Forces acting on a differential element of fluid

In general, two types of forces act on a fluid element body forces (distributed
throughout the element) and surface forces (acting on the surface of the
element). The only body force
the element. Hence

( F b ) of interest in our analysis is the weight of

( F b )=m g

, where

is the vector representation of

acceleration due to gravity. In component form,

( F bx ) =m g x
( F by )=m g y
( F bz )=m g z
gx , g y ,, g z

where,
in the

x , y ,z

are the components of the acceleration due to gravity vector

directions respectively.

Surface forces act on the element as a result of its interaction with its
surroundings. At any arbitrary location within a fluid mass, the force acting on a
small area

A , which lies on an arbitrary surface can be represented by

, which, in general, may be inclined to the surface. The force

resolved into three components
the area and

, F 1 and F 2

F n , F 1 , F 2

A 0

Fn

can be

acts normal to

are parallel to the area and act normal to each other.

The normal stress is defined as

n = lim

, where

Fs

Fs

Fn
A

and the shearing stresses are defined as

 1= lim

A 0

F1
A

and
2= lim

A 0

F2
A

The intensity of the force per unit area at a point in a body can be characterized
by a normal stress and two shearing stresses, if the orientation of the area is
specified. It is convenient to reference the area to the coordinate system for
analysis. For the co-ordinate system shown in Fig. the stresses acting on planes
parallel to the coordinate planes may be considered. Plane ABCD is parallel to
the

yz

plane and normal to the

represented as

xx

x axis. The normal stress on this plane is

and the shearing stresses as

xy xz

. The double

subscript is used to enable easy identification of the stress components the

first subscript indicates the direction of the normal to the plane on which the
stress acts whereas the second subscript indicates the direction of the stress.
Hence normal stresses have repeated subscripts whereas shear stresses have
different subscripts.

The sign convention adopted for stresses is very important. Here, the positive
direction for the stress is taken as the positive coordinate direction on the
surfaces for which the outward normal is in the positive coordinate direction.
The outward normal to the area ABCD is in the positive
positive directions for

xx

xy xz

x direction. The

are shown in Fig. (a). If the outward

normal to the points in the negative coordinate direction as in Fig. (b) for

ABCD, then these stresses will be considered positive if directed in the

negative coordinate directions (see Fig.). Positive normal stresses are tensile
stresses.
The state of stress at a point in a material is not completely defined by the three
components of a stress vector. Any stress vector depends on the orientation of
the plane passing through the point. Normal and shearing stresses acting on
any plane passing through a point can be expressed in terms of the stresses
acting on three orthogonal planes passing through the point.

Fig. shows the surface forces acting on a small cubical element of fluid (in terms
of the stresses acting on the faces of the element). In general, the stresses vary
from point to point in the flow field. The stresses on the faces of the element are
expressed in terms of the corresponding stresses at the centre of the element
(see Fig.) and their gradients in the coordinate directions. These stresses must
be multiplied by the areas on which they act to get the forces.

Summing up all forces in the

this direction as

x direction gives the resultant surface force in

F sx=

( ddx + ddy + ddz ) x y z

xx

yx

zx

y ,z

Similarly, the resultant surface forces in the

F sy=

directions can be written as

( ddx + ddy + ddz ) x y z

xy

yy

zy

and

( ddx + ddy + ddz ) x y z

xz

F sz=

yz

zz

The resultant surface force can be expressed as

force, combined with the body force

Fb

acting on the differential element of mass

~
~
~
F s=( F sx i+ F sy j+ F sz k ) . This

yields the resultant force

m . i.e.,

F= F b + F s

F ,

Equations of motion
We know that by Newtons second law of motion,

m a , where

m= x y z . In component form this can be written as

F x =m ax
F y =m a y
F z =m a z
where,
ax=

u
u
u
u
+u
+v
+w
t
x
y
z
a y=
a z=

v
v
v
v
+u
+v
+w
t
x
y
z

w
w
w
w
+u
+v
+w
t
x
y
z

Substituting for the forces, mass, and acceleration terms and simplifying, we
get,

 gx +

d xx d yx d zx
u
u
u
u
+
+
=
+u
+v
+w
dx
dy
dz
t
x
y
z

gy+

d xy d yy d zy
v
v
v
+
+
=
+u v
+w
dx
dy
dz
t
z
x+ v y

gz+

d xz d yz d zz
w
w
w
w
+
+
=
+u
+v
+w
dx
dy
dz
t
x
y
z

These are the general equations of motion for a fluid. These equations are
applicable to any continuum solid or fluid in motion or at rest.
Viscous Flows
Since the equations of motion include both stresses and velocities, there are
more unknowns than the equations. Hence, it is necessary to establish
relationships between the stresses and the velocities. For incompressible,
Newtonian fluids, the stresses are linearly related to the rates of deformation
and can be expressed in cartesian coordinates as follows:
For normal stresses
xx = p+2

u
x

yy=p+ 2

v
y

zz =p +2

w
z

For shear stesses

xy = yx=

( uy + vx )

yz= zy =

( vz + wy )

zx = xz=

( wx + uz )

where,

is the pressure, which is the negative of the average of the three

normal stresses. i.e.,

1
p= ( xx + yy+ zz )
3
(The average is recommended since for viscous fluids in motion, the normal
stresses are not necessarily the same in different directions). For fluids at rest or
for frictionless fluids, the normal stresses are equal in all directions. For elastic
solids, the stresses are linearly related to the deformation (or strain) whereas for
Newtonian fluids, the stresses are linearly related to the rate of deformation or
rate of strain.
In cylindrical polar coordinates, the stresses for Newtonian, incompressible
fluids are expressed as:
For normal stresses
rr =p+2

= p+2

vr
r

1 v vr
+
r r

zz =p +2

vz
z

For shear stesses

( ( ) )

r = r = r

z = z =

zr = rz=

v vr
+
r r
r

v 1 v z
+
z r

( vz + vr )
r

Just as in the case of stresses in Cartesian coordinates, the double subscript

here has a meaning the first subscript indicates the plane on which the stress
acts and the second subscript the direction. For e.g.

rr

indicates a (normal)

stress acting on a plane perpendicular to the radial direction and in the radial
direction and

refers to a stress (shearing) acting on a plane perpendicular

to the radial direction and in the tangential

( ) direction.

Navier-Stokes Equations
Substituting the expression for the stresses, as defined in the previous section,
and the differential form of the continuity equation into the equations of motion
listed above, we get, in the
x

direction

u
u
u
u p
u u u
+u
+v
+w
=
+ gx +
+ 2+ 2
2
t
x
y
z
x
x y z

direction

and in the

v
v
v
v p
2 v 2 v 2 v
+u
+v
+w
=
+ gy +
+
+
t
x
y
z
y
x2 y2 z2

direction

w
w
w
w p
2 w 2 w 2 w
+u
+v
+w
=
+ gz+
+ 2+ 2
2
t
x
y
z
z
x y z

In the above equations, the acceleration terms are on the LHS and the force
terms on the RHS. These equations are called the Navier-Stokes equations.
These equations of motion, along with the equation for conservation of mass
(continuity equation), provide a complete mathematical description of the flow
of incompressible Newtonian fluids. There are four equations and four unknowns

( u , v , w , p )

and hence the problem can be stated to be well posed in

mathematical terms. The Navier- Stokes equations are non-linear, second order
partial differential equations are not amenable to exact mathematical solution
except in very simple cases. In cylindrical polar coordinates, these equations
may be written as,
r

direction

vr
v v v v 2
v
v
v 1 2 v r 2 v 2 v r
p
1
+ vr r + r + vz r =
+ gr +
r r 2r + 2

+
t
r r
r
z
r
r r r
r r 2 r 2 z 2

direction

( ( )

( ( )

v
v v v v v
v
v
v 1 v 2 vr v
1 p
1

+v r + + r + v z =
+ g +
r 2 + 2
+
+
t
r r
r
z
r
r r r
r r 2 r 2 z 2

direction

2
2
vz
v v vz
v
v
p
1
1 v z 2 vr vz
+ vr z +
+ vz z =
+ gz+
r z + 2
+
+
t
r r
z
z
r r r r 2 r 2 z 2

( ( )