Jason Tan 11FS

Chemistry Notes
Atomic Structure

John Dalton: Proposed that matter was composed of tiny spherical

particles which are indivisible and indestructible. Atoms have a unique
mass are atoms of the same element are the same in weight. Atoms
combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds.
J.J. Thomson: observed cathode rays passing through an electrical field. He
concluded that atoms contained electrons and must be positively charged
particles.
Rutherford: Used alpha particles as atomic bullets and probed the atoms
at a thin piece of gold foil. He established that there was nucleus and
there were electrons orbiting this nucleus.
Bohr: With experiments with emission spectra, he founds that the spectra
had lines corresponding to the electrons jumping from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level and proposed that the atom consisted of a
nucleus and the electrons were in orbits.
Schrodinger: Bohrs model could only explain the emission spectra of
single atoms with one electron. Though Bohr viewed electrons as tiny hard
particles which, in circular motion, orbited the nucleus, Schrdinger
viewed that electrons had wave-like properties. He used mathematics to
propose the wave model where electrons move around the nucleus in
orbitals which are clouds of charge with no sharp boundaries like orbitals.

The Periodic Table

Core charge is the force of attraction that the nucleus has on the valence
shell (outer most shell).
Core charge = number of protons in the nucleus number of total inner
shell electrons.
Core charge increased form left to right across a period as the
valence electrons are more attracted to the nucleus as the core charge
increases.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards
itself. The greater the core charge, the greater the electronegativity. The
electronegativity decreases when it moves down a group due to more
shells hence the attraction between the valence shell and the nucleus
decreases.
Electronegativity moves from the bottom left to the top right.
(weak to strong)
Atomic radius is the size of the atom. It is the distance from the nucleus to
the valence shell electrons. The number of shells increase down a group
therefore the atomic radii increases. The electrons become more strongly
attracted to the nucleus as you move from left to right therefore the
atomic radius decreases hence it largest atoms moves from the
top right to the bottom left. (small to large)
Ionisation is the process of removing an electron from an atom so that it
forms a cation. The first ionisation energy therefore is the energy required
to remove one electron from an atom of an element in the gas phase. If
the atomic radius (the number of shells) increases, the energy required to

Jason Tan 11FS

remove the valence electron(s) will decrease [moving down a group]. As

the valence electrons become more strongly attracted to the nucleus as
you move from left to right, there more energy is required for the first
ionisation energy. Therefore, first ionisation energy moves from the
bottom left to the top right. (less energy to more)
Metallic character is the reactivity of a metal, or the measure of how easily
a metal can lose electrons. The weaker the attraction of valence electrons
to the nucleus, the more easily the electrons can be lost. The core charge
increases from left to right therefore metallic character moves from
top right to bottom left. (weak to strong)

Metals

Metals have the following properties: high melting point, ductile,

malleable, high-density, conductive (heat and electricity), shiny and
generally hard. However, there are exceptions such as mercury and
sodium.
Transition metals tend to be harder, higher melting point and denser due
to their smaller size and hence the bonding is tighter.

Metals are:
Hard and high melting points because of the strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between the cations and sea of delocalised electrons.
Malleable and ductile because the lattice of the atoms is all lined up
and can slide over each other.
Conduct heat because the sea of free electrons transmits kinetic energy
rapidly throughout the lattice therefore conducting heat.
Conducts electricity due to the free moving electrons moving towards
the positive electrode and away from the negative electrode in a circuit.
Alloys
Alloys are harder/brittle and less malleable than pure metals as they have
different sized atoms hence they cannot slide over each other as easily.
They melt at lower temperatures because bonds are weaker as the atoms
are different.
Some alloys do not conduct electricity as well because of greater
resistance to electron flow.
Treatment of Metals
Annealing is a metal heated to a moderate temperature and cooled slowly.
This forms larger metal crystals and the metal is softer with improved
ductility
Quenching is a metal heated to a moderate temperature then cooled
quickly. This forms tiny metal crystals that makes the metal hard and
brittle.
Tempering is a quenched metal heated to a lower temperature than used
for quenching and allowed to cool. This forms intermediate size crystals
and makes the metal hard but less brittle.
Coatings
Painting prevents oxygen from contacting metal to prevent rust
Electroplating using chromium, gold or less reactive metals.

Jason Tan 11FS

Galvanising uses a more reactive metal such as zinc to react with the
oxygen first.
Powder coating acts as a smooth surface that is resistant to scratching and
marking hence making it less exposed to oxygen.

Reactivity of Metals
The reactivity of metals become more reactive as you down a group
because the atomic radius increases hence the electrostatic force between
the valence electron and the nucleus decreases making it more reactive.
Extraction of Iron Ore
Iron is naturally in the form of haematite (Fe2O3) (iron ore). Coke is a solid
that is 80-90% carbon as acts as a fuel. Limestone is a rock composed of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
The raw materials are added to a blast furnace. Then the 3 following
reactions occur:
1. Coke reacts with oxygen: carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide
C
+
0 2 = C02
carbon dioxide + carbon = carbon monoxide
C02 +
C
= 2C0
2. Carbon monoxide reacts with iron ore: carbon monoxide + iron oxide =
iron + carbon dioxide
3C0
+ Fe 203 = 2Fe + 3CO2
Carbon monoxide acts as a reactant/reducing agent.
Limestone reacts with unwanted materials that are reduced from the iron
ore as iron ore is not pure iron oxide. It forms slag with unwanted
materials (CaSi03). The slag is less dense than the molten iron so it floats
to the top at the bottom at prevents the molten iron from reacting with the
incoming air.
Iron is usually transported straight to steel-making furnaces while molten
and the slag can be used for roads or cement.

Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding is the transfer of electrons whereas covalent bonding is the

sharing of electrons. They are generally: have high melting points and
boiling points, hard but brittle therefore neither malleable nor ductile, do
not conduct electricity in solid, varying degrees of solubility, non-soluble
are non-polar solvents.
Ionic compounds are:
High melting points due to strong attractions between oppositely
charged particles.
Non-conductive of electricity as there are no free-moving electrons
(solid state).
Hard as the ions are packed tightly
Brittle because if the ions move, they will repel each other and break
apart.

Covalent Bonding

Jason Tan 11FS

Giant

Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons. Covalent bonding occurs

when the difference of electronegativity of the atoms is between 0 1.7. It
tends to occur most often between non-metals.
VSEPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion.
Covalent Lattices
Covalent molecules have low melting and boiling temperatures whereas
covalent lattices have a high melting and boiling temperature.
Covalent molecules are non-conductive whereas diamond is nonconductive and graphite is.
Covalent molecules often gas or liquids whereas covalent lattices are very
hard.
Graphite carbon atoms are bonded with 3 other atoms leaving a fourth
valence electron to move around freely hence making it conductible.
Graphite layers are held by weak dispersion forces therefore they can slide
over each other making it act as a lubricant.
Diamond only has single covalent bonds and no weak intermolecular
forces making it very strong and hard. Diamond has no free electrons as
everything is connected as a lattice making it non-conductive.
Graphene is a single layer of graphite so it doesnt have the weak
intermolecular forces between layers making it extremely strong. Carbon
nanotubes are essentially graphene rolled up capped with half fullerenes
at the ends.

Intra and Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular: between molecules. Intramolecular: within molecules.

Weakest to strongest: dispersion forces, dipole-dipole, hydrogen, ionic and
covalent bonds.
More electrons means stronger bonds as more electrons will be attracted
to the other, forming a larger electronegativity.
In order for solvent and solute to form solution, the intermolecular forces
between solvent and solute must be greater than solvent + solvent and
solute + solute.

Organic
Compounds

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Alkanes = names end with ane and formula is C nH2n+2 (hydrocarbons

composed of carbons and hydrogens)
Alkenes = names end with ene and formula is C nH2n (hydrocarbons with at
least one carbon-carbon double bond)
Alkynes = names end with yne and formula is CnH2n-2 (hydrocarbons with
carbon-carbon triple bond)
Homologous series are a series of molecules which differs by CH 2 unit from
the previous.
Functional groups are an atom or group of atoms that gives a
characteristic set of chemical properties in a molecule.
Alcohol is represented by OH atom. This is attached to the end.
Carboxylic acid is COOH. Drawn on the right.
When naming it is referred to as oic acid is always the first carbon
number.

Esters are COO. Named with the suffix oate. Esters have no free
hydroxyl groups so they cannot form hydrogen bonds with each
other. Therefore, they have lower boiling points than carboxylic
acids and alcohols of relative molecular mass.

Polymers

Polymers are generally referred to as plastics. Polymer literally means

many part. They are formed by joining smaller molecules called
monomers through a process called polymerisation.
Low density polyethene (LDPE) has branches coming out of the polymer
strands therefore making it unable to pack closely together. It is soft, low
melting point, opaque and non-conductive of electricity e.g. plastic drink
bottles, packaging.
High density polyethene (HDPE) has very short branches or none at all
making it tightly packed and hence hard, high melting point, crystalline
sections and non-conductive as well.
Thermoplastic polymers have weak dispersion forces holding the chains
together therefore it can be remoulded and becomes soft when heated.
E.g. milk containers.
Thermosetting polymers are held together by strong crosslinked chains
that does not soften under heat like thermoplastics. It decomposes or
burns when heated.

Polymer Chain Length and Branching

The longer the chain, the stronger the dispersion forces.

Jason Tan 11FS

Long branches (LDPE) prevent molecules packing together tightly whereas

shorter branches (HDPE) can pack more tightly than LDPE.

Plasticisers
They are small molecules that force the polymer molecules further apart
and weakens the forces between the chains making it softer and more
flexible.
Crystallinity
Crystalline regions are where polymer chains are arranged in an ordered
fashions whilst amorphous regions forms when polymer chains are
disordered. Increasing the percentage crystalline area makes it stronger
and less flexible and also less transparent.
Condensation Polymerisation
A method for producing polymers where monomers with functional groups
on each end of the molecule. The monomers join when the functional
groups react with each other. Example of this is Nylon.
A feature of condensation polymerisation is that water is usually produced
as the excess oxygen-hydrogen atoms forms water.
Elastomers
These are polymers have few cross links which can be moved but
eventually return to shape such as natural rubber. If sulphur cross linking
(vulcanisation) is introduced, this makes the natural rubber much stronger.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: low density, corrosion resistant, easy to make complex
shapes, strong and is cheap.
Disadvantages: derived from non-renewable source (petroleum), many not
biodegradable, toxic waste products formed, plasticisers can leach out
causing health issues.