OVERLAYS

Compatibly scaled overlays entail comparison of two or more log curves. In practice, one curve is
overlaid on the other and a tracing made (either by hand or via a computer graphics display) so
that the end result is a composite with two curves. The relative deflection between the two curves
usually indicates a formation property of interest. The basis for all overlays is that the curves being
compared be compatibly scaled, i.e., both must be in the same system of units. Apples must be
compared with apples and not oranges. Many of the quick-look overlays in use today are quite
subtle in that they eliminate some quantity that is either unknown or of no interest. The most
commonly used are as follows:

For hydrocarbon detection: SP with Rxo/Rt; Ro with Rt; Dielectric log-derived porosity with
porosity
For lithology, porosity and hydrocarbon typing: Neutron porosity with density porosity;
Density porosity with sonic porosity

SP with Rxo/Rt
This overlay is by no means universally applicable, since it requires conditions that result in
healthy SP developments. However, where those conditions are met (i.e., in wells drilled with fresh
mud having salty connate water) it is an elegant way to detect hydrocarbons without the need to
know porosity. A natural candidate for wells where only an induction-SP log is available, it is
usually produced at the time the log is run and requires some manipulation of the raw data in the
logging service companys surface equipment. Inputs required are an SP, a deep resistivity
measurement (usually a deep induction), and a shallow resistivity measurement (usually a
shallow-focused electric log). The theory behind the method depends only on Archies equation
and the SP relationship, which we may write as:
SP = -K log (Rmf/Rw)
Note that for the purposes of this overlay Rmf and Rw are used rather than their "equivalent" values
Rmfe and Rwe.
Archies equation, if written for both the invaded and undisturbed zones, allows a ratio to be taken
which eliminates F, the porosity-dependent formation factor:
S wn = F R w / R t
Sxon = F Rmf / Rxo

If an assumption is made that Sxo is related to Sw for example, that

Sxo = (Sw)1/5
Then the quantity (Sw/Sxo)n can be replaced by (Sw)8/5 if "n" is assumed equal to 2.
Thus, the term Rmf/Rw can be replaced by (Rxo/Rt) (Sw)8/5 and the SP equation rewritten as:
-SP = K log [(Rxo/Rt) (Sw)5/8]
or:
-SP = K (log (Rxo/Rt)) + K log (Sw5/8)
In a water-bearing zone with Sw=1, the term K log (Sw)5/8 is equal to 0, and thus the term K log
(Rxo/Rt) is numerically equal to -SP. However, in an oil-bearing zone with Sw less than 1, the term K
log ((Sw)5/8) will be less than 1, and hence the term K log (Rxo/Rt) will be numerically less than -SP.
Provided that no substantial SP reduction is due to the presence of hydrocarbons (usually the

case in all but very shallowly invaded formations), a comparison of the actual SP with the quantity
K log (Rxo/Rt) will have the following characteristics:

In wet zones, the two curves will "track."

In hydrocarbon-bearing zones, the K log (R xo/Rt) curve will separate from the SP curve (
Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

(Note that in the lower sand, which is wet, the SP and the massaged R xo/Rt ratio closely
coincide, and in the upper sand which is hydrocarbon bearing, the two curves separate.)
In shales, since the Rxo/Rt ratio is close to 1, the massaged Rxo/Rtis effectively zero.

In practice some experimentation is usually required in order to obtain a valid overlay with the two
traces overlaying in both shales and wet zones. This requires using the correct K value for the
formation temperature in question and correct offsetting of either the SP baseline or the massaged
Rxo/Rt curve.
To sum up, use this method, by all means, if you have sand-shale sequences, good SP
development (high Rmf/Rw ratio), and you do not envisage recording a porosity log. This method
cannot be used with oil-base mud. An unusual variation of this method uses the SP to generate a
pseudo Rxo/Rt ratio, which may then be compared with the actual R xo/Rt ratio. A refinement of the
method allows a more accurate computation of the real Rxo/Rt ratio by taking into account invasion
effects. In deeply invaded formations, for example, the ratio of RSFL to RILd is not as large as the
real Rxo/Rt ratio. This refinement requires a solution to the "tornado" chart to be carried in the
surface equipment software package.

Ro versus Rt -- The F Overlay

Another popular and extremely effective overlay is the F overlay, which effectively compares R o
with Rt.
In clean formations of known lithology this is a simple matter for the logging service companys
surface equipment. It merely requires values of ma, f, a, and m to be dialed in, and F appears as
an output. In practice, this F curve is recorded on a logarithmic scale as a separate log. The
analyst then uses the logarithmic F curve in conjunction with a logarithmic R t curve (a deep
induction or deep laterolog) in the manner of a slide rule to normalize the two curves so that they
overlay each other in clean wet zones. By so doing, the log (F) curve has in fact been shifted by
an amount equal to log (Rw) . Since the product of F and Rw is Ro, the net effect is an overlay that
compares Ro to Rt. Wherever the two curves separate, with Rt greater than Ro, the implication is
that Sw is less than 1 and therefore hydrocarbons are expected.

Figure 2> shows an F overlay.

Figure 2

Note that in the water-bearing section the normalized F curve (i.e., Ro) coincides with the Rt curve
and that in the hydrocarbon-bearing section the R t curve separates from the Ro curve. This
separation can be quantified in Sw units by using an appropriate logarithmic scaler such as that

illustrated (not to scale) in Figure 3 .

Figure 3

The scaler is placed across the overlay so that its long axis parallels the depth lines on the log.
The Sw - 100 mark is placed on the normalized F curve, and the Sw value is read at the Rt curve.
Another useful feature of this overlay is that Rw need not be known. The act of normalizing the F
curve to the deep resistivity trace in a wet zone effectively computes R w for you. If the F curve is
on top of the resistivity log when the normalization is made, locate the 100 line on the F scale at
the top of the F log and read the resistivity value on the resistivity scale that lies immediately
beneath it. This is numerically equal to 100 times Rw. For example, after normalizing in a wet zone,
F = 100 lies over the Rt scale line corresponding to 20 Ohm-m. This means that Rw is 0.2 Ohm-m.

The Logarithmic Movable Oil Plot

An extension of the F overlay is the logarithmic movable oil plot, which requires that two overlays
be made, one to indicate Sw and a second to indicate Sxo.
In practice, both are made on a single log and the result is a movable oil plot (MOP) on a
logarithmic scale. The production of a MOP proceeds in two stages. First, the F curve is
normalized to Rt in a wet zone and the resulting Ro curve traced onto the resistivity log (or, if
preferred, the Rt curve may be traced onto the normalized F log). Second, the F curve is
normalized to an Rxo trace (such as a focused, or microelectric log) in a wet zone, and the
resulting Rxoo curve (Rxoo = Rxo in a rock 100% saturated with a fluid of resistivity R mf) is traced onto
the resistivity log (or, as noted, the Rxo curve may be traced onto the normalized F log) . The result
of such tracings will be as shown in Figure 4 .

Figure 4

Note that the area between the Ro and Rt curves is representative of the hydrocarbon-filled pore
space. The MOP adds a further dimension by subdividing that space into two parts, one containing
residual oil and the other movable oil. This presentation can help assess the most productive
intervals (i.e., those with high movable oil).
Consider the bulk volume model shown in Figure 5 .

Figure 5

Note that in the undisturbed zone the saturating fluids are connate water and oil and that the water
saturation is Sw. In the invaded zone, however, the saturating fluids are mud filtrate and residual oil
and the water saturation is Sxo. If Sxo is high (i.e., residual oil saturation, ROS, is low) then a large
fraction of the oil in place has been moved by the mini-waterflood effected by the drilling process.
If, however, Sxo is close to Sw, then very little of the oil in place has been moved, and in such cases
a formation may be less productive. Thus, on the MOP, the area between the R o curve and the Rxoo
curve is a measure of the residual oil saturation and the area between the R xoo curve and the Rt
curve is a measure of the movable oil saturation .
In practice, once a tracing of this sort has been prepared, it is common to color in the appropriate
areas by use of high-lighters of different colors, e.g., red for residual oil, orange for movable oil,
and blue for water. Note that zero porosity point never appears on such a logarithmic plot, since F
or Rt corresponding to zero porosity is infinity. Thus some arbitrary line is chosen as the right-hand
limit for the purpose of coloring in water with a blue highlighter.

The Neutron-Density Overlay

The neutron-density overlay is probably the most commonly used presentation. Its popularity
stems from (a) the fact that the two logs are nearly always run together and (b) the enormous
wealth of information that can be gathered from such a presentation, even with a cursory
inspection.
Two distinct types of overlay are considered here: the compatible sandstone-scaled overlay and
the compatible limestone-scaled overlay. In sand-shale sequences the former is needed and in
carbonate-evaporite sequences the latter.
The compatibly scaled sandstone presentation requires that the neutron log (and here the dualspacing thermal neutron log is the norm) be recorded on a sandstone matrix setting and displayed
on a 0 to 60% scale. Likewise the bulk density recording, b should be converted to an apparent
sandstone porosity curve by choice of an appropriate value for ma (2.65 or 2.68 gm/cc, for
example) and displayed on the same scale as the neutron log. The choice of a scale, be it 0 to
60% or 0 to 50%, is immaterial provided both curves are on the same scale and the shale
readings do not exceed the high end of the scale (i.e., a presentation on a 0 to 30% scale is
inappropriate if N in the shales is 45% and thus off-scale) .
Figure 6 shows such an overlay.

Figure 6

Note that in shales, N is much larger than D (dotted curve to the left of the solid curve) . Note that
in water-bearing intervals, N equals D where the formation is clean. Note that in gas-bearing
zones, N reads a lower apparent porosity than does D and that the traces tend to be mirror
images of each other. Even in oil-bearing sections it is common to note N reading slightly less
than D.
Thus, on one plot it is possible to quickly distinguish porous and permeable sections from shales
and, within the potential reservoir rocks so defined, to distinguish gas, oil, and water.
Since the purpose is slightly different in carbonate reservoirs, a slightly different presentation is
used. Here the norm is not sandstone or shale but limestone and possibly evaporites. Porosities in
general are lower than in sandstone reservoirs and dolomite may be present as well. The
compatible limestone presentation, therefore, calls for the neutron log on a limestone matrix
setting, with the density log on an apparent limestone porosity basis as well. Since dolomite and
anhydrite may compute apparent porosities less than zero on a limestone basis (remember ma for
dolomite is higher than ma for limestone), an appropriate scale for this type of overlay is 45% to
-15% (left to right). In some locations 30% to -10% is favored. However, the 45% to -15% scale
has an added advantage. If the bulk density curve has not been converted to an apparent porosity
curve then all Is not lost. By appropriate shifting, the neutron porosity and bulk density curves may
be overlain so that on the neutron log 2.95 gm/cc coincides with -15% and 1.95 g/cc coincides
with 45%. The reader checkthat 1.95 g/cc translates to approximately 45% porosity on a limestone
scale, and 2.95 g/cc to -15%.
Figure 7 illustrates a neutron density compatible limestone overlay.

Figure 7

It is constructed for a formation porosity of 15%. Note that in limestone the two traces coincide. In
dolomite the apparent neutron porosity is higher than the apparent density porosity and in
sandstone the reverse is true. This sandstone "crossover" is due entirely to the matrix effects on
the two porosity devices and is the result of the limestone porosity scaling used. It should not be
confused with crossover produced by gas. Note that in sandstone intervals, both curves have a
similar character although separated from one another. The gas effect "mirror imaging" is not
evident. If gas were present it would manifest itself by an additional separation, with neutron even
lower than density.
The evaporites salt and anhydrite are also shown along with shale. Such a presentation is
extremely valuable for a quick-look guide to the rock types in the column drilled and is a very good
starting point for other more detailed analysis.

Density-Sonic Overlay
Although not as widely used as a neutron-density overlay, the density-sonic overlay is particularly
useful for detection of secondary porosity, i.e., vugs and fractures. Figure 8 shows a formation
with both matrix (intergranular) porosity and fracture porosity.

Figure 8

Provided the matrix is known, the density porosity will be equal to the total porosity:

D = total = matrix +secondary

The sonic tool, however, responding as it does to the first compressional wave arrival, will only
respond to the matrix porosity. Compressional waves traveling through a vertical, fluid-filled
fracture, for example, will travel more slowly than those traveling through the matrix system. Since
the sonic tool triggers on the first (faster traveling) arrival, the later arrivals passing through the
fracture system will be ignored. Thus:
s= matrix
An overlay of S and D, has the interesting property that in fractured or vuggy intervals the two
curves separate. Figure 9 illustrates such an overlay.

Figure 9

A number of scaling options are available. Compatible limestone scaling on a 45% to -15% scale
(left to right) is adequate for most applications. If bulk density and A are to be overlaid, then
compatible scaling is 1.95 to 2.95 gm/cc (left to right) for b and 108 to 28 sec/ft (left to right) for
D, equivalent to 40 sec/ft per track. In metric units a scaling of 350 to 90 sec/meter is adequate
(equivalent to 65 sec/meter per track) .

Dielectric Porosity Overlay

The compatible porosity overlay ( Figure 10 ) of a dielectric log-derived porosity with another

porosity curve is useful for quick-look hydrocarbon detection.

Figure 10

The theory behind the overlay is simple. A dielectric log-derived "porosity" is effectively the
water-filled pore space, whereas a density porosity, for example, is effectively the total
porosity. If the formation is wet, traces will overlay. In hydrocarbon-bearing zones separation
may be expected. The usual cautions are appropriate: clean formations and the correct
choice of matrix parameters are required when computing the two porosities.
Theory
Crossplots of log data are indispensable tools for the analyst. A crossplot is a twodimensional representation of the variation of data with respect to two or more
properties. Although widely used in conjunction with computer processing of log
data, crossplots may, of course, be prepared by hand using only limited amounts of
data that have been screened by the analyst. The end result of using a crossplot is
finding a parameter needed for quantitative log analysis, for example, Sw and Rw.
Figure 1 , a graphical representation of the Archie equation, shows a crossplot of
porosity versus resistivity.

Figure 1

Within a given formation, an Ro line is determined that is representative of 100%

water saturation. Then, an arbitrary Ro line can be determined to examine points
that have water saturations less than a given value. Points below this line could be
subjected to further analysis. Crossplots come in many other forms; here follows an
overall view of crossplotting techniques .
Trend Analysis and Groupings
In logging terms, crossplots can be used to discern trends or groups. Suppose a well
is extensively cored and core analyses are made to find porosity and permeability
throughout the section. A plot of permeability against porosity might look like the
plot shown in Figure 2 .

Figure 2

Note that three distinct rock types are revealed by the crossplot.
Rock type A is of low porosity and permeability (perhaps a carbonate), rock type B is
of moderate porosity and high permeability (perhaps a sandstone), and rock type C
is of high porosity and moderate permeability. Thus, crossplots visually show us
trends and groupings of data points that, in turn, help us understand the nature of
the population being plotted.
Extrapolations
Another useful feature of the crossplot is in making extrapolations. The extrapolation
of patterns and trends on crossplots is an extremely valuable tool for predicting such
key analysis parameters as porosity. In the example shown in Figure 3 , D-ls = 15
and N-ls = 21.

Figure 3

This defines point P, lying between the limestone and dolomite curves and falling
near a line connecting the 18% porosity graduations on the two curves. Assuming a
matrix of limestone and dolomite and proportioning the distance between the two
curves, the point corresponds to a volumetric proportion of about 40% dolomite and
60% limestone; porosity is 18%.
Frequency Plots
Computers are particularly adept at manipulating log data to produce frequency
plots. These are crossplots on which the number of occurrences of a particular pair of
data points is printed at a particular map location. Figure 4 shows a neutron-density
frequency crossplot for data from a section logged through a sand-shale sequence.

Figure 4

For the purpose of the plot, each axis is divided into one-porosity-unit cells. There
are thus 2500 (50 x 50) cells on the plot. Each data point on the log is inspected and
its N and D coordinates used to place a point on the plot. Where many points fall in
the same cell their total number is accumulated, and this number (or frequency) is
the item printed on the final plot at that particular cell address.
Where no data are found the plot remains blank. Where the majority of the points lie
gives a good visual image of the distribution of the formation properties in the logged
section.
Such plots are used extensively for log data normalization (i.e., recalibration shifts),
shale picks, etc.
Z Plots
The Z plot is a companion plot to the conventional frequency crossplot (or X-Y plot)
described above. The purpose of the Z plot is to map the distribution of three
variables instead of two. Given the limitations of a two-dimensional sheet of paper,
this task is accomplished by printing the scaled average of the third variable (Z) at
any given X-Y cell address.

For example, in Figure 4 there were 8 occurrences of the condition N (PHIN-the X

axis) = 26% and D (PHID-the Y axis) = 12%. The same cell on the Z plot of Figure 5
shows a scaled average of a third parameter, the gamma ray.

Figure 5

At the chosen address the scaled average of the 8 values of gamma ray occurring at
N = 26% and D = 12% is seen to be 8. On this particular plot the scaling of the Z
axis was accomplished by applying the formula

and z-min and z-max were chosen so that the least radioactive levels "scored" 0 and
the most radioactive levels 10. Note that two-digit numbers (10 or more) are
represented by symbols such as "*."

Reviewing the Z plot of Figure 5 , it is evident that the shaliest points lie to the
southeastern corner of the plot (high z values of 8, 9, and *), and the least
radioactive points lie to the northwestern part of the plot (low z values of 1, 2, and
3). Z plots are useful for data analysis where three variables are of interest.
Histograms
Histograms of raw log data and computed results of log analysis also provide useful
tools for the analyst. Figure 1 illustrates a histogram.

Figure 1

The Y axis of such a plot is either scaled in actual number of occurrences or in

percent of the total number of data points analyzed. The X axis is scaled over the
useful range of the data analyzed. Among the better known uses for histograms are
picking minima and maxima, re-scaling logs, and checking the validity of computed
results.
Illustrations of particularly useful histograms will be given in the appropriate modules
of this logging series when discussing particular aspects of log analysis.

Quick-Look Algorithms
With the advent of the hand-held calculator, especially the programmable type, log
analysts have tended to condense their wisdom into algebraic manipulations to ease
their daily toil. Today much of what used to be done by reference to charts is done
via pocket computer. This has advantages and disadvantages. On the plus side,
obviously more data points can be analyzed in a shorter time and with greater
precision. On the minus side, however, the analyst no longer has the latitude to shift
points on a chart to get an immediate feel for the sensitivity of a computed answer
to a change in the raw data values used.
Algorithms for solving many of the common manipulations that log analysts use will
be given in the appropriate modules as the particular analysis method is discussed.
A word of caution is in order. Although the calculator/ computer is a useful device for
the crunching of numbers and relieves the analyst of that chore, it also places a
greater burden on the analyst, that of ensuring (a) that the model fits the
circumstances and (b) that legitimate data is submitted to be processed. A more
precise answer should not be confused with a more accurate one.