= I = C . . . (4)
where C is a constant of proportionality.
If a body oscillates between P and Q with O as equilibrium position in accordance with equation
(3) and (4) then for force (or torque), we can get plotting as shown in the figure.

If the body is displaced to the right of O, the force points towards the left. If the body is
displaced towards the left of O, the force is directed towards the right.

Such force is often called as linear restoring force.

Term linear is used to highlight the fact that force is proportional to first power of x.
Exercise 2 : For F = k x , motion is confined between two points in space. Is it true for
(i) F = k x (ii) F = k x
Simple Harmonic Motion : Potential Energy

Simple Harmonic Motion in terms of Potential Energy :

Using dU = Fdx or dU = (d)
Potential energy of particle executing SHM is given by
U = (1/2) kx2 . . . (5)
Or, U = (1/2) k2 . . . (6)
For this reference zero of potential energy is taken at x = 0 (or = 0)
Exercise 3 : For a particle in motion, it is known that its potential energy is directly proportional
to x2 where x is the displacement from a fixed point. Can we say that it will always execute SHM
?
Illustration 1: The linear displacement (x) of a particle varies with time as x = A sint +
Bcost . State whether the particle is executing SHM or not.
Solution : a = d2x/dt2
= 2(Asint + Bcost)
= 2x
=> a x
hence , Particle is executing SHM.
Analytical Solution for SHM

x as a function of time
x = A sin(t + )

Here, A is the maximum magnitude of displacement in the SHM and is known as amplitude of
the oscillation
Phase

The time varying quantity (t + ) is referred as phase of the motion.

Denoting it with , the equation of SHM becomes
x = A sin . . . (10)
Importance of phase: By knowing phase, we can locate the position of particle as well as find
the direction of subsequent motion.
Illustration 2: If two SHMs are represented by equations
y1 = 5[sin{2t + (/6)}] and y2 = 5[sin(3t)+ 3cos(3t)], find the ratio of their amplitudes.
Solution: We have, y2 = 5[sin(3t)+ 3cos(3t)]
Taking 5 = A cos . . . (1)
and 53 = Asin . . . (2)
We get,
y2 = Acossin3t + Asincos3t = Asin(3t + /3 )
From equation (1) and (2)
y2 = 10sin(3t + /3)
and so, A = 10 and = tan-1 (3) = /3
A1/A2 = 5/10 = 1/2
Exercise : In one oscillation of SHM, the particle can be at the same position for two different
points of time. Like wise, can a particle have same phase for two different times in an
oscillation?
Illustration :
Find the phase of the motion in an SHM for x = A/2.

Solution : x = A sin
=> A/2 = A sin
=> = /6 or 5/6
Physical meaning of = /6

Particle is at point P and it is going towards M.

Physical meaning of = 5/6

Particle is at point P and it is going towards point O.

The constant

= t +
at t = 0, (0) =
Thus is the phase at the start of motion. (i.e. at the instant from where time is being
counted).
is often referred as initial phase or phase constant or epoch.
Kinetic Energy & Potential Energy in SHM
Kinetic Energy (K.E)

From definition of kinetic energy, K = (1/2) mv2

As, v = Acost
K = (1/2) mA22cos2t
= (1/4) m2A2[1 + cos2t]
Kinetic energy varies periodically with double the frequency of SHM

Since , v = (A2 x2 )
=> K = (1/2) m2(A2 x2)
for x = 0, K = (1/2) m2A2= Kmax.
for x = A, K = 0 = Kmin
Potential Energy (PE)

Potential Energy U is given by U = dU = dW

= 0xm2x dx cos180 = (1/2) m2x2
In above derivation
(i) Angle between F and dx is taken as 180 as the two are oppositely directed.
(ii) Reference zero for U is taken at x = 0.
As, U = (1/2) mx22
=(1/2) m2A2sin2t
= (1/4) m2A2[1 cos2t]
Like Kinetic energy, Potential energy also varies periodically with double the frequency of SHM
U = (1/2) m2x2
at x = 0, U = 0 = Umin
for x = A , U = (1/2) m2A2 = Umax
Total Mechanical Energy in SHM

Total Mechanical Energy , E = K + U = (1/2) m2A2 = constant

The variation of K , U and E as a function of displacement and time are shown below.
If y = A sin t ;
then K = (1/4) m2 A2 (1 + cos 2t)

and U = (1/4) m2 A2 (1- cos 2t)

=> E = K + U = (1/4) m2 A2 = constant
i.e. E does not depend upon time or x.
The variation of K, U and E as function of position and time are shown below :

Average Value of P.E. & K.E. of Harmonic Oscillator

The average value of P.E. for complete cycle is given by

The average value of K.E. for complete cycle

Thus average values of K.E. and P.E. of harmonic oscillator are equal and each equal to half of
the total energy
Kaverage = Uaverage

Exercise : The amplitude of an SHM is doubled. Find the corresponding change in

(a) time period
(b) maximum velocity
(c) maximum acceleration
(d) total energy
Illustration : A particle executes SHM .
(a) What fraction of total energy is kinetic and what fraction is potential when displacement is
one half of the amplitude;
(b) At what displacement the kinetic and potential energies are same?
Solution : (a) E = (1/2) m2A2 for x = A/2
K = (1/2)m2(A2 x2) = (1/2)m2 (3/4)A2
K/E = 3/4
U = (1/2) m2x2 = (1/2)m2 A2/4
U/E = 1/4
(b) K = U
=> (1/2) m2 (A2 x2) = (1/2) m2x2
=> x = 0.707A
SHM and Uniform Circular motion

SHM as a projection of circular motion :

Let a particle be moving uniformly on a circle of radius A with angular speed .

If at t = 0, particle starts its motion from x-axis and in time t , it goes to p , then we have
X = OQ = A Cos = A Cost
X = OR = A Sin = A Sint
where Q and R feet of the perpendiculars drawn from P on diameter along the X-axis and the Yaxis respectively
From above equation it can be said that Q and R performing SHM about O along the x-axis and
the Y-axis respectively with the same angular speed .
From figure (b) centripetal acceleration of the particle at P is A2.
Resolving this acceleration along PR and PQ
aR = 2Asint = 2x
aQ = 2Acost = 2y
The direction of aR is opposite to X and the direction aQ is opposite to Y.
Therefore, also from acceleration point of view, it can be said that Q and R are performing SHM.
Simple Pendulum in Inertial Frame

A heavy point mass (bob), suspended by a light, long and inextensible string, forms a simple
pendulum.

Length of the simple pendulum is the distance between the point of suspension and the centre of
mass of the suspended mass.

Consider the bob when string deflects through a small angle from equilibrium position.
Forces acting on the bob are tension (T) in the string and weight (mg) of the bob.
Torque on the bob about point O is
= mg + T = mg l sin + 0
= mg l (as is very small) (1)
Moment of inertia of the bob about the point O is I = m l2

(2)
For anticlockwise , is clockwise, hence from (1) and (2), we get

= -mg l

Comparing with the equation d2/dt2 = 2 , we get

= (g/l)
Since T = 2/

Above result is derived using the concept of torque. The same can be derived using the concept
of force also.
Simple Pendulum in Non Inertial Frame

If a simple pendulum is made to oscillate in a non inertial frame the pseudo force must or torque
due to pseudo force should also be taken into account. For a simple pendulum inside a frame
accelerating with acceleration , with respect to an inertial frame, time period is given by

For example,
1. Time period of pendulum inside a cart moving with acceleration a on horizontal road

2. Time period of the pendulum inside an elevator accelerating in upward direction with
acceleration a

Note: If acceleration of non-inertial frame with respect to inertial frame is not in vertical
direction then in equilibrium position, the string of pendulum makes some angle with vertical.
Exercise 8 : Find the time period of a simple pendulum of length l suspended from the ceiling of
a car moving with a speed v on a circular horizontal rod of radius r.
Exercise 9 : Find the time period of a simple pendulum of length L having a charge q on its bob
when the pendulum is oscillating in a uniform electric field E directed (a) parallel to g (b)
perpendicular to g
Exercise 10 : A hollow metal sphere is filled with water and a small hole is made at its bottom. It
is hanging by a long thread and is made to oscillate. How will the time period change if water is
allowed to flow through the hole till the sphere is empty.

Time period of a long Pendulum

( when Length of the Pendulum is Comparable to Radius of the Earth )

As shown in the figure, taking direction of g as directed towards the centre of the earth, we
have
= mg OB
= mgL sin ( + )
mgL ( + )
= mgL (1 + /)
But sin = y/L
and tan = y/R
= mgL [1 + (L/R)]
= mgL2 (1/L + 1/R)
I = mgL2 (1/L + 1/R)
= g (1/L + 1/R)

i.e. Oscillations is simple harmonic in nature

Special cases :
(a) If L < < R , 1/L > > 1/R and

(b) If L then

84.6 minutes.
(c) If L = R then

1 hour.
(d) If L = 1 m then T = 2 seconds and it is called Second pendulum.
Illustration : Show that the period of oscillation of simple pendulum at depth h below earths
surface is inversely proportional to (R h) where R is the radius of earth. Find out the time
period of a second pendulum at a depth R/2 from the earths surface ?
SHM of Spring Mass System

Simple Harmonic motion of spring Mass system when spring is horizontal :

If y is a small extension or compression in the spring from the equilibrium state the restoring
force produced is given by
F = kx
Where k is called force constant or spring factor.
Equation of motion of the mass M is given by

This represents an S.H.M. its angular frequency is

and the period of oscillation is

Exercise 11: A spring is cut into two equal parts. What will be the difference in time period of
the spring pendulum thus formed from the original spring pendulum ?
SHM of Spring Mass System (spring is vertical)

Simple Harmonic motion of Spring Mass System spring is vertical :

The weight Mg of the body produces an initial elongation, such that Mg k yo = 0.

If y is the displacement from this equilibrium position the total restoring force will be
Mg k(yo + y) = ky
Again we get,

Note that the gravity has no effect on the time period of oscillations.
In general , time period of a spring mass system depends only on spring and mass and it is
independent of external forces provided that external forces are constant and acts throughout the
motion.
Physical Pendulum

A physical pendulum is the generalized case of the simple pendulum. It consists of any rigid
body that oscillates about a pivot point

Any rigid body suspended from a fixed support constitutes a physical pendulum . Consider the
situation when the body is displaced through a small angle .
Torque on the body about O is given by
= mg l sin

.. (i)

where l = distance between point of suspension and centre of mass of the body.
If I be the M.I. of the body about O.
Then = I

.. (ii)

From (i) and (ii) , we get

I d2/dt2 = -mg l sin as and d2/dt2 are oppositely directed.

Since is very small.

Comparing with the equation d2/dt2 = -2 , we get