Functions of the Reproductive System

To produce offspring
The gonads produce gametes (sperm or ova) and
sex hormones

Primary sex organs (gonads): testes in males, ovaries

in females
Sex hormones: androgens (males), and estrogens and
progesterone (females)

Play roles in:

The development and function of the reproductive organs

Sexual behavior and drives
The growth and development of many other organs and tissues

All other reproductive organs are accessory

Ducts, glands, and external genitalia

Functions of the Reproductive System

The male gonads (testes) produce sperm and lie

within the scrotum

Sperm are delivered to the exterior through a system

of ducts: epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory
duct, and the urethra
Accessory sex glands:

Empty their secretions into the ducts during ejaculation

Include the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands

Functions of the male reproductive system are:

Production of sperm cells

Sustaining and transfer of the sperm cells to the
female
Production of male sex hormones

Functions of the Reproductive System

Ovaries are the primary female reproductive

organs

Accessory ducts include: uterine tubes, uterus,

vagina, and mammary glands

Functions of the female reproductive system

are:

Production of female sex cells (ova)

Reception of sperm cells from the male
Nurturing the development of and providing
nourishment for the new individual
Production of female sex hormones

Fig. 24.1

Meiosis

Chromosomes
The diploid number of chromosomes in
humans is 46, consisting of 23 pairs of
homologous chromosomes
A male has the sex chromosomes XY and a
female XX
The haploid number of chromosomes in
humans is 23

Meiosis

Meiotic Divisions
A reduction division decreases the number
of chromosomes from the diploid to the
haploid number

Occurs during the first meiotic division

Crossing over and random assortment are

responsible for the genetic diversity of
sperm cells and oocytes

Fig. 24.2

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system includes:

Testes
Ducts

Accessory glands

Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral glands

Supporting structures

Epididymides
Ductus deferentia
Urethra

Scrotum and penis

Collectively, all of these structures are called

the male genitalia

Fig. 24.3

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Scrotum
A sac containing the testes
Intrascrotal temperature is kept constant by
two sets of muscles:

Dartos: smooth muscle that wrinkles scrotal

skin
Cremaster: bands of skeletal muscle that
elevate the testes
They keep the testes 3C lower than core body
temperature (needed for sperm production)

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Testes (Histology)
Each testis is surrounded by two tunics:

The tunica vaginalis, derived from peritoneum

The tunica albuginea, the fibrous capsule of
the testis

Extensions of the tunica albuginea form

incomplete septa

Septa divide the testis into 300-400 lobules,

each containing 1-4 seminiferous tubules
The uncoiled, combined length of the seminiferous
tubules in both testes is nearly half a mile

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Testes (Histology)
Seminiferous tubules sperm factories:

Produce the sperm

Converge to form the tubulus rectus

The straight tubulus rectus conveys sperm

to the rete testis
From the rete testis, the sperm :

Leave the testis via efferent ductules

Enter the epididymis

Surrounding the seminiferous tubules are

interstitial cells that produce testosterone

Fig. 24.4

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Testes (Descent)
During development, the testes pass from
the abdominal cavity through the inguinal
canal to the scrotum
A tunica vaginalis covers each testis,
protecting against friction

Fig. 24.5

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Spermatogenesis
Sperm cells (spermatozoa) are produced in
the seminiferous tubules
Cells making up the walls of seminiferous
tubules are in various stages of cell division
These spermatogenic cells give rise to
sperm in a series of events

Mitosis of spermatogonia, forming

spermatocytes
Meiosis forms spermatids from spermatocytes
Spermiogenesis: spermatids form sperm

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonia: outermost cells in contact
with the epithelial basal lamina
Spermatogenesis begins at puberty as
each mitotic division of spermatogonia
results in type A or type B daughter cells

Type A cells remain at the basement

membrane and maintain the germ line
Type B cells move toward the lumen and
become primary spermatocytes

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Spermatogenesis

Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I,

forming two haploid cells called secondary
spermatocytes
Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II
and their daughter cells are called spermatids
Spermatids are small round cells seen close to
the lumen of the tubule
Spermatids develop an acrosome and a
flagellum to become sperm cells

Fig. 24.6

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Spermatogenesis
Sperm have three major regions

Head: contains DNA and has a helmetlike

acrosome containing hydrolytic enzymes that
allow the sperm to penetrate and enter the
egg
Midpiece: contains mitochondria spiraled
around the tail filaments
Tail: a typical flagellum produced by a
centriole

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Spermatogenesis
Sustentacular cells

Nourish the sperm cells

Their tight junctions form a blood-testis barrier
This prevents sperm antigens from escaping
through the basal lamina into the blood
Since sperm are not formed until puberty, they are
absent during thymic education

Produce hormones

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Ducts: Epididymis

Efferent ductules extend from the testes into the

head of the epididymis and join the duct of the
epididymis
The epididymis is a coiled tube system located on
the testis that is the site of sperm cell maturation. It
consists of a head, body, and tail
Nonmotile sperm enter, pass through its tubes and
become motile

Takes 12-16 days

Acrosome matures
Ability to fertilize an oocyte develops
Flagella become capable of movement

Upon ejaculation the epididymis contracts, expelling

sperm into the ductus deferens

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Ducts: Ductus Deferens and Ejaculatory Duct

Runs from the epididymis through the inguinal

canal into the abdominal cavity
Its terminus expands to form the ampulla and then
joins the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the
ejaculatory duct, which connects to the prostatic
urethra
Propels sperm from the epididymis to the urethra
Vasectomy: cutting and ligating the ductus
deferens, which is a nearly 100% effective form of
birth control

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Ducts: Ductus Deferens and Ejaculatory Duct

The spermatic cord consists of the ductus

deferens, blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves
Coverings of the spermatic cord consist of the
external spermatic fascia, cremaster muscle, and
internal spermatic fascia
The spermatic cord passes through the inguinal
canal into the abdominal cavity

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Ducts: Urethra
The prostatic urethra extends from the
urinary bladder through the prostate gland
to the membranous urethra
The membranous urethra extends through
the pelvic floor and becomes the spongy
urethra, which continues through the penis

Fig. 24.7

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Penis

A copulatory organ designed to deliver sperm into

the female reproductive tract
Consists of an attached root and a free shaft that
ends in the glans penis

Prepuce, or foreskin

Cuff of skin covering the glans penis

Circumcision: surgical removal of the foreskin after birth

The bulb of the penis and the crura form the root of
the penis and the crura attach the penis to the
coxal bones

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Penis
Consists of erectile tissue

The two corpora cavernosa

Form the dorsum and the sides of the penis

The corpus spongiosum

Surrounds the urethra and expands to form the
glans and bulb of the penis

Erection: during sexual excitement, the

erectile tissue fills with blood causing the
penis to enlarge and become rigid

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Accessory Glands

Seminal Vesicles

Prostate Gland

Lie on the posterior wall of the bladder

Join the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct
Sperm and seminal fluid mix in the ejaculatory duct and
enter the prostatic urethra during ejaculation
Doughnut-shaped gland that encircles part of the
urethra inferior to the bladder
Consists of glandular and muscular tissue and empties
into the prostatic urethra

Bulbourethral glands

Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate

Mucous glands that empty into the spongy urethra

Fig. 24.7

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Semen
Milky white, sticky mixture of sperm and accessory
gland secretions
Provides a transport medium and nutrients (fructose),
protects and activates sperm, and facilitates their
movement
The testicular secretions contain sperm cells (4% of total
volume)
The seminal vesicle fluid contains fructose, clotting proteins,
and prostaglandins (65% of total volume)
The prostate secretions make the seminal fluid more pHneutral. Proteolytic enzymes break down clotting proteins(30%
of total volume)
The bulbourethral glands produce mucus, which neutralizes the
acidic pH of the urethra (<1% of total volume)

Physiology of Male Reproduction

Normal function of the male reproductive

system depends on hormonal and neural
mechanisms
Regulation of Sex Hormone Secretion

GnRH stimulates LH and FSH release from the

anterior pituitary

LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce

testosterone
FSH stimulates sperm cell formation

Inhibin, produced by sustentacular cells, inhibits

FSH secretion

Fig. 24.8

Tab. 24.1

Physiology of Male Reproduction

Puberty
Before puberty, small amounts of
testosterone inhibit GnRH release
During puberty testosterone does not
completely suppress GnRH release,
resulting in increased production of FSH,
LH, and testosterone

Physiology of Male Reproduction

Effects of Testosterone
Produced by interstitial cells
Causes the development of male sex organs
in the embryo
Stimulates the descent of the testes
Causes enlargement of the genitalia
Necessary for sperm cell formation

Physiology of Male Reproduction

Effects of Testosterone
Hair growth stimulation (pubic area, axilla, and
beard) and inhibition (male pattern baldness)
Increased skin thickness and melanin and
sebum production
Enlargement of the larynx and deepening of the
voice
Increased protein synthesis (muscle), bone
growth, blood cell synthesis, and blood volume
Metabolic rate increases

Physiology of Male Reproduction

Male Sexual Behavior and the Male

Sexual Act
Testosterone is required for normal sex
drive
The male sexual act includes erection,
emission, ejaculation, orgasm and
resolution
Stimulation of the sexual act can be psychic
or tactile

 Neural Control of
Erection

Fig. 24.9

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

The female reproductive system includes

the:

Ovaries
Uterine tubes
Uterus
Vagina
External genitalia
Summary glands

Fig.
24.10

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Ovaries
Paired organs on each side of the uterus
held in place by several ligaments

The suspensory ligament, ovarian ligament,

and broad ligament

The visceral peritoneum covers the surface

of the ovaries
Have an outer capsule (tunica albuginea)
and is divided internally into a cortex
(contains follicles) and a medulla (receives
blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves)

Fig.
24.11

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Oocyte development and fertilization

Oogonia proliferate and become primary oocytes

that are in prophase I of meiosis

At puberty, one activated primary oocyte produces

two haploid cells

All of the primary oocytes remain in prophase I until

puberty
Approximately 2 million primary oocytes at birth

The first polar body, which degenerates or divides to

form two polar bodies
The secondary oocyte

The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and is

ovulated

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Oocyte development and fertilization

Ovulation is the release of a secondary oocyte

from an ovary
If penetrated by sperm the second oocyte
completes meiosis II, yielding:

One large ovum (the functional gamete)

A tiny second polar body

Fertilization is the joining of a sperm cell and a

secondary oocyte to form a zygote
An embryo is the developing human between the
time of fertilization and 8 weeks of development
A fetus is the developing human from 8 weeks to
birth

Fig.
24.13

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Follicle development

Primordial follicles are surrounded by a single layer

of flat granulosa cells
Primary follicles are primary oocytes surrounded by
a zona pellucida and cuboidal granulosa cells
The primary follicles become secondary follicles as
granulosa cells increase in number and fluid begins
to accumulate in the vesicles
Granulosa cells increase in number, and theca
cells form around the secondary follicles
Mature follicles have an antrum

Fig.
24.12

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Follicle development

Ovulation occurs when the follicle swells and

ruptures and the secondary oocyte is released
from the ovary
The corona radiata surround the oocyte
Fate of the follicle

The mature follicle becomes the corpus luteum

If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum persists
If no pregnancy occurs, it becomes the corpus albicans

Fig.
24.14

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Uterine Tubes

Extend from the ovaries to the uterus

The ovarian end of the uterine tube is expanded as the

infundibulum.
The opening of the infundibulum is surrounded by
fimbria
The ampulla is the widest, longest part of the uterine
tube

Consists of an outer serosa, a middle muscular

layer and an inner mucosa with simple ciliated
columnar epithelium
Muscular contractions and cilia move the oocyte
through the uterine tube

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Uterus
Consists of the fundus, body, and cervix
Held in place by the broad, round, and
uterosacral ligaments
The walls consist of the perimetrium
(visceral peritoneum), the myometrium
(smooth muscle), and the endometrium
(mucous membrane)
The uterine cavity and the cervical canal
are the spaces formed by the uterus

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Vagina
The female organ of copulation
Connects the uterus (cervix) to the
vestibule
Consists of a layer of smooth muscle and
an inner lining of moist stratified squamous
epithelium
The hymen covers the vaginal orifice

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System
External Genitalia
The external female genitalia consist of the
vestibule and its surrounding structures
The vestibule is the space into which the
vagina and the urethra open
Erectile tissue is associated with the vestibule
The two corpora cavernosa form the clitoris
The corpora spongiosa form the bulbs of the
vestibule

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System
External Genitalia
The labia minora are folds that cover the vestibule
and form the prepuce
The greater and lesser vestibular glands produce a
mucous fluid
When closed, the labia majora cover the labia minora
The mons pubis is an elevated fat deposit superior to the
labia majora
The pudendal cleft is a space between the labia majora

Perineum
The clinical perineum is the region between the vagina and
the anus

Fig.
24.15

Anatomy of the Female

Reproductive System

Mammary Glands
Modified sweat glands located in the
breasts
Consist of glandular lobes and adipose
tissue

The lobes consist of lobules that have milkproducing alveoli

The lobes connect to the nipple through the
lactiferous ducts

The areola surrounds the nipple

Suspensory ligaments support the breasts

Fig.
24.16

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Puberty
Begins with the first menstrual bleeding
(menarche)
Begins when GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen,
and progesterone levels increase
Increased estrogen and progesterone
promote the development of the female
primary and secondary sexual
characteristics

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Menstrual Cycle
Consists of the periodic changes occurring in the
ovaries and uterus of a sexually mature, nonpregnant
female that result in

The production of a secondary oocyte

Preparation of the uterus for implantation

Days 1-5: Menstrual phase: uterus sheds all but the

deepest part of the endometrium
Days 6-14: Proliferation phase: endometrium
rebuilds itself
Days 14-28: Secretory phase: endometrium
prepares for implantation of the embryo

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual phase is the time between the
beginning and the end of menstruation (days
1-5)
Menstruation is the discharge of blood and part of
the endometrium from the uterus
Menstruation begins because of a decrease in
progesterone and estrogen from the previous cycle

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Menstrual Cycle

The proliferation phase is the time between the end

of menstruation and ovulation (days 614)

FSH and LH stimulate follicular growth and estrogen

production
Estrogen stimulates epithelial cells in the endometrium
to multiply
The endometrium becomes thicker and spiral glands
and arteries develop
The LH surge stimulates completion of the first meiotic
division by the primary oocyte, ovulation, and formation
of the corpus luteum
The FSH surge stimulates follicle development
Mature follicles inhibit the development of less mature
follicles

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Menstrual Cycle

The secretory phase is the time between ovulation

and the beginning of menstruation (days 1428)

Estrogen stimulates cell division in the endometrium

Progesterone stimulates the spiral glands to produce a
secretion rich in glycogen and lipids and inhibits uterine
contractions
If fertilization does not occur, menses begins and the
corpus luteum becomes the corpus albicans
If fertilization occurs, hCG stimulates the corpus luteum
to persist

Fig.
24.17

Tab. 24.2

Tab. 24.1

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Female Sexual Behavior and the Female

Sexual Act

Female sex drive is partially influenced by

androgens (produced by the adrenal gland) and
steroids (produced by the ovaries)
Events of the female sexual act including the
following

The erectile tissue of the clitoris and the bulbs of the

vestibule become filled with blood
The vestibular glands secrete mucus, and the vagina
extrudes a mucuslike substance
Orgasm and resolution occur

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Fertilization
Intercourse must take place 5 days before
to 1 day after ovulation if fertilization is to
occur
Sperm cell transport to the ampulla
depends on the ability of the sperm cells to
swim and possibly on contractions of the
uterus and the uterine tubes
Implantation of the developing embryo into
the uterine wall occurs when the uterus is
most receptive

Fig.
24.18

Physiology of Female Reproduction

Menopause
Menopause is the cessation of menstrual cycles
Perimenopause is the time between the beginning of irregular
menstrual cycles and menopause

Effects of Aging on the Reproductive

System

The prostate gland enlarges, and there is an agerelated increase in prostatic cancer
There is decreased sperm cell production and
increased production of abnormal sperm cells
Erectile dysfunction increases
The most significant age-related change in
females is menopause
The uterus decreases in size and the vaginal wall
thins
There is an age-related increase in breast, uterine,
and ovarian cancer

Page
798