ABSTRACT

Design and implementation of an automatic three phase changer using LM324 quad integrated
circuit was carried out. The system was designed and simulated using (Multisim). The circuit
components were mounted a Vero board. LM324 integrated circuit (comparator) and 2N2222
transistors were used as active components alongside other passive components. Result shows
that, when the three phase a.c inputs: Red phase ( ), yellow phase ( ) and blue phase ( ) from
public utility supply was fed to the system, the system compared the inputs with regard to phase
imbalances, and the input with the highest voltage appears across the output. It also changes over
from one phase to another immediately the circuit senses further phase imbalance.

KEYWORDS:
Relay, Switch, Comparator, Phase Changer, Automatic
INTRODUCTION
In developing countries like Nigeria and Bangladesh, power instability and phase failure has
posed serious threat to their economic development [4]. That is to say, where there is an erratic
power supply, there is no development. This is because one of the factors that boost economic of
a country is the availability of steady and stable power supply [5] [1].
However, most companies; Industrial, commercial and even domestic are dependent on public
power supply which have erratic supply such as phase failure, phase imbalances or total power
failure due to one or more technical problem in power generation, transmission or distribution
[2]. Hence, there is need for automation of phase change during phase failure or total power
failure in order to safe guard consumer appliances from epileptic power supply.
In most cases, many manufacturing companies, be it domestic or industrial, which employ single
phase equipment for its operation sometimes experience challenges during unbalance voltages,
overloads and under-voltages, in power supply, much time would be required in the process of
manual change over. This means that time and the process needed for the phase change may
cause serious damages to machines and even the products, hence, there is need for automatic
phase switching system.
In a case where a single phase public utility prepaid meter is operated with a single phase power
supply unit and there is phase failure from the public utility power supply, the prepaid meter will

stop reading. At this point if the phase is not manually changed, the single phase prepaid meter
will stop reading. That is to say someone needs to be present always to make the changes at any
point in time. But to overcome these protocols, automatic systems need to be used.
The importance and advancement of control system in engineering have created different ways in
which automatic switching systems can solve domestic and industrial problems especially in the
developing countries.
An automatic phase changer was designed. The system provides a single phase correct voltage in
the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where correct voltage is
available. The system operates by stepping down 220 Volts AC to 12 Volts, rectified and fed into
the operational amplifiers through the voltage divider circuit. The operational amplifiers compare
the three phases ( , and ) and switch the relays through the transistor drivers.
The automatic phase changer was made from several electronic components which includes;
operational amplifiers, diodes, resistors, capacitors, Zener diodes, transformers, relays and fuses.
Results obtained during the test shows that, whenever the system senses a higher voltage across
the three inputs and then engages the load [7].
The system was designed to handle light load and not big loads. This is because of the use of 12
Volts by 6A relay switch in the system. This load includes; Television set, radio set, standing
Fans and small lighting points. Also, system reliability, compatibility, reliability and durability in
this work were not considered.
Furthermore, the main aim of this project is to present the real idea of an automatic phase switch
for 220V to 240V alternating current. Although, there are many designs and prototype systems
that can perform almost similar functions like, single phase change-over switches, two phase
automatic transfer switch and three phase automatic change-over switch, but this prototype is
about an automatic phase switchover (phase selector) which is designed for only three phase A.C
input power to single phase output applications.
The system is basically designed to select between the three phases at reasonable speed, and also
address phase imbalances with respect to loads. This means automatic switching between the
three phases and output only single phase. In other words, the switching consideration
demonstrates the real and practical situation for mainly domestic, moderate industrial advanced
needs.

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
COMPERATOR
The I 683 i,e, the operational amplifier is used as a comparator in the circuit gi?en abo?e, %s
shown in the figure the I 683 is a ; pin I in which the pin no, 7 is .nown as the in?erting
terminal of the I 683 because it is connected to the negati?e potential,The pin no, < is .nown as
the non in?erting terminal of the I 683, The pin no, 7 is connected to the reference ?oltage, The
reference ?oltage is the ?oltage which we set as a standard ?oltage in the circuit, The pin no, 7 is
connected to the input ?oltage, Now if we applied the input ?oltage to the IC

683 then it will compare the input ?oltage to the reference ?oltage and if the input ?oltage goes
low then the output of the comparator is goes low, %nd if the input ?oltage is equal to the
reference ?oltage then the output of the comparator is high.
ZENER DIODE
%
<ene( d"ode
is a type of
diodethat permits current
not only in the forward direction li.e a normal diode( but also in the re?erse direction if the ?
oltage is larger than the brea.down ?oltageBrea.down ?oltageThe brea.down ?oltage of an

Insulator is the minimum ?oltage that causes a portion of an insulator to become electrically
conducti?e, The brea.down ?oltage of a diode is the minimum re?erse ?oltage to ma.e the diode
conduct in re?erse,,

.nown as Gener .nee ?oltage or Gener ?oltage, The de?ice was named after larence
Gener larence Gener larence +el?in Gener was the %merican physicist who first described
the electrical property eploited by the Gener diode( which Bell 0abs then named after him,,,
( who disco?ered this electrical property.
A CONVENTIONAL SOLID STATE DIODE
=iodeIn electronics( a diode is a two>terminal electronic component that conducts electric
current in only one direction, The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode( the most
common type today, This is a crystalline bloc. of semiconductor material connected to two
electrical terminals,,,will not allow significant current if it is re?erse>biased below its re?erse
brea.down ?oltage, @hen the re?erse bias brea.down ?oltage is eceeded( a con?entional diode
is sub9ect to high current due to a?alanche brea.down,"nless this current is limited by
circuitry( the diode will be permanently damaged, In case of large forward bias /current in the
direction of the arrow1( the diode ehibits a ?oltage drop due to its 9unction built>in ?oltage

and internal resistance, The amount of the ?oltage drop depends on the semiconductor material
and the doping concentrations,% Gener diode ehibits almost the same properties( ecept the
de?ice is specially designed so as to ha?e a greatly reduced brea.down ?oltage( the so>called
Gener ?oltage, By contrast with the con?entional de?ice( a re?erse> biased Gener diode will
ehibit a controlled brea.down and allow the current to .eep the ?oltage across the Gener diode
at the Gener ?oltage, For eample( a diode with a Gener brea.down ?oltage of <,7 will
ehibit a ?oltage drop of <,7 if re?erse bias ?oltage applied across it is more than its Gener ?
oltage, The Gener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference ?
oltage /e,g, for an amplifier %mplifier )enerally( an amplifier or simply amp( is any de?ice that
changes( usually increases( the amplitude of a signal, The relationship of the input to the output
of an amplifierHusually epressed as a function of the input frequencyHis called the transfer
function of the amplifier( and the magnitude of,,, stage( or as a ?oltage stabiliDer for low>current
applications,

The Gener diodes operation depends on the hea?y

doping
Do!"ng *#em"cond&cto(
1In semiconductor production( doping is the process of intentionally introducing impurities into
an etremely pure semiconductor to change its electrical properties, The impurities are
dependent upon the type of semiconductor, 0ightly and moderately doped semiconductors are
referred to as etrinsic,,,of its p>n 9unction
P.n &nct"on
% pJn 9unction is formed by 9oining p>type and n>type semiconductors together in ?ery close
contact, The term 9unction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of the
semiconductor meet,,,allowing electron
Elect(on
The electron is a subatomic particle carrying a negati?e electric charge, It has no .nown
components or substructure( and therefore is belie?ed to be an elementary particle, %n electron
has a mass that is approimately 3K3;<: that of the proton, The intrinsic angular momentum of
the electron is as to tunnel from the ?alence band of the p>type material to the conduction band

of the n>type material, In the atomic scale( this tunneling corresponds to the transport of ?alence
band electrons into the empty conduction band statesL as a result of the reduced barrier between
these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relati?ely high le?els of dopings
on both sides, The brea.down ?oltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process,
@hile tolerances within 5,54M are a?ailable( the most widely used tolerances are 4M and 35M,
Brea.down ?oltage for commonly a?ailable Dener diodes can ?ary widely from 3,7 ?olts to 755 ?
olts,%nother mechanism that produces a similar effect is the a?alanche effect as in the a?alanche
diode%?alanche diode%n a?alanche diode is a diode that is designed to go through a?alanche
brea.down at a specified re?erse bias ?oltage and conduct as a type of ?oltage reference,,,,, The
two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of
this type, In silicon diodes up to about 4,: ?olts( the Gener effect is the predominant effect and
shows a mar.ed negati?e temperature coefficient, %bo?e 4,: ?olts( the a?alanche effect
AB$l$nce =(e$kdown
%?alanche brea.down > is a phenomenon that can occur in both insulating and semiconducting
materials, It is a form of electric current multiplication that can allow ?ery large currents to flow
within materials which are otherwise good insulators, It is a type of electron a?alanche,>
Eplanation,,, becomes predominant and ehibits a positi?e temperature coefficient, In a 4,:
diode( the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly cancel each other
out( thus the 4,: diode is the component of choice in temperature>critical applications, +odern
manufacturing techniques ha?e produced de?ices with ?oltages lower than 4,: with negligible
temperature coefficients( but as higher ?oltage de?ices are encountered( the temperature
coefficient rises dramatically, % 64 diode has 35 times the coefficient of a 37 diode,%ll
such diodes( regardless of brea.down ?oltage( are usually mar.eted under the umbrella term of
Gener diode

DIODE
Symbol

=iodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction, The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow, =iodes are the electrical ?ersion of a ?al?e and early
diodes were actually called ?al?es.

Forward Voltage Drop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode( rather
li.e a person pushing through a door with a spring, This means that there is a
small ?oltage across a conducting diode( it is called the forward ?oltage drop
and is about 5,6 for all normal diodes which are made from silicon, The
forward ?oltage drop of a diode is almost constant whate?er the current
passing through the diode so they ha?e a ?ery steep characteristic
/current>?oltage graph.

Reverse Voltage
@hen a re?erse ?oltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct( but all real diodes lea. a ?ery
tiny current of a few % or less, This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be ?ery
much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction, $owe?er( all diodes ha?e a
maimum re?erse ?oltage
/usually 45 or more1 and if this is eceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the
re?erse direction( this is called brea.down

Diode Construction
The physical construction of a diode with a diffusion 9unction is shown in the figure below,
@hen a diode is re?erse biased ie, a positi?e ?oltage is applied to the cathode with respect to the
anode( an electric field is formed between the cathode and anode specifically across the
depletion region, The diode is re?erse biased and cannot conduct ecept for small lea.age
currents, $owe?er( if the electric field becomes too strong a?alanche brea.down occurs and
the diode will become a short circuit and often be damaged, To counteract this the physical
distance between the anode and cathode is increased by increasing the siDe of the bul. region and
changing impurity atom doping

In the construction process( N type silicon substrate heated to 3555o in presence of ?apour
containing positi?e charged impurity atoms, - region diffused into N region, The resultant effect
is to cause more charge carriers to be present within the diode when it is conducting, For the
diode to switch OFF( the charge carriers must either recombine /minority1 or be remo?ed( the
latter mechanism appearing as a re?erse current /re?erse reco?ery1 flowing in the diode as it
turns OFF, -ut simply( diodes with higher ?oltage ratings ha?e larger bul. regions( require more
time to remo?e internal charges at turn OFF and are thus slower switching.

Standard Rectifiers
#ectifiers are electronic high ?oltage diodes( which allow current to flow in only one direction,
Essentially( they act as one>way ?al?es( and are used to con?ert % current to = current, The
performance of high ?oltage diodes is determined by a number of ?oltage( current and time
coefficients*
##+

* +aimum #e?erse oltage( which is the maimum re?erse ?oltage of the diode,
F
* Forward oltage( which is the ?oltage across the diode terminals resulting from the flow of
current in the forward direction, I
#
* #e?erse urrent flows when re?erse bias is applied to a semiconductor 9unction
t
rr
* #e?erse #eco?ery Time is the time required for the current to reach a specified re?erse current
/I#1 after instantaneous switching from a specified forward condition /IF1, I
F
* Forward urrent is the current flowing through the diode in the direction of lower resistance,
T
9
* 2unction Operating Temperature is the range of temperatures in which the high ?oltage diodes
are designed to operate

Fast Rectifiers
Figure <a and b show typical styles of re?erse reco?ery, The area within the negati?e portion of
each cur?e( ( is the total re?erse reco?ery charge Prr and represents the charge remo?al from the
9unction and the bul. regions of the diode and is effecti?ely independent of the forward current in
the diode, The reco?ery time t
7
>t
3
is dependant on the siDe of the bul. region thus high diKdt currents can be obtained when using
fast diodes, If the diKdt of the snap reco?ery is too high and stray inductance eists in the
circuit then etremely high and possibly damaging ?oltage spi.es can be induced, /Note* 1, Prr
can be found from manufacturers specifications thus the maimum re?erse reco?ery current Irr
is gi?en by* If ta is ?ery small compared to ta then ta trr and .nowing the rate of decrease of
current diKdt Q IrrKta IrrKtrr leads to* Figure <*
/a1 #e?erse reco?ery of a general purpose diode(
/b1 fast diode, #e?erse reco?ery time
trr Q t7 > t5,

Ultra Fast Rectifiers

%BST#%T* International #ectifiers new series of "ltra>fast reco?ery diodes are aimed
specifically at the 37K78K8; S+-S output stage( and etend the companys current product
range of "ltra>fast reco?ery diodes with industry standard part number products, The new
product series has been de?eloped to meet todays requirement of high frequency operation
and power ratings( using a technology platform fleible enough to match the performance
impro?ement cur?e of the mar.et requirements in the years to come, The new I# "ltra>fast reco?
ery diode series /755>8551 adopts platinum diffusion in order to o?ercome the limitation of
gold diffusion and the electron irradiation technology, @ith this approach( the best trade off for
lea.age current( forward ?oltage drop and re?erse reco?ery( has been achie?ed with a maimum
operating 9unction temperature of 364 degrees elsius and a re?erse reco?ery time as low as
34>75ns, @ith this type of performance( the maimum allowable switching frequency for this
"ltra> fast diode family would be up to 455>645.$D, This assumption is ?erified %BST#%T*
International #ectifiers new series of "ltra>fast reco?ery diodes are aimed specifically at the
37K78K8; S+-S output stage( and etend the companys current product range of "ltra>fast
reco?ery diodes with industry standard part number products, The new product series has been
de?eloped to meet todays requirement of high frequency operation and power ratings( using a
technology platform fleible enough to match the performance impro?ement cur?e of the
mar.et requirements in the years to come, The new I# "ltra>fast reco?ery diode series /
755>8551 adopts platinum diffusion in order to o?ercome the limitation of gold diffusion and

the electron irradiation technology, @ith this approach( the best trade off for lea.age
current( forward ?oltage drop and re?erse reco?ery( has been achie?ed with a maimum
operating 9unction temperature of 364 degrees elsius and a re?erse reco?ery time as low as
34>75ns, @ith this type of performance( the maimum allowable switching frequency for this
"ltra> fast diode family would be up to 455>645.$D, This assumption is ?erified

RELAY
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
There are really only two fundamentally different operating principles: (1) electromagnetic
attraction, and (2) electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue
of a plunger being drawn into a solenoid, or an armature being attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet. uch relays may be actuated by d!c or by a!c "uantities.Electromagnetic!
induction relays use the principle of the induction motor whereby tor"ueis developed by
induction in a rotor# this operating principle applies only to relays actuated by alternating
current, and in dealing with those relays we shall call them simply $induction!type$ relays.

DEFINITION OF OPERATION
%echanical movement of the operating mechanism is imparted to a contact structure
toclose or to open contacts. &hen we say that a relay $operates,$ we mean that it either
closes or opens its contacts!whichever is the re"uired action under the circumstances. %ost
relays have a $control spring,$ or are restrained by gravity, so that they assume a given
position when completely de!energi'ed# a contact that is closed under this condition is
called a $closed$ contact, and one that is open is called and $open$ contact. This is
standardi'ed nomenclature, but it can be "uite confusing and awward to use. much better
nomenclature in rather e*tensive use is the designation +a for an $open$ contact, and
+b for a $closed$ contact. This nomenclature will be

used in this boo. The present

standard method for showing $a$ and +b contacts on connection diagrams is illustrated in -ig.
1. Even though an +a contact may be closed under normal operating conditions, it should be
shown open as in -ig. 1# and similarly,even though a +b contact may normally be open, it
should be shown closed.&hen a relay operates to open a +b contact or to close an +a
contact, we say that it $pics up,$ and the smallest value of the actuating "uantity that will cause
such operation, as the "uantity is slowly increased from 'ero, is called the $picup$ value. &hen

arelay operates to close a +b contact, or to move to a stop in place of a +b contact, we say

that it $resets$# and the largest value of the actuating "uantity at which this occurs, as the
"uantity is slowly

decreased from above the picup value, is called the $reset$ value. &hen a relay operates to
open its +a contact, but does not reset, we say that it $drops out,$ and the largest value of the
actuating "uantity at which this occurs is called the $drop!out$ value.
TRANSFORMER
% transformer consists of two coils /often called windings1 lin.ed by an iron core( as shown
in figure 3, There is no electrical connection between the coils( instead they are lin.ed by a
magnetic field created in the core

Transformers are used to con?ert electricity from one ?oltage to another with minimal loss of
power, They only wor. with % /alternating current1 because they require a changing magnetic
field to be created in their core,
Transformers can increase ?oltage /step>up1 as well as reduce ?oltage
/step>down1,%lternating current flowing in the primary /input1 coil creates a continually
changing magnetic field in the iron core, This field also passes through the secondary
/output1 coil and the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating ?oltage
in the secondary coil, If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced ?oltage will
ma.e an induced current flow, The correct term for the induced ?oltage is induced
electromoti?e force which is usually abbre?iated to induced e,m,f,The iron core is
laminated to pre?ent eddy currents flowing in the core, These are currents produced by
the alternating magnetic field inducing a small ?oltage in the core( 9ust li.e that induced in
the secondary coil, Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but they
are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the
electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties,Transformers ha?e
two great ad?antages o?er other methods of changing ?oltage*3,They pro?ide total
electrical isolation between th e input and output( so they can be safely used to
reduce the high ?oltage of the mains supply,7,%lmost no power is wasted in a
transformer, They ha?e a high efficiency /power out K power in1 of C4M or more +ains
transformers are the most common type, They are designed to reduce the % mains
supply ?oltage /7<5>785 in the "! or 334>375 in some countries1 to a safer low ?
oltage, The standard mains supply ?oltages are officially 334 and 7<5( but 375 and
785 are the ?alues usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases

To allow for the two supply ?oltages mains transformers usually ha?e two separate primary
coils /windings1 labelled 5>375 and 5>375, The two coils are connected in series for 785
/figure 7a1 and in parallel for 375 /figure 7b1, They must be wired the correct way round as
shown in the diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense /direction1

+ost mains transformers ha?e two separate secondary coils /e,g, labelled 5>C( 5>C1 which
may be used separately to gi?e two independent supplies( or connected in series to create a
centre>tapped coil /see below1 or one coil with double the ?oltage,Some mains transformers ha?
e a centre>tap halfway through the secondary coil and they are labelled C>5>C for eample,
They can be used to produce full>wa?e rectified = with 9ust two diodes( unli.e a standard
secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce full>wa?e rectified =,
% mains transformer is specified by*
3,
Its secondary /output1 ?oltages
s
7,
Its maimum power( ma
( which the transformer can pass( quoted in % /?olt>amp1, This determines the maimum
output /secondary1 current( I

ma
,,, ,,,where
s
is the secondary ?oltage, If there are two secondary coils the maimum power should be hal?ed
to gi?e the maimum for each coil, <,Its construction > it may be
- B>mounting( chassis mounting /with solder tag connections1 or toroidal /a high quality
design1,
STEP DON TRANS2ORMER
If the first coil has more turns that the second coil( the secondary ?oltage is smaller than the
primary ?oltage*This is called a step>down transformer, If the second coil has half as many turns
as the first coil( the secondary ?oltage will be half the siDe of the

primary ?oltageL if the second coil has one tenth as many turns( it has one tenth the ?oltage, In
general* Secondary ?oltage R -rimary ?oltage Q Number of turns in secondary R Number of
turns in primaryThe current is transformed the opposite wayHincreased in siDeHin a step>down
transformer*Secondary current R -rimary current Q Number of turns in primary R Number of
turns in secondarySo a step>down transformer with 355 coils in the primary and 35 coils in the
secondary will reduce the ?oltage by a factor of 35 but multiply the current by a factor of 35 at
the same time, The power in an electric current is equal to the current times the ?oltage /watts
Q ?olts amps is one way to remember this1( so you can see the power in the secondary coil is

theoretically the same as the power in the primary coil, /In reality( there is some loss of power
between the primary and the secondary because some of the magnetic flu lea.s out of the
core( some energy is lost because the core heats up( and so on,

CAPACITOR
FUNDAMENTAL FOR ALL CAPACITOR
This bulletin describes the basic characteristics of !E+ET capacitors, Before eamining all the
details relating to !E+ET products( here are some of the basics of all capacitors and thenof the
ma9or types sold under the !E+ET brands* solid tantalumand monolithic ceramic,For all
practical purposes( consider only the parallel>plate capacitor*two conductors or electrodes
separated by a dielectricmaterial of uniform thic.ness, The conductors can be any materialwhich
will conduct electricity easily, The dielectric materialmust be a poor conductor J an insulator,

The symbol
in schematic
loo.s ?ery

for a capacitor used

diagrams of
electroniccircuits
much li.e a
parallel>plate

model

$ere is a sample circuit which contains all the componentsnormally called Apassi?e( plus a
battery, The battery is an Aacti?ecomponent because it can add energy to the circuit, -assi?
ecomponents may store energy momentarily( but cannot addenergy on a continuous basis, The
three main passi?e de?icesare resistors( capacitors( and inductors

% fa?orite
analogy
compares
the flow of
electric
current withthe
flow of
water out of a
tan., %
capacitor stores
energy
whenit is
charged, The
water tan.
would be the
capacitor and it
would be
charged by a
pump /a
battery1 which
fills it up,
The amountof
charge in the
capacitor
would be
analogous to
the amount
of water in the
tan., The height of the water abo?e some reference point would be the ?oltage to which the
battery had pumpedup the capacitor( and the area of the tan. would be capacitance,% tall( s.inny
tan. might contain the same amount of water as ashallow( flat tan.( but the tall( s.inny tan. would
hold it at ahigher pressure, There are also tall( s.inny capacitors /high?oltage( low capacitance1
and shallow( flat capacitors /low ?oltage(high capacitance1,

2USE
%n electrical fuse is a current interrupting de?ice which protects an electrical circuit in which it
is installed by creating an open circuit condition in response to ecessi?e current, The current is
interrupted when the element or elements which carry the current are melted by heat generated
by the current, Fuse terminals typically form an electrical connection between an electrical
power source and an electrical component or a combination of components arranged in an
electrical circuit, % fusible lin. is connected between the fuse terminals( so that when electrical

current flowing through the fuse eceeds a predetermined limit( the fusible lin. melts and opens
the circuit through the fuse to pre?ent electrical component damage, % standard fuse is a one
time use de?ice that must be replaced after an o?erload condition has been cleared because the
thin strip or ribbon of metal cannot be re9oined after it has melted through, O?er>current
protection may be pro?ided by fuses as well as by circuit brea.ers( switches( relays and other de?
ices, Each type of equipment has ?ariations in ratings( ser?ice requirements and costs, Fuses
generally present the most cost>effecti?e means for pro?iding automatic high>?oltage current
protection against a single o?er>current failure, +ost types of fuses are designed to minimiDe
damage to conductors and insulation from ecessi?e current, Fuses are employed in many
electrical systems that are used by people on an e?eryday basis, For eample( fuses are part of
electrical systems found in automobiles( boats( motorcycles and other ?ehicles, These fuses
function to stop electricity from flowing to a particular component of the system by creating an
open circuit as a result of an unsafe electrical condition, Fuses are typically employed in the
electrical utility industry to protect distribution transformers( cables( capacitor ban.s and other
equipment from damaging o?ercurrents, The fuses are arranged to disconnect the faulted
equipment or circuit promptly from its source of supply before damage can occur, Fuses are used
etensi?ely in high ?oltage electrical networ.s in order to protect the electrical equipment in the
networ. from damage caused by surges through the system( generally occasioned by
short>circuits or o?erloads, Fuses are used as necessary to protect semiconductors, Safety fuses
that basically can be electrically connected in series with the semiconductor power elements
require special installation space and the construction epense that goes along with it, They add
electrical series resistance( which results in current>dependent heat loss,Fuses are ?ery important
in protecting circuitry from o?erload conditions, Fuses are de?ices which( by melting of one or
more of their parts intended and designed for this purpose( open the circuit by interrupting the
current if the current eceeds a predetermined ?alue for a sufficiently long period of time, They
are designed to blow open at predetermined current le?els and are selected based upon safety
specifications designated for a particular circuit, The fusible element or fuse lin. is intended to
melt away under the influence of a current which eceeds a particular ?alue for a particular
length of time, There are thermal fuses( mechanical fuses( spar. gap surge arrestors( ?
aristors( and other similar de?ices( each designed specifically as a solution to one or more
etreme electrical e?ents, Each de?ice pro?ides benefit in

particular situations that may be greater than other types of de?ices, In general( an electrical fuse
combines both a sensing and interrupting element in one self>contained de?ice and is direct
acting in that it responds only to a combination of magnitude and duration of current flowing
through it, The fuse normally does not include any pro?ision for ma.ing or brea.ing the
connection to an energiDed circuit but requires separate de?ices to perform this function,% fuse
is a single>phase de?ice( such that only the fuse in the phase or phases sub9ected to o?ercurrent
will respond to de>energiDe the affected phase or phases of the circuit that is faulty, %fter ha?
ing interrupted an o?ercurrent( it is replaced to restore ser?ice, urrently( two basic types of
fuses are employed( the epulsion fuse and the current limiting fuse, Each type employs a
fusible element designed to melt when a current of a predetermined magnitude and duration
passes through the element, The epulsion type fuse interrupts o?ercurrents through the
deioniDing action of gases that are liberated when the fusible element melts, %n epulsion fuse
typically employs a relati?ely short length of a fusible element contained within a tubular
enclosure that is part of a larger assembly .nown as a fuseholder, The enclosure used in the
epulsion type fuse is lined with an organic material, Interruption of an o?ercurrent ta.es place
within the fuse by the deioniDing and eplosi?e action of the gases which are liberated when
the liner is eposed to the heat of the arc that is created when the fusible element melts in
response to the o?ercurrent, The operation of the epulsion>type fuse is characteriDed by loud
noise and ?iolent emission of gases( flame and burning debris( all of which pose a danger to
personnel who may be in close proimity to the fuse when it operates, Because of its ?iolent
mode of operation( this type of fuse has generally been restricted to outdoor usage only, The
current>limiting type interrupts o?ercurrents when the arc that is established by the melting of

the fusible element is sub9ected to the mechanical restriction and cooling action of a sand filler
that surrounds the fusible element,% current>limiting fuse typically consists of one or more
sil?er wire or ribbon elements of a required length which are electrically connected at their ends
to a pair of electrical terminations, The assembly is placed in a tubular housing that is made of a
highly temperature>resistant material( and the housing is then typically filled with high>purity
silica sand and sealed,Electrical fuses ha?e ta.en many forms and generally comprise fuses ha?
ing a fusible lin. etending between a pair of terminal portions,
The fusible lin. may be pro?ided either with notches cut in one or more sides of the fusible
portion or with holes formed therethrough to create narrower and therefore wea.er portions
within the fusible portion, One of the more common types of fuses is the thermal fuse
/electrothermal fuse1, In the thermal fuse( electrical current flowing through the fuse causes the
fuse to heat, The current path within a typical fuse is through the end caps or ferrules to a
metallic fusible element, The resistance of the fusible element de?elops heat that causes a portion
of the metal to melt or disintegrate upon reaching the melting temperature of the metal, This
property is eploited to achie?e accurate thermal acti?ation of a fuse in response to a particular
le?el of o?erload current, In normal operation( the temperature of the de?ice remains relati?ely
low and the resistance of the de?ice also remains low, @hen an o?erload current flows through
the de?ice( the internal temperature of the fuse rises sufficiently to cause the fuse to electrically
open, %n alloy type thermal fuse is widely used as a thermo>protector for an electrical appliance
or a circuit element( for eample( a semiconductor de?ice( a capacitor( or a resistor, Such an
alloy type thermal fuse has a configuration in which an alloy of a predetermined melting point is
used as a fuse element( the fuse element is bonded between a pair of lead conductors( a flu is
applied to the fuse element( and the flu>applied fuse element is sealed by an insulator,% time
delay fuse is a type of fuse that is designed to allow temporary and harmless currents to pass
there through without triggering the fuse, Time delay fuses are used in connection with
equipment ha?ing temporary current surges( such as motors and transformers, Time delay fuses
often employ a fusible element and a spring>loaded heat mass, % deposit of solder retains the
heat mass from mo?ement by the spring, The dimensions of the fusible element are selected such
that it melts quic.ly under short>circuit conditions, Time delay fuses are typically used in circuits
sub9ect to temporary transients such as motor starting currents, % typical high>?
oltage( current>limiting fuse comprises a tubular insulating housing( an elongated core within
the housing( and one of more fusible elements wound about the core and connected between
terminals at opposite ends of the housing, % core is needed in fuses of this type rated at 4 ! and
abo?e in order to enable the fuse to accommodate the required length of fusible element within a
housing of practical length, The fuse housing materials may consist of
glass( ceramic( porcelain( and glass>filament>wound epoy tubing, opper ferrules or sand
cast caps are typically glued to the ends of the fuse body with an epoy or pressed onto the fuse
housing with an interference fit to form end enclosures, % card type fuse is suitable for use
in ?arious de?ices ha?ing a low electrical power of less than 3%, For eample( such a fuse is
suitable for fuse>matching in a wire harness composed of wires ha?ing a small diameter( and
which connects a series of electronic elements in a car, In such fields( utiliDation of card type
fuses has been increasing, Solid state fuses are also .nown in which transistors and thyristors are
placed in series with the load and turn off in response to a load fault condition,Fuses are

commonly used in automoti?e electrical systems to protect circuits against damage caused by o?
erload conditions, Fuses for ?arious circuits are often grouped together at clustered locations
where circuit 9unctions eist in a fuse bo( power distribution bloc.( or 9unction bloc., +any
automoti?e ?ehicles are equipped with a fuse 9unction bo which ser?es to hold a plurality of
fuses associated with the ?arious electrically powered de?ices of the ?ehicle, % typical automoti?
e fuse has a generally rectangular plastic body with a pair of parallel( blade>li.e fuse terminals
etending therefrom, The outer surface of the fuse bo is pro?ided with fuse soc.ets to allow
the fuse terminals to be inserted into electrical engagement with the circuit terminals( thereby
completing and fuse>protecting the associated circuits, Typical fuse boes are connected to the
positi?e pole of the motor ?ehicle battery ?ia one or more cables leading to the fuse bo
whereat power is supplied to a plurality of fuses contained within the bo, The ends of the fuses
opposite the end connected to the positi?e terminal of the battery generally are connected to
outgoing cables or cable strands to supply power to electrical consumers such as( for
eample( motor ?ehicle lighting systems( sensors and switches( and power accessories, )
enerally( the type of fusion of fuses used for protecting an electric circuit in an automobile or the
li.e is classified into the fusion in a high current region and the fusion in a low current region,
Fuses of the relati?ely flat( plug in type which ha?e a fuse lin. encapsulated in a plastic fuse body
with a pair of terminal legs etending from the body ha?e become ?ery popular( especially in
automoti?e applications, One commonly used type of automoti?e fuse ta.es the form of a pair of
parallel blade type contacts with the fusable portion constituting a bridge between the two
blades, Blade type fuses are increasingly used in automobile equipment( for the purposes of
space requirements( protecti?e qualities and ease of plugging in, Blade type fuses generally
comprise an insulating case or body in which is partially mounted a conducti?e unit constituted
by two connection terminal blades 9oined together by a fuse lin. element or gauging part, The
fusable lin. is encased
typically classified as two types* laser blown and electrical fuses, Both laser blown and
electrical fuses are typically located near the surface of the semiconductor de?ice so that fuses
can be blown without damage to underlying integrated circuits,

T h e
pnp
transistor wor.s essentially the same as the
npn
transistor, $owe?er( since the emitter( base( and collector in the

pnp
transistor are made of materials that are different from those used in the
npn
transistor( different c u r r e n t c a r r i e r s f l o w i n t h e
pnp
unit, The ma9ority current carriers in the
pnp
transistor are holes, This is in contrast to the
npn
transistor where the m a 9 o r i t y c u r r e n t c a r r i e r s a r e e l e c t r o n s , To s u p p o r t t h i s
d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f current /hole flow 1( the bias batteries are re?ersed for the
pnp
transistor, % typical bias setup for the
pnp
transistor is shown in figure 3, Notice that the procedure used earlier to properly bias the
npn
transistor also a p p l i e s h e r e t o t h e
pnp
transistor, The first letter /
p
1 in the
pnp
sequence indicates the polarity of the ?oltage required for the emitter /
!
ositi?e1( and the second letter /
n
1 indicates the polarity of the base ?oltage /
n
egati?e1, Since the base>collector 9unction is always re?erse biased( then the opposite polarity ?
oltage /negati?e1 must be used for the collector, Thus( the base of t h e
pnp
t r a n s i s t o r m u s t b e n e g a t i ? e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e m i t t e r ( a n d t h e collector
must be more negati?e than the base, #emember( 9ust as in the case o f t h e
npn
transistor( this difference in supply ?oltage is necessary to ha?e current flow /hole
flow in the case of the
pnp
transistor1 from the emitter to the collector, %lthough hole flow is the predominant type of
current flow in t h e
pnp
t r a n s i s t o r ( h o l e f l o w o n l y t a . e s p l a c e w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i s t o r i t s e l f ( while
electrons flow in the e ternal circuit, $owe?er( it is the internal hole f l o w t h a t
leads to electron flow in the e ternal wires connected to the
transist
or,

collector, The minority current electrons in the collector also sense forward bias>the positi?e
base ?oltage>and mo?e into the base, The holes in the collector are filled by electrons that flow
from the negati?e terminal of the battery, %t the same time the electrons lea?e the negati?e
terminal of the battery( other electrons in the base brea. their co?alent bonds and enter the
positi?e terminal of the battery, %lthough there is only minority current flow in the re?
erse>biased 9unction( it is still ?ery small because of the limited number of minority current
carriers,Figure <* The re?erse>biased 9unction in a

Figure 8*
pnp
transistor operationThe interaction between the forward> and re?erse>biased 9unctions in a
pnp
transistor is ?ery similar to that in an
npn
transistor( ecept that in the
pnp
transistor( the ma9ority current carriers are holes, In the
pnp
transistor shown in figure 8( the positi?e ?oltage on the emitter repels the holes toward the base,
Once in the base( the holes combine with base electrons, But again( remember that the base

region is made ?ery thin to pre?ent the recombination of holes with electrons, Therefore( well o?
er C5 percent of the holes that enter the base become attracted to the large negati?e collector ?
oltage and pass right through the base, $owe?er( for each electron and hole that combine in the
base region( another electron lea?es the negati?e terminal of the base battery /
BB
1 and enters the base as base current /I
B
1, %t the same time an electron lea?es the negati?e terminal of the battery( another electron lea?
es the emitter as IE /creating a new hole1 and enters the positi?e terminal of
BB
, +eanwhile( in the collector circuit( electrons from the collector battery /

1 enter the collector as Ic and combine with the ecess holes from the base, For each hole that is
neutraliDed in the collector by an electron( another electron lea?es the emitter and starts its way
bac. to the positi?e terminal of

Figure <* total current flow in the

pnp
transistor Figure 4* total current flow in the
pnp

transistor %lthough current flow in the eternal circuit of the

pnp
transistor is opposite in direction to that of the
npn
transistor( the ma9ority carriers always flow from the emitter to the collector, This flow of
ma9ority carriers also results in the formation of two indi?idual current loops within each
transistor, One loop is the base>current path( and the other loop is the collector>current path,
The combination of the current in both of these loops /I
B
VI

1 results in total transistor current /I

E
1, The most important thing to remember about the two different types of transistors is that the
emitter>base ?oltage of the
pnp
transistor has the same controlling effect on collector current as that of the
npn
transistor, In simple terms( increasing the forward>bias ?oltage of a
transistor reduces the emitter>base 9unction barrier, This action allows more carriers to reach the
collector( causing an
increase in current flow from the emitter to the collector and through the eternal circuit, on?
ersely( a decrease in the forward>bias ?oltage reduces collector current

BLOCK DIAGRAM

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

WORKING
In three>phase applications( if low?oltage is a?ailable in any one or two phases( and you want
your equipment to wor. on normal ?oltage( this circuit will sol?e your problem, $owe?er( a
proper>rating fuse needs to be used in the input lines /#( ' and B1 of each phase, The circuit pro?
ides correct ?oltage in the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where
correct ?oltage is a?ailable, "sing it you can operate all yourequipment e?en when correct ?oltage
is a?ailable on a single phase in the building,
The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay. Three identical sets of
this circuit, one each for three phases, are used. et us now consider the woring of the circuit
connecting red cable (call it /0 phase). The mains power supply phase 0 is stepped down by
transformer 1 to deliver 123, 455 m, which is rectified by diode 61 and filtered by capacitor
71 to produce the operating voltage for the operational amplifier(871). The voltage at inverting
pin 2 of oprational amplifier 871 is taen from the voltage divider circuit of resistor 01 and
preset resistor 301. 301 is used to set the reference voltage according to the re"uirement. The
reference voltage at non!inverting pin 4 is fi*ed to 9.13 through 'ener diode 61. Till the supply
voltage available in phase 0 is in the range of 2553!2453, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of 871
remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage of 9.13, and its output pin ; also remains high. s
a result, transistor T1 does not conduct, relay 01 remains de!energised and phase /0 supplies
power to load 1 via normallyclosed (<=7) contact of relay 01.
s soon as phase!0 voltage goes below 2553, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of 871 goes below
reference voltage of 9.13, and its output goes low. s a result, transistor T1 conducts and relay
01 energises and load 1 is disconnected from phase /0 and connected to phase />
through relay 02. imilarly, the auto phase!change of the remaining two phases, vi', phase
/> and phase /?, can be e*plained. witch 1 is mains power /on=off
switch. @se relay contacts of proper rating and fuses should be able to tae!on the load when
transferred from other phases. &hile wiring, assembly and installation of the circuit, mae sure
that you:1. @se good!"uality, multi!strand insulated copper wire suitable for your current
re"uirement.2. @se good!"uality relays with proper contact and current rating.4. %ount the
transformer(s) and relays on a suitable cabinet. @se a Tag?loc (T?) for incoming=outgoing
connections from mains

PLANNING OF WORK
hoose pro9ect,

ollect information about pro9ect,


%rrange the components,

Testing the components,

=esign the circuit,

onnect the components according to circuit,

Testing of circuit,

hec.ed by guide,

Final testing by pro9ect incharge

APPLICATION
#esidential,

ommercial offices,

Factories operating with 3 phase machineries,

$ospitalsKBan.s,

Institutions,

It automatically supplies ?oltage in case of power failure or low ?oltage in up to 7 of the <
incoming phases, %utomatic -hase hanger automatically cuts supply during low ?oltage
thus( protects equipment from the harmful affects of unhealthily low ?oltage,