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CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS
1.3
d1
d2
dn
+
+ + n
10 102
10
25
d1
d1
1
r<q+
+
10
10 10
d1
dn+1
d1
dn+1
1
+ + n+1 r < q +
+ + n+1 + n+1
10
10
10
10
10
dn
d1
dn
1
d1
+ + n r < q +
+ + n + n
10
10
10
10
10
1
< 0.333 4
3
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CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS
Remark: You will frequently see: 2 = 1.414 . Unlike the decimal 0.333
above, this use of means
only that 1.414 are the first three digits of the
infinite decimal expansion of 2. It does not mean that there is a pattern!
Expanding Rationals. Given a positive rational number ml , perform the
following divisions with remainders to define the digits of a decimal:
First, set l = mq + r (this defines q and a whole number r < m)
Next, define the digits by induction:
(i) Set 10r = md1 + r1 (this defines d1 , which is a digit, and r1 < m)
(ii) Set each 10rn = mdn+1 + rn+1
(this defines dn+1 , which is a digit, as well as rn+1 < m)
and this defines digits dn (and remainders rn < m) for all n by induction.
This looks sort of like Euclids algorithm, except this one never ends. But if
rn = 0 for some n, then 0 = dn+1 = dn+2 = and the decimal terminates.
You should convince yourself that this algorithm for expanding rationals is
exactly how you were taught to find the decimal of a rational number as the
long divison of l by m. But now we are in a position to prove that this
expansion gives the correct decimal expansion of ml !
Proposition 1.3.1. The infinite decimal in the rational expansion of
to its decimal expansion.
l
m
is equal
r
l
=q+
m
m
and then q
l
r
< q + 1 (because 0
< 1)
m
m
(ii) Once we know that d1 , ..., dn are the correct first n digits, and in fact
that:
rn
l
= q.d1 d2 dn + n
()
m
10 m
then divide 10rn = mdn+1 + rn+1 by 10n+1 m to get
and substitute into () to get:
rn
10n m
dn+1
10n+1
rn+1
10n+1 m ,
l
dn+1
rn+1
rn+1
= q.d1 d2 dn + n+1 + n+1 = q.d1 d2 dn+1 + n+1
m
10
10
m
10
m
This proves that dn+1 is also correct, and completes the proof by induction.
27
28
CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS
29
30
CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS
31
The calculus proof only says that the inverse exists, not how to find it. For
a geometric construction of the multiplicative inverse, let L be the line through
(0, 0) and (r, 1). This has slope 1/r (unless r = 0, in which case it is vertical!). In
particular, the intersection of L with the vertical line x = 1 is the point (1, 1/r).
That is, by drawing L and intersecting with x = 1, we have constructed the
multiplicative inverse. This is more satisfying that just proving that it exists!
So R is a field.
As we said earlier, addition and multiplication of decimals is messy. There
are, however, a couple of useful exceptions to this.
Multiplying by powers of 10: If r = q.d1 d2 d3 , then:
10r = (10q + d1 ).d2 d3 d4
100r = (100q + 10d1 + d2 ).d3 d4 d5
etc.
That is, multiplying by powers of 10 shifts the decimal point.
Subtracting matching digits: Suppose r and s are real numbers with
matching digits. That is, suppose:
r has decimal expansion q.d1 d2 d3 and
s has decimal expansion p.d1 d2 d3
Then
rs=qp
That is, if the decimals all match, then the difference is an integer.
In Proposition 1.3.2, we proved that every rational number expands as a
repeating decimal. Here we prove the converse statement.
Proposition 1.3.5. Every repeating decimal is the decimal expansion of some
rational number.
Proof: Start with a repeating decimal r = q.d1 d2 ...dk dk+1 dn . Then:
10k r = (10k q + 10k1 d1 + + dk ).dk+1 dn
and
10n r = (10n q + 10n1 d1 + + dn ).dk+1 ...dn
and these are matching decimals, so we can subtract them to get:
10n r 10k r = (10n q + .... + dn ) (10k q + ... + dk )
and dividing both sides by 10n 10k , we see that r is rational:
r=
32
CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS
11001
11112 111
3667
=
=
104 102
9900
3300
1.3.1
3 by squaring.
3
(b) Find the first 5 decimals in the expansion of 2 by cubing.
1
13
(b)
2
13
(c)
3
13
(d)
4
13
(e)
5
13
(f)
6
13
(g)
7
13
1
1
, q1 +
q2
q2 +
1
q3
, q1 +
1
q2 +
1
q3 + q1
33
1
3
1
= , 1+
2
2
2+
1
8
25
17
56
55
(b)
q1 = 1 and s1 = 2 1
57
55
(c)
59
55
(d)
89
55
2+1
2+1
1
1
=
= 2 + 1 = 2.414
=
=
s1
21
21
( 2 1)( 2 + 1)
q2 = 2 and s2 =
q3 = 2 and s3 =
2+12=
2 1 (same as s1 )
2 1 (same as q2 and s2 )
3
1
1
= , 1+
2
2
2+
1
2
7
1
17
, 1+
=
,
5
12
2 + 2+1 1
2
In particular,
the continued fraction for 2 doesnt terminate (this is another
proof that 2 isnt rational!). But the qs do repeat. In fact, continued fraction
expansions of solutions to the quadratic formula:
b + b2 4ac
with a, b, c Z
2a
(see 2.3) always repeat. (Why?)
3-6 Expand the following two numbers as continued fractions, indicating where
the repeat in the qs occurs, and write out the first four terms of the sequence,
as in the example.
34
CHAPTER 1. NUMBERS
1
1+ 5
=
1+ 5
2
1
2
3-7 Calculator exercise. Use a calculator to find the first 5 values q1 , q2 , ..., q5
in the continued fraction expansion of and then find the rational number:
q1 +
1
q2 +
1
q3 +
1
q4 + 1
q5