CHAPTER

Radiation Sensors and

Actuators

Background radiation
The modern world has an almost innate fear of nuclear radiation. It may be the heritage of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki or it may be that we just fear the unknown, the invisible, and of course
there are some very good reasons to be careful. Nuclear radiation can cause damage to cells
and in high doses is known to cause cancer or even death. However, radiation comes in many
shades and forms. All electromagnetic waves fall in the same general category of radiation, the
difference being only in frequency (and with it in energy). If one were to imagine an instrument
with a dial that can change the frequency from zero to infinity, then as the frequency would rise,
it would first generate low-frequency fields, first in the audio range, then into ultrasonics, then
above about 200 kHz, what colloquially is called radio waves would appear. Further up, the
instrument will pass through VHF (very high frequency), UHF (ultra high frequency), and then
into the microwave region. Beyond that lies millimeter waves and then infrared (IR) radiation,
followed by visible light and ultraviolet (UV), then into X-rays, a, b, and g rays, and further up
into cosmic rays. As the frequency increases, the energy associated with the waves increases
and the radiation effects become more pronounced. As is generally known, UV and X-rays are
harmful radiation and are part of the cumulative effect of radiation on our lives and health. It is
expected that people working with X-rays will naturally be exposed to more radiation than
those that may only have a scan in a lifetime. Pilots and frequent fliers will necessarily be
affected by cosmic rays, as are astronauts in space. But beyond these, there is a background
radiation level more or less constant over the globe. It is a low-level radiation caused by
radioactive isotopes in rocks and soils on the order of 2050 becquerel/minute (Bq/min) that
can be detected with Geiger counters. This radiation is of no consequence to health, as it is too
low to do any damage. The exposure level is, on an average, about 2.4 millisievert/year (mSv/
yr). But there are locations and conditions in which the background radiation can be higher and
of more concern. Granite rocks and hot springs tend to have higher radiation levels and certain
areas around the globe have naturally occurring high radiation levels, as high as 250 mSv/yr or
higher. On the other hand, sedimentary rocks and limestone have lower levels. Underground
locations, including quarries, mines, or even basements, can have higher levels primarily from
radon (a decomposition by-product of naturally occurring uranium and its isotopes), and radon
can be found in the atmosphere as well as in water. However, beyond reasonable caution it
should be remembered that these are natural sources that have been there from time immemorial and will be with us for any imaginable future.

9.1

INTRODUCTION

We discussed radiation in Chapter 4 when talking about light sensors. The particular
emphasis there was on the general range occupied by infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Here we will concern ourselves with the ranges below and above
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