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6.2
Recall the discussion of temperature distribution, where we wondered how a scalar would vary as we moved off in
an arbitrary direction ...
If U(r) is a scalar field, its gradient is defined in Cartesians coords by
gradU =
U
U
U
k.
+
+
x
y
z
+
+ k
=
x
y
z
which is called del or nabla. We can write gradU U
NB: gradU or U is a vector field!
Without thinking too hard, notice that gradU tends to point in the direction of greatest change of the scalar field U
6.3
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
4
4
2
2
0
0
2
2
4
U = x
+ y
+k
Only /x exists so
6.4
x2
U = 2x .
2. U = r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2, so
U =
+
+k
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2)
x
y
z
= 2x + 2y + 2z k
= 2r
.
3. U = c r, where c is constant.
U =
+
+ k
(c1x + c2y + c3 z )
x
y
z
=c .
= c1 + c2 + c3k
6.5
p
4. U = f (r ), where r = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
U is a function of r alone so df /dr exists. As U = f (x, y , z ) also,
f
df r
=
x
dr x
f
df r
=
y
dr y
f
f
f
U = + + k
x
y
z
df
=
dr
p
But r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2, so r /x = x/r and similarly for y , z .
df
U =
dr
f
df r
=
.
z
dr z
x + y + z k
r
r
r
r
+ + k
x
y
z
df r
=
.
dr r
Note that f (r ) is spherically symmetrical and the resultant vector field is radial out of a sphere.
6.6
U
U
U
U
U
U
k
dx +
dy +
dz & U =
+
+
x
y
z
x
y
z
Significance /ctd
6.7
So divide by ds
dr
dU
= U
ds
ds
gradU
U(r)
dr
U(r + dr)
Directional derivatives
That is
dU
= U d
(in direction of d)
ds
The quantity dU/ds is called a directional derivative.
In general, a directional derivative
had a different value for each direction,
has no meaning until you specify the direction.
We could also say that
At any point P, gradU
* points in the direction of greatest rate of change of U wrt distance at P, and
* has magnitude equal to the rate of change of U wrt distance in that direction.
6.8
6.9
dr
= 0.
ds
gradU
Conclusion is that:
gradU is NORMAL to a surface
of constant U
Surface of constant U
Surface of constant U
These are called Level Surfaces
6.10
a(x, y , z ) = a1 + a2 + a3k
The divergence of a at any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by
div a =
a1 a2 a3
+
+
x
y
z
+
+ k
aa
div a
x
y
z
6.11
diva
1
3
0
(r c)/r where c is constant
a
x
r(= x + y + z k)
r/r 3
rc
Eg 3: div (r/r 3) = 0
The x component of r/r 3 is x.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
We need to find /x of it ...
3
3
5
3 2
x.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 = 1.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2) 2 + x
(x + y 2 + z 2) 2 .2x
x
2
3
2 2
= r
1 3x r
3 3(x + y + z )r
= r 3 (3 3) = 0
6.12
z
Consider vector field f(r) (eg water flow).
This vector has magnitude equal to the mass of
water crossing a unit area perpendicular to the
direction of f per unit time.
dz
dS =
+dxdz j
dS =
dxdzj
y
dx
dy
x
6.13
dz
dS =
+dxdz j
dS =
dxdzj
y
dx
dy
x
6.14
z
Repeat: Total efflux from these faces is
fy
fy
dy dxdz =
dV
y
y
dz
dS =
+dxdz j
dS =
dxdzj
y
dx
dy
x
Conclusion:
The divergence of a vector field represents the flux generation per unit volume at each point of the field.
* Divergence because it is an efflux not an influx.
* We also saw that the total efflux from the infinitesimal volume was equal to the flux integrated over the surface
of the volume.
6.15
gradU of any scalar field U is a vector field. We can take the div of any vector field. we can certainly compute
div(gradU)
U) = +
+k
+
+k
U
(
x
y
z
x
y
z
+
U
+k
+k
=
+
x
y
z
x
y
z
2
2
2
U U U
=
+
+ 2
x 2
y 2
z
The operator 2 (del-squared) is called the Laplacian
2
2
2
+
+
U
2 U =
x 2 y 2 z 2
and often appears in engineering in Laplaces equation and Poissons equation
2 U = 0
and
2 U =
Examples of 2U evaluation
6.16
U
r 2(= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
xy 2z 3
1/r
2 U
6
2xz 3 + 6xy 2z
0
2
2 12
2
2
2 3/2
(x
+
y
+
z
)
x.(x
+
y
+
z
)
=
x 2
x
= (x 2 + y 2 + z 2)3/2 + 3x.x.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )5/2
x2
1
= 3 1 + 3 2
r
r
Adding up similar terms for y and z
1
1
2 = 3
r
r
(x 2 + y 2 + x 2)
3 + 3
r2
=0
6.17
=
a = x
k
y
z
y
z
z
y
x
y
ax ay az
6.18
a
y + x
x 2y 2k
2k
2x 2y 2xy 2
2nd example:
k
= /x /y /z
(x 2 y 2k)
0
0
x 2y 2
= x 22y 2xy 2
= 2x 2y 2xy 2
6.19
a dr.
6.20
6.21
6.22
a(x, y + dy , z)
a(x + dx, y + dy , z)
y + dy
a(x + dx, y , z)
a(x, y , z)
x + dx
6.23
y
y + dy
dr = [0, dy , 0]
dr = [dx, 0, 0]
dr = [0, dy , 0]
dr = [dx, 0, 0] x + dx
Consider the circulation round the perimeter of a rectangle dx by dy ...
6.24
y
y + dy
a(x, y + dy , z )
[dx, 0, 0]
[0, dy , 0]
[0, dy , 0]
a(x + dx, y , z )
a(x, y , z )
I
[dx, 0, 0]
x + dx
a dr = a(x, y , z ). dx 0 0 + a(x + dx, y , z ). 0 dy 0
C
+a(x, y + dy , z ). dx 0 0 + a(x, y , z ). 0 dy 0
a dr = a(x, y , z ). dx 0 0 + a(x + dx, y , z ). 0 dy 0
C
+a(x, y + dy , z ). dx 0 0 + a(x, y , z ). 0 dy 0
= ax (x, y , z )dx + ay (x + dx, y , z )
ax (x, y + dy , z )dx ay (x, y , z )dy
ay
= ax dx + ay dy +
dxdy
x
ax
ax dx
dy dx ay dy
y
ay ax
=
dxdy
x
y
a) dxdy k
= (
a) dS
= (
6.25
6.26
y
y+dy
ax (y+dy)
ax
dy
y
ay
dx
x
dy
ay (x)
ax (y ) and ax (y + dy ) = ax (y ) +
ay (x+dx)
dx
x+dx
x
ax (y)
dx dy = (
x
y
6.27
Summary
6.28