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Below are general instructional guidelines that should be considered (Strickland, 1998 cited in
Gunning, 2003 and in Vacca, Vacca, and Gove, 1991):
Instruction is systematic when it is planned, deliberate in application, and proceeds in an
orderly manner. This does not mean a rigid progression of one-size-fits-all teaching.
Intensive instruction on any particular skill or strategy should be based on need. Thus,
intensity will vary both with individuals and groups.
There is no substitute for ongoing documentation and monitoring of learning to determine
the order in which skills should be addressed and the level of intensity required to help a
child or group of children succeed in a particular area.
To track specific goals and objectives within an integrated language-arts framework,
teachers must know the instructional objectives their curriculum requires at the grade or
year level they teach.
A. Organization
In organizing a remedial program, one must consider
the following factors:
1. CURRICULUM
a.Base goals and standards for language learning
on theory and research.
b.Relate teacher beliefs and knowledge about
instruction to research.
c. Organize the curriculum framework so that it is
usable
d.Select materials that facilitate accomplishment of
school goals.
2. INSTRUCTION
a. The program must identify instructional strategies and activities for learners.
b. Instruction must be based upon what we know about the effective teaching of
language skills.
c. Those involved in designing or selecting instructional activities need to consider the
variables that contribute to success in language learning, given its interactive and
constructive nature.
d. Time must be provided in the classroom for practice.
e. Composing should be an integral part of the program.
f. Students should be given opportunities to become independent and to self-monitor
their progress.
g. The climate in a school must be conducive to the development of students.
h. The school must develop an organizational structure that meets individual needs of
students.
i. The program must provide for coordination among all language programs offered in
the school.
3. ASSESSMENT
a. Use assessment to guide instruction.
b. Develop scoring guides and rubrics.
c. Seek alignment among various layers of assessment.
B. Management
School-based remedial sessions tend to
involve 3 to 10 learners, and typically last
between 30 to 50 minutes, depending on
whether they are in the elementary or
secondary level. A plan to maximize the
utilization of that time should be a high priority.
To ensure that the program is effective, one
must consider the six components of an ideal
remedial program (Manzo & Manzo, 1993).
These principles may also be applicable in
remediation for other skills aside from reading.
1. The orientation component. The orientation component provides continuity and focus to
the remedial session. It may be an engaging question or statement related to local or
national news, or even school life. It must focus on structured routines, materials,
equipment, venue, people involved, and the objective of the program.
2. Direct Instruction Component. This is the instructional heart of the remedial session. It
should never be traded away, even for one period, without some compelling reason.
3. Reinforcement and Extension Component. This period of time ideally should build on
the direct instructional period and be spent in empowered reading, writing, and
discussion of what was read. Writing activities may vary from simply listing key words to
summarizing and reacting.
4. Schema-Enhancement Component. This unit of time should be spent in building a
knowledge base for further reading and independent thinking. It is an ideal time to teach
study skills such as outlining, note taking, and memory training. Ideally, it should flow or
precede Component 3.
5. Personal-Emotional Growth Development. There is little learning or consequence that
can occur without the learner involvement and anticipation of personal progress.
6. Cognitive Development Component. This component should contain an attempt to
enhance basic thinking operation such as: inference, abstract verbal reasoning,
analogical reasoning, constructive-critical/ creative reading, convergent and divergent
analysis, problem-solving, and metacognition.
3. When a word ends in a consonant and le, the consonant usually begins the last syllable,
e.g., ta-ble and hum-ble.
4. Compound words are usually divided between word parts and between syllables in this
parts, e.g., hen-house and po-lice-man.
5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form separate syllables.
F. Remediation through Phonemic Awareness
The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills students should learn
1. Sound Isolation. Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/.
Example Instruction: In sound isolation use conspicuous strategies.
a.
Show students how to do all the steps in the task before asking children to do the
task.
Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds and say the names of
the pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with
/mmm/. Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in these pictures?"
b.
Use consistent and brief wording.
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone say the first sound in
man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in mountain,
mop, and Miranda. Does anyone know other words that begin with the same sound
as man?"
c.
Correct errors by telling the answer and asking students to repeat the correct answer.
Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in mmman with
me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/."
Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more questions. "Look at the
picture again. What is the first sound?"
2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is sun). In blending instruction, use scaffold
task difficulty.
a.
When students are first learning to blend, use examples with continuous sounds,
because the sounds can be stretched and held.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /mmm/
- /ooo/ - /mmm/ he means mom."
Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /b/
- /e/ - /d/ he means bed."
b.
When students are first learning the task, use short words in teaching and practice
examples. Use pictures when possible.
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My lion puppet wants one of
these pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which
picture?"
Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which picture?" (This is a more advanced
model that should be used later.)
c.
When students are first learning the task, use materials that reduce memory load and
to represent sounds.
Example: Use pictures to help them remember the words and to focus their
attention. Use a 3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word.
Non-example: Provide only verbal activities.
d.
As students become successful during initial learning, remove scaffolds by using
progressively more difficult examples. As students become successful with more
difficult examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as pictures.
Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with all sounds in a
word (phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures. "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/
- /p/. Which picture?" "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?"
Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with all the
scaffolds.
3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme
segmentation instruction, strategically integrate familiar and new information.
a.
Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending. Blending and
segmenting are sides of the same coin. The only difference is whether students hear
or produce a segmented word. Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for
children to reproduce than a blending response.
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds in
mom are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. "
b.
Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the sounds students will be
segmenting in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down letter cards for familiar
letter-sounds. Then, have them place pictures by the letter that begins with the same
sound as the picture.
Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught when teaching first
sound in pictures for phoneme isolation activities.
c.
Make the connections between sounds in words and sounds of letters.
Example: After students can segment the first sound, have them use letter tiles to
represent the sounds.
Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities are not used. Explicit
connections between alphabetic and phonologic activities are not made.
d.
Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced reading skills, such as blending lettersounds to read words.
Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles for s, u, n.) Have them
do familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched blending with letters.
G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction
Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:
Incidentally, through reading and conversation
Through direct instruction, as when a teacher
or auto-instructional program is used
intentionally build vocabulary power
Through self-instruction, as when words are
looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are
sought from others in a conscious manner.
Through mental manipulation while thinking,
speaking ,and writing
1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary instruction
Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning. The literature
on vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into five phases.
These are:
a. Disposition opening the students mind and will to engage new words.
b. Integration establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the
students existing knowledge.
c. Repetition provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities
for frequent encounters with the word in similar and differing contexts.
d. Interaction and meaningful use social situations conducive to using new words
in interactions with others and, thus, mentally referencing new words in listening,
reading, writing, and speaking.
e. Self-instruction maintaining an awareness of new words outside the classroom.
PROCEDURE
1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard, pronounce it, and tell
what it means.
2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning (How could
you show someone what this word means with just your hands or a gesture?)
3. Tell students that when you give a signal, they will do their gesture pantomimes
simultaneously.
4. Select the most common pantomime observed. Demonstrate it all to the students,
saying the word while doing the pantomime.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing the class to do the pantomime while
saying a brief meaning or simple synonym.
6. Let the students encounter the word in the assigned reading material.
7. Try to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is used for a short time
thereafter.
III. Remedial Instruction in LISTENING
A. Factors Affecting Students Listening Comprehension
1. Internal factors refer to the learner characteristics, language proficiency, memory,
age, gender, background knowledge as well as aptitude, motivation, and
psychological and physiological factors
2. External factors - are mainly related to the type of language input and tasks and the
context in which listening occurs
B. Internal Factors
1. Problems in language proficiency (cover problems on phonetics and phonology like
phonetic discrimination, and phonetic varieties; problems in grammar; and
lexicological problems)
2. Poor background knowledge
3. Lack of motivation to listen
4. Psychological factors
5. Other internal factors (age, attention span, memory span, reaction and sensitivity)
C. External Factors
1. Speed of delivery and different accents of the speakers
2. The content and task of listening materials
3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal location of the utterance, i.e. on the particular
time and particular place at which the speaker makes an utterance and the particular
time and place at which the listener hears or reads the utterance.
4. Co-text - another major factor influencing the interpretation of meaning. It refers to the
linguistic context or the textual environment provided by the discourse or text in which
a particular utterance occurs. Co-text constrains the way in which we interpret the
response. Here we can infer that the person is not going to a picnic by judging from
the co-text.
A: Are you coming going to Baguio with us?
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.
5.
D. Teaching Handwriting
The following are research-based suggestions for teaching handwriting.
1. Curriculum Considerations
a. The initial use of one type of script (e.g., manuscript versus cursive or different
versions of manuscript) does not appear to affect handwriting performance.
b. Special emphasis is placed on difficult-to-form letters and those that are frequently
reversed.
c. Lowercase letters are introduced before upper-case letters, unless they are formed
using similar strokes (e.g., C, c).
d. Letters that share common strokes are grouped together (e.g., o, c, d, a).
e. The introduction of easily confused letters (e.g., b, d, p, q) is staggered.
f. The formation of individual upper- and lowercase letters and, for cursive, difficult
letter transitions (e.g., roam) are modeled.
g. Visual cues, such as numbered dots and arrows, and verbal descriptions are used to
guide letter formation.
h. Activities to reinforce letter recognition and naming are combined with handwriting
practice.
i. Students practice using a comfortable and efficient tripod pencil grasp.
j. Students are shown and expected to use appropriate posture and paper positioning
for their handedness.
k. Handwriting fluency is developed through frequent writing and speed trials, with an
emphasis on maintaining legibility.
l. Opportunities are provided for distributed practice and judicious review of individual
letters and letter sequences.
m. Students are permitted to develop their own handwriting style and to choose which
script (manuscript, cursive, or even a blend) they prefer to use after mastering
handwriting (manuscript tends to be more legible than cursive and can be written just
as quickly if given equal emphasis).
n. Students are prompted to identify when a high degree of legibility is and is not
necessary.
2. Weekly Routines
a. In the primary grades, 6075 minutes per week is allocated for handwriting
instruction.
b. Students are encouraged to compare letters to discover patterns and to highlight their
similarities and differences.
c. Students are given opportunities to reinforce target letters by tracing them (a dashed
or faded model), copying them, and writing them from memory.
d. Students handwriting is monitored and immediately reinforced for correct letter
formation, spacing, alignment, size, slant, and line quality.
e. Students are asked to self-evaluate their handwriting and to set goals for improving
specific aspects of their handwriting each day.
f. Students are encouraged to correct poorly formed letters and to rewrite illegible work.
E. Teaching Spelling
1.
Curriculum Considerations
a. Spelling vocabulary includes words drawn from childrens reading materials,
childrens writing, self-selected words, high-frequency word lists 1,2, and pattern
words.
b. Students are typically taught phonemic awareness and phoneme-grapheme
associations (reserving the least consistent mappings, such as consonants /k/ and /z/
and long vowels, for last) in kindergarten and first grade. Common spelling patterns
(e.g., phonograms or rime families 3,4,5) are taught in first and second grades.
Morphological structures (i.e., roots and affixes 3,4,5,6) and helpful spelling rules
(e.g., add es to make words ending in s, z, x, ch, or sh plural) are taught in second
grade and beyond.
c. Students are taught systematic and effective strategies for studying new spelling
words (e.g., mnemonic spelling links, multi-sensory strategies).
d. Previously taught spelling words are periodically reviewed to promote retention.
e. Correct use of spelling vocabulary in students written work is monitored and
reinforced.
f. Students are taught and encouraged to use dictionaries, spell checkers, and other
resources to determine the spelling of unknown words
g. Spelling demons and other difficult words are posted on wall charts.
2. Weekly Routines
a. A minimum of 6075 minutes per week is allocated for spelling instruction.
b. Students take a Monday pretest to determine which words they need to study during
subsequent activities and to set spelling performance goals.
c. After studying new spelling words, students take a Friday posttest to determine which
words were mastered.
d. Immediately after taking a spelling test, students correct their misspellings.
e. The teacher conducts word sorts and guided spelling activities to explicitly teach
spelling patterns and rules at the beginning of the week.
f. Daily opportunities are provided for cumulative study and testing of new spelling
words (e.g., through computer-assisted instruction).
g. Students work together each day to learn new spelling words.
h. While studying, students monitor their on-task behavior or the number of times they
correctly spell a target word, to promote active learning.