How do we know when a problem exists

To the degree there is a gap between when we are? (a) and where we want to be (B), we
have a problem area. The chailenge is planning how to get from A to B. the wider the gap,
the greater te distance we must travel to achieve our goals. Thus, one of the first steps for the
consuktant is to describe the organization determine its immediate and long-term goals.
We also know a problem exits when, as Davis (1986) suggested, behavior moves out of the range
an observer would normally view as being reasonable in the circumstances. This may be
behavior by a single individual or by groups of people. Of course, what is reasonable to one
person may be out of range to another! There must be some agreed upon standard of behavior
to which employees will be held accountable.
Davis goes on to point out five pitfalls in problem identification that are quite useful for
consultants to remember:
1. Mistaking symptoms for the underlying problem. Symptoms may point to the existence
of a problem but if you wate time solving the symptoms you may not touc te actual issue.
2. Accepting without question the opinions of others concerning the problem. Because the
people you talk with may very well be a part of the problem, you must not be in a hurry
to reach conclusions until the evidence triangulates, or doubles back on it selfand
supports earlier versions of the story.
3. Assuming the problem is a person. It is unrealistic to believe the problem is exhibited by
a single person. If the consultant focuses on only person. Without examining the
surrounding people, events, and environment, then the analysis is quite isolated.
4. Killing the messenger as a reaction to bad news. Sometimes the messenger is mistaken
for the bad news it self. To the degree individuals in the organization blame the
messenger, future reports will be less likely to filter up through the organization.
5. Overlooking multivariable causes. The consultant needs to look at all contributing
variables listed above, plus more
These general guidelines suggest the need to keep searching for answers even when the
problem solver thinks all symptoms have been answered. Making assumptions that lead
to untested solutions is dangerous. My rule of thumb is to keep collecting data until it
starts to double back on itself, that is, it becomes repetitive. I also have learned that part

of what the client is paying me to do is to help articulate issues. The first contact ussally
mentions some vague need to improve communication. That could mean anything from
writing clearer memos to examining dysfunctional interpersonal relationships to
reworking unclear job descriptions! The consultant usually begins with series of
questions that need answers.
Bell and Nadler (1985) suggested 13 questions that the consultant might explore in order
to develop an organizational diagnosis.
1. Is there a well-defined, widely communicated statement of organizational mission or
purpose?
2. Do employees have clear work goals or objectives?
3. Is there an organizational structure that provides for adequate span of control and
balance allocation of resources?
4. Are the training activities that provide employees with the competencies needed?
5. Is there a process for ensuring the right people are in the right work roles?
6. Does the organization have effective ways of ensuring that employees get
performance feedback?
7. Do employees have a way of determining the priority of their work objectives to
enable them to put the greatest energy on the most important tasks?
8. Is there a method for communicating management information needed to achieve
work objectives?
9. Does the organization have a process that allows employees to contribute to the
development of work objectives?
10. Are there methods for employees to be appropriately rewarded for their contribution?
11. Do employees have the tools and aids they need to perform their work?
12. Is there a process that ensures employees have the freedom they need to perform their
work efficiently?
13. Are job descriptions existent and up-to-date and communicated to employees?
These questions can serve as the basic for building a series of inquiries into
organizational life. The communication consultant will tend to focus on issue related
to organizational relationships and the ability to send and interpret massages, while a
financial consultant may focus on the balance sheet. The talented consultant will
know that when issue arise that need to be addressed by persons with expertise other
than their own, additional individuals should be called on to help solve problems. No
consultants should attempt to solve problems for which they have no training or
expertise.

Sampling procedures
When the consultant is working with a large organizational (i.e., more than 100 employees) it is
unreasonable to expect that every person can be interviewed or included in the data analysis.
This would take unlimited funds and time, both of which are highly valued commodities.
Therefore, te consultant must determine a method for sampling the population that will ensure
that the individuals included in the sample are representative of the restof the group. First, you
need a list of all the names of organization members.
If you sampled only the daytime workers in a plant, or you talked only to the managers, or only
long-time workers, imagine the slanted view you would get of the organization. There are two
principal ways to select subjects: random sampling and stratified sampling.

Random Sampling
The random in random sampling does not indicate a haphazard

Srtafied sampling
The second major sampling technique is called stratified sampling if you want special subgroups
represented in the sample, you could di. The population into those subgroups and ten do
random selection from within te subgroups. For example, if you want to make sure you cacluded
an equal number of long-term employees and new employees, you could divide the list of
organization member into these two groups and then draw an equal number of subjects from each
group, randomly.

Data collection methods

The questionnaire and

the interview are probably the most frequently used methods for

collecting data about the organization. While these are the most used, they are not always used
correctly and may not be the best ways to get at the information needed. This section outlines
suggetions for developing questionnaires, interview guides, observation techniques, critical
incidents, and organizationl outcome data. The next chapter identifies the best ways to analyze
the data collected with each of these techniques.
The questionnaire
Consultant develop quetionnaires by identifying broad categories to be studied
and then constructing questions within these categories. Well-executed questionnaires are
a useful from of data collection but they are not the best source of data in every situation.
The communication consultant must know when, as well a how, to use questionnaires.
The frist step is to develop a content matrix.
Content matrix
The first step in developing a questionnaire is to definc the broad general
categories of interest or concern. The questions are generated by developing a matrix of
possible areas to explore. Researchers identify these areas from past research:
practitioners identify them from past research as well as preliminary discussions with
corporate leaders about areas of concern.
For example, an employee survey on satisfaction with the decision making
processes used in the organization might includethe following categories of interest.

Effectiveness

My

of decision

involvement

Follow-up

Upper

managements

decision- #1

#2

#3

#4

#5

#6

My immediate supervisors decision- #7

#8

#9

making practices
My units decision-making practices

making practices

Depending on the desired length of the questionnaire (and the shorter the better!) the matrix in
figure 4.1 would generate at least nine questions covering three levels of decision making in the
organization across three characteristics of decision making. This matrix ensure tat each aspect
listed vertically as analyzed by each characteristic listed horizontally. Thus, a question in square
#1 might read: how effective are decisions made by upper management? compared to a
question in square #9, does my manager follow up on decisions in a timely fashion?

Structuring of questions
The second step in developing the questionnaire is to structure te questions following these
guidelines:
1. Ask only one question at a time. For example, a question like this: does your manager
make effective decisions, and do you feel upper management follows up on decisions
made at lower levels? provides no useful data. You do not know which is the more
salient bit of information in the question: my manager or upper managements follow-up
practices.
2. Use simple and unbiased wording. A question written like te following: do you feel there
is a lack of adequate follow-through on decisions made by upper management? is not
only one-sides, but confusing.

3. Try to avoid negative wording. Some negatively worded items are necessary to control
for response biases: however, double negatives and leanding questions are out of bounds.
do you not believe that decisions are poorly made in this organization? is confusing and
misleading. However, it is much clearer if respondents are asked the degree to which they
agree or disagree with the statement, decisions seem to take a long time to be made in
this organization
4. Use questions that can be easily tabulated for computer scoring but also allow space for
comments particularly when you are asking for answers that are not objective. You are
losing a great deal of information if you do not allow respondents to make clarifying
comments.
The structure of the questionnaire is very important. Place a few easy and
interesting questions at the beginning to gain respondents interest, your most important
questions in the middle, and demographic item at the end. You do not want te
demographic items up front in case they make te respondent hesistant to answer for fear
of revealing wo they are. At the end of the questionnaire, they can always choose not to
respond to some demographic questionnaire and not affect content items.
The consultant should always creat at least two different questionnaires with the
items in adifferent order. Since respondents get tired of answering questions, the last
questions on the questionnaire may be answered with less thought or not at all. You dont
want the same questions to always be responded to in this way. Therefore, with different
orders respondent fatigue will be distributed across items more equally.
As mentioned earlier, some items must be worded negatively so that respondents
do not respond routinely. Also, the same information must be asked for more than once to
check for validity of answears. When scoring these negatively worded items, remembers
to reversethe score on those items or you will have garbage !
While there are several types of forced-choice questions, I prefer making
statements and using likert-type scales for responses. Tese are five point scales on which
respondents can indicate their opinions or beliefs in a quantifiable way. The following is
the standard scale in use.
1-strongly agree
2-agree
3-neither agree or disagree
4-disagree

5-strongly disagree
Other anchor points that have been used successfully include.
Almost never true, rarely true, occasionally true, often true, almost always true
Very characteristic, somewhat characteristic,neither characteristic not uncharacteristic,
somewhat uncharacteristic, very uncharacteristic
Inadequate, somewhat inadequate, adequate, more than adequate, excellent
Not at all, to aslight extent, to a moderate extent, to a large extent, to a very large extent
Additional types of scaling include rank ordering (used when you want to determine
which answers are most important to respondents) or yes/no questions. I find yes/no
questions to be the least useful since they limit, to such a great extent, the amount of
information you receive.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
The advantages of using a questionnaire are that it is the easiest and least
expensive way to collect large amounts of data and include diverse populations in ashort
period of time. Questionnaires can also be standardiled so that the data can be easily
quantified and summarized. Finally, you can ensure anonymity for te respondents.
The disadvantages are te lack of rich data, particularly if forced choise items are
used. Also, if you are surveying a population that is frequently tapped for questionnaire
complection, you may get a low response rate. At one time it was felt by researchers that
unless you received about

an 80 percent response rate, your data were so

nonrepresentative of the population as to be unusable. Indeed, some types of surveys

need close to 100 percent response for any meaning to be extracted from them. However,
today one feels fortunate to receive a 30-40 percent response rate from randomly mailed
surveys.
Interview
The interview provides a rich source of data for the consultant. In fact, interview
are the way in which the consultant begins any data collection. From the first meeting
with the client, the consultant should be using good interviewing techniques to try to
uncover the areas of concern for the organization.
The interview guide

The first step is to develop the interview guide. This set of questions can be
developed in a way similar to the contruction of te content matrix used for questionnaires,
although the questions are usually more open-ended. The interview guide can be used to
help determine areas of concern and thus

use open-ended questions, while the

questionnaire should be used more to confirm issues and thus uses more closed questions.
In developing the questions, follow the same guidelines for language as
recommended for questionnaire items, plus, invite the subject to talk. A question such as,
does upper management follow up on decision making in this organization? will not
invite as much comment as, what is your sense of how decision making takes place in
this organization? Cite some examples that illustrate your response.
An interview guide should include the main questions asked as well as indicate
follow-up questions that might be used to probe for more information. For example, a
main question might be, how frequently do you like to receive feedback about ow you
are doing your job? with a series of possible follow-up questions such as is once a
week too much? Would you rater receive this information in written from or face-toface?
THE OPENING STATEMENT
Second, the interview must develop the opening statement. This includes not
only the purpose for the interview but answers questions the respondents may be thinking
but will not ask. Rossett and Arwady (1987) identify tese concerns on the part of te
respondents as questions of intent, competency, propriety, and broader impact.
Respondents want to know why they are being intervied, whether the interviewer is an
expert, who will have access to this information, and wat will be done as a result of the
interview. One of the most difficult situations is one in which previous interviews have
brought about no noticeable changes. Respondents will be discouraged about participing
once again, only to find that their comments do not matter. Worse still is the situation in
which previous data collection tecniques have brought about the disappearance of jobs!
NOTE TAKING
Third, te interviewer must develop some from of note-taking procedure. Audio-or
videotaping the interview is the most comprehensive way of collecting the data and is
used frequently when a complete data set is desired. The three principal drawbacks are: te
intimidation felt by the respondents even when they give their permission, the

overwhelming amount of information, and the labor-intensive transcription process that

take place later. The cost as well as cultural considerations often prevent companirs from
using tis method.
Using some form of brief note taking during the interview can work well. The
interviewer would be wise to leave time between interviews to more completely fill out
the notes taken. If notes are not amplified immediately, face will begin to fade, and one
can easily confuse respondents answers.
AVOIDANCE OF BIAS-INDUCING BEHAVIOR
Fourth, the interviewer must be aware of any beaviors that will cause biases on
the part of te respondent. The rule of thumb is to be as unobtrusive as possible. This
refers to the interviewers appearance as well as suggesting, in any way, agreement or
disagreement with the respondents answers.
A FAVORABLE ATMOSPHERE
Finally, select a time and place that enchance your chances of getting
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
Observations
Observation of individuals on te job are pro bably te most realistic, though timeconsumning, activity in which a consultant can participate. Davis (1986) suggested four
methods of observation: 1) observe by walking around and taking notes on people and
activities 2) observe from a fixed location without being seen 3)observe from a fixed
location with the knowledge of the subjects that they are being observed and 4) observe
and also interact with the person (or person) being observed. The interaction will focus on
asking for more information about a certain task.
The first step is to determine the purpose of te observation and the length of time
necessary to make the observation. Early in te process a decision must be made about
how much information the person being observed will be given. If not at the beginning,
ten at some later point in time it is very important that individuals be fully informed about
the intent of the process. I personally would not agree to observe individuals without their
knowledge. I find that once I am around long enough, they ignore me and my presence is
not disruptive.
Second, a method for taking field notes must be developed. Field notes require
coding schemes that will be useful to you at a later date. For example, the time of day and

the amount of time passed during each observation may be important. As with interview
notes, it is absoulutely critical you spend some time immediately following the
observation clarifying your own notes. Otherwise, they will be more useless than useful
to you.
Third, you must become as unobtrusive as possible. This means you cannot enter
into the interactions taking place to offer suggestions or solustions to problems you
observe! Not should you do anything that will call attention to your presence.
In order to be a good observer you must distinguish between the content of what
you see and hear and the process of the event. In chapter 6 the technique of process
observation in discrussed. This is the most frequent type of observation in which you will
engage and takes a great deal of skill and talent. You must be a naturally curious
individual with keen msight, patience, and tact.
Critical Incidents
critical incidents are extensive examples individuals are asked to write out. Zemke
and Kramlinger (1989) have outline a step by step procedure for collecting critical
incidents. Jhon C. Flangan, a World War II military was actually te designer of this data
collection tool. He was asked to determine why so many training planes were crashing. E
decided to ask pilots exactly what they had done incorrectly and described the process as
soliciting war stories. In a sense, when you use critical incidents in the organization
you are soliciting war stories about life in the organization
critical incidents are reports or descriptions of things people in the study
population report having done or have been observed doing by others. These
incidents are classified by supervisiors or other knowledgeable subject matter
experts as effective in achieving the desired job results. These desriptions can take
te form of stories, anecdotes, reports, or observations related by superiors, peers,
subordinates, or by qualified observers. The incidents can be analyzed bit by bit,
collectively, or both (Zemke and Kramlinger, p.129)
having organizational members tell stories about life in the organization will
provide the consultant with an understanding of issues tat no other method will generate.
Many organizational researcheras are now studying organizational culture by living in the
organization for a period of time and asking for stories from its members. Being a good
listener is the key to the effectiveness of this technique.

Organizational outcomes
Organizational outcome data include all the publications produced by the
organization as well as personnel files and records. Its could even include what Greiner
and Metzger (1983) refer to as routine data. The following is a sample of some of te
routine data they collected and conclusions it led to.
All of these techniques lead the consultant to insights about issues organizational
members may face and be unwilling, for a number of reasons, to articulate. In the end, the
consultant should use a variety of methods to arrive at the clearest picture of where the
organization is and where it wants to be. In te next chapter the methods for analyzing the
data are described. Often te consultant collects agreat deal of material and then doesnt
know quite what to do wit it!