Difference Equations

A discrete-time system with input e(k) and output u(k) will have an
input-output relationship of the general form:

i.e. output at sampling instant k will depend in general on the input

at instant k as well as on the previous history of inputs and outputs.
We consider linear, time invariant systems, where the input-output
relationship takes the form of a linear difference equation with
constant coefficients:

Elc-407a Lecture 2

The output values can be obtained iteratively by a digital filter with

enough memory locations to store old sample values.
Example (1):
A discrete-time system is described by the input output relationship:

Example (2):
A discrete-time system with a first-order difference equation
approximating the function of integrating the input

Z-transform can be used to solve difference equations, turning them

into algebraic equations, as LT does for differential equations.
Elc-407a Lecture 2

Transfer Function of Discrete-Time System:

Taking z-transform of difference equation, e.g. in example (1), and
assuming zero initial conditions

Or

which is a transfer function analogous to that defined in the sdomain. Note that knowing the input function E(z), we can find
an expression for U(z) and we can also find its inverse.
Elc-407a Lecture 2

Pulse Transfer Function of Continuous-Time Systems

In sampled-data system we have continuous-time components and
it will be desirable to handle all system components in a unified
manner. Thus, z-domain transfer functions of continuous-time
components need to be defined.
Consider a linear time invariant system with an s-domain transfer
function G(s). Now, we assume that a signal sampled with an ideal
sampler is applied to this system.
The output of the system will be the superposition of responses to
the time-shifted impulses at the input.

Elc-407a Lecture 2

u(t)

c(t)
G(s)

Output will be:

If we are interested in the value of output only at sampling

instants, we introduce a fictitious sampler synchronized with the
ideal sampler.

Elc-407a Lecture 2

T
u(t)

c*(t)

c(t)
G(s)

Thus, we can write:

G(z), the z-transform of the impulse response of the system, is called

the pulse transfer function.
Elc-407a Lecture 2

Note that the last equation can be used to obtain information

about the output values at the sampling instants only (although
output is a continuous-time signal).
Example:

If the s-domain transfer function of a system is

then its pulse transfer function is:

Elc-407a Lecture 2

Consider a system with two cascaded elements G1(s) and G2(s)

separated by a sampler as shown:
T
u(t)

d(t) T

T
G1(s)

d*(t)

c*(t)

c(t)
G2(s)

The transfer function of the above system is G1(z)G2(z).

If the two blocks are not separated by a sampler, equivalent transfer
function is:
Note that in general:

Elc-407a Lecture 2

Reconstruction of Sampled Signal Hold Circuits

Most control systems have components that need to be actuated
by an analog signal rather than by discrete signals. A data
reconstruction device, known as a hold circuit, is often used to
interface between digital and analog components.

We have a sequence of values x(0), x(T), x(2T),. and the

continuous time signal x(t) need to be reconstructed from this
information. The value of the signal between sampling instants kT
and (k+1)T need to be estimated based on the value of x(t) at all
preceding sampling instants.
The simplest hold circuit is the Zero-Order Hold (ZOH). This device
holds the value of the previous sample during a given sampling
period, until the next sample arrives.
Elc-407a Lecture 3

The impulse response of the ZOH is shown below:

goh(t)
1

Therefore:
A two term approximation of the above function is:

Elc-407a Lecture 3

An alternative (frequency domain) point of view is that to recover the

continuous-time signal from sampled signal we need an ideal lowpass filter, which is physically unrealizable. ZOH is essentially is a
(non-ideal) low pass filter.
A first-order-hold (FOH) device, uses the values of the last two
sampling instants and puts out a ramp which linearly extrapolates
these values.
Increasing the order of the hold circuit allows a better approximation
of a desired continuous time signal. However, it increases its
complexity and often results in longer delays, thus having adverse
effect on system stability. Thus, ZOH is often preferred in control
systems.

Elc-407a Lecture 3

If a continuous-time system is preceded by a ZOH:

T
u(t) T

c*(t)

c(t)
ZOH

Gp(s)
Continuoustime process

Then its pulse transfer function can be written as:

Elc-407a Lecture 3

Example (1):
If

we have:

If input is a unit-step function:

and
Elc-407a Lecture 3

Example (2):

u(t)

m(k)

T u(k)
D(z)
Digital filter

c*(t)

c(t)
ZOH

Gp(s)
Continuoustime process

For the same continuous-time process model and input, and assuming
that the digital filter implements the difference equation:

Therefore:

Elc-407a Lecture 3

Closed-loop Sampled-Data Systems

Using the previous methods we can also handle more complex
block diagrams, e.g. those with feedback:

E(s)

R(s)

E(z)

C(z)

G (s)
C(s)

H(s)

We can write:
Thus:

and

Elc-407a Lecture 3

R(s)

G 1(s)

C(z)

G 2(s)

C(s)

H(s)

Elc-407a Lecture 3

R(s)

G 1(s)

C(z)

T
G 2(s)
C(s)

H(s)

Again, for some configurations the definition of the transfer function

may not be possible.
Elc-407a Lecture 3

Example (3):
T

T=0.5 s

R(s)
+

ZOH

G p(s)

C(z)
C(s)

For the same continuous-time process of example (1)

Elc-407a Lecture 3

If input R(z) is a unit-step, then:

Note that from the final value theorem:

We may conclude that

function of time is:

. A complete expression of output as

Elc-407a Lecture 3

Cairo University Faculty of Engineering

Communication & Electronics
Department

ELC 407a
2015-2016
Control Engineering - Digital Control Systems

SHEET 1
1) Find the z-transform of the following functions:
a) t sin(t)

b) t 2e t

c) e t cos(2t)

d) t 3

e) te t cos(t)
2) The o/p-i/p for a sampled data system is described by the following difference equation:

C( k)+2C( (k 1)T)+3C((k-2)T) = u( (k 1)T)-u((k - 2)T)

Find the pulse (digital) TF for this system in the z-domain.

3) The TF of a sampled data system is given by

C(z )
0.23( z 0.712)
= 2
U (z) z 0.372 z + 0.637
Determine the difference equation that describes this system.

4) Find the closed form representation of the z-transform of the following functions:

1
s(s + 1)
1
d) 2
s (s +1)

a)

1
( s + 2)(s + 4)
1
e) 2
s +9

sT + 1
(1 e sT ) 2
s 2T
1
f) 2
s (s + 4) 2
c)

b)

5) Find the inverse z-transform of the following functions:

z 0.5
2
z z+2
z(z + 0.5)
d)
( z 0.3) 2 (z 1) 2

a)

T 2 z (z +1)
2(z 1)3
2z
e)
(2z 1) 2

b)

c)

2( z 2 + 2z +1)
( z 2 z + 1)( z 2 + 2 z + 3)

f)

z2
( z 1)( z 0.2)