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Stress analyses are done to ensure that machine elements will not fail due to stress
levels exceeding the allowable values. However, since we are dealing with deformable
bodies (not rigid), deflections should be considered also where they are in many cases
more limiting than stresses. Take for example shafts where excessive deflection will
interfere with the function of the elements mounted on the shaft and might cause
failure of the system, thus usually shafts are designed based on deflections rather than
stresses.
Spring Rates
In most types of loading situations, the stress developed in the element (bar, shaft,
beam, etc.) is linearly related to the loading. As long as the stress in the material
remains within the linear elastic region, the stress is also linearly related to the
deflection. Therefore, there is a linear relation between load and deflection and
elements under loading behave similar to linear springs, and thus we can define the
spring rate or spring constant for the element as:
For a round shaft subjected to torque, the angular deflection is found as:
=
in radians
Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
Page 1 of 23
Shear force
Moment
Slope
Deflection
2
2
= ()
Knowing the load intensity function, we can integrate four times (using the
known boundary conditions to evaluate the integration constants) to get the
deflection.
However, in most cases, the expression of bending moment is easy to find (using
sections) and thus we start from the moment governing equation and integrate
to get the slope and deflection.
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.
CH 4
=
=
2
=
+ 1
Integrating
Integrating
B.C.s:
1 =0
+ 1 + 2
@ =
(1)
(2)
2
=0
@ =
(3)
Thus,
and the slope
( 3 + 32 23 )
(2 2 )
( )
=0
( )=0
=
2
2
=0
Solved by integration
Note that:
RA=R1+R3+R5+R7
RB=R2+R4+R6+R8
=
2
but,
spring rate
2
=
2
This equation defines the strain energy in general where the load can also mean
a torque or moment provided that consistent units are used for .
Therefore, the strain energy for different types of loading can be defined as
follows:
Factors
Involved
Loading Type
Axial
Strain Energy
Strain Energy
(General expression)
F, E, A
Bending
2
=
2
=
2
2
=
2
=
2
M, E, I
2
=
Torsion
=
2
T, G, J
Transverse Shear
2
=
=
2
V, G, A
250 2
= 1 + 2 = 0
Due to moment
1
2
250 25104 2
[0
= 500
&
4105
500 25104 2
+ 250
8105
] =
21
500 2
+ 250
1
22
25 3
[| 120 |
2(210103 )
250
0
=
+|
25 3
500
240 250
= 34.877
= 1 + 2 =
Due to shear
= 1.2
5002
2(75103 )
2 1
21
250
2 2
22
250
= + = 35.266
Castiglianos Theorem
Castiglianos theorem is one of the energy methods (based on strain energy) and it can
be used for solving a wide range of deflection problems.
Castiglianos theorem states that when a body is elastically deformed by a
system of loads, the deflection at any point in any direction is equal to
the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to a load at in the
direction .
The theory applies to both linear and rotational deflections
=
Where is the rotation (in radians) at the point of application of the moment
in the direction of
It should be clear that Castigliones theorem finds the deflection at the point of
application of the load in the direction of the load.
Q: What about if there is no load at the desired point in the desired direction?
A: We apply a fictitious dummy load at that point in the desired direction.
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.
CH 4
= [
]
=0
Note: If the strain energy is in the form of integral, it is better to take the partial
derivative with respect to the load before integrating.
See Examples 4-8 & 4-9 from text
2 2
( + )2
2 2
=
+
+
+
2
2
2 2
0
( + )
2 3
= [ ]
=
+
=
+
+
=0
2 3
0
Set = 0
2
=
2
The expressions for finding deflections using Castiglianos theorem can be simplified
and written as:
=
=
(
)
= (
)
= (
)
Fr = F cos
Axial:
F = F sin
Bending Moment:
M = F R sin
2
Where is the eccentricity ( = )
However, when the radius is large compared to the height the
strain energy due to moment can be approximated as:
2
1 =
> 10
The strain energy due to normal axial force has two components:
- Due to the axial force :
2
2 =
2
- Due to the moment produced by the axial force (which has an opposite
direction to the moment ):
3 =
2
Where is the cross-section correction factor
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.
CH 4
1 2 3 4
=
+
+
+
+
2 2
2
Note that the first term (which is due to moment) will be much larger than the
other two terms when is large, since it has 2 , and thus the other terms can
be neglected and we can use the approximate expression of strain energy for
/ > 10 which gives an approximate result:
2
= +
2
2
=
+
2
2
0
/2
( + (1 ))
=
= () + ( + (1 cos ))
- Using superposition divide the loading where once the applied loading is
present and the redundant reaction is removed, and the other time the
applied load is removed and the redundant reaction is present.
- Find the deflection (can be found from tables or using Castiglianos
theorem) at the location of the redundant reaction in both cases and use
that as an additional compatibility equation where the sum of the
deflections is zero. (note that if the redundant reaction is a moment, the
corresponding deflection will be slope)
- Solve the compatibility equation(s) for the redundant reaction, and then
find the remaining reactions from the equilibrium equations.
Example:
Compatibility equations:
Solved for the
redundant reactions
R2 & M2
1 + 2 + 3 = 0
1 + 2 + 3 = 0
where:
Can be used to
find R1 & M1
M1 = M1+M1+M1
R1 = R1+R1+R1
Solution:
1
2 =
2
(1)
(2)
2
2
2
(12 3 )]
1 = [ ]
=[
=
=0
48
16
=0
From Table A-9 (case 8) and setting a = 0 we get:
1
1
(3 2 + 22 )]
2 = [ ]
=[
=
=0
6
3
=0
Compatibility:
1 + 2 = 0
1 2
=0
3 16
1 =
3
16
1 =
11
16
&
2 =
5
16
Compression Members
The analysis and design of compression members Columns is different from
members loaded in tension.
A column is a straight and long (relative to its cross-section) bar that is subjected to a
compressive axial load. A column can fail due to buckling (a sudden, large lateral
deflection) before the compressive stress in the column reach its allowable (yield)
value.
2
=
2
2
or
2
+ =0
2
Which is a homogeneous, second order differential equation. The general
solution for the differential equation is:
= +
(1)
=0
From B.C.2:
0 =
The constant cannot be zero because that is a trivia solution which means
that the column will not be buckle. Thus,
= 0
where = 1,2,3
2 2
=
2
where the smallest is obtained for = 1 (The first mode of buckling)
Thus, the critical load for a column with pinned ends is:
2
= 2
which is a half-wave
It should be realized that for columns with non-circular crosssection, the column will buckle about the axis of the cross-section
having the smallest moment of inertia (the weakest axis).
2
(/)2
2
=
2
2
=
=
(/)2
2 2
( ) =
1
2
=
= 2 ( )
<( )
Example: A column with one end fixed and the other free is to be made of Aluminum
alloy 2014 (E=72GPa, Sy=97MPa). The column cross-sectional area is to be 600 mm2
and its length is 2.5 m.
Find the critical buckling load for the following cross-sections:
a) A solid round bar
b) A solid square bar
Solution:
= 1/4
Fixed-Free:
a) Round bar
4
4(600)
= =
= 27.64
4 =
Radius of gyration:
= =
Slenderness ratio:
64
() =
64
(27.64)4 = 28650 4
28650
600
2500
6.91
= 6.91
= 361.8
Moment of Inertia:
2 2
2 2 (0.25)(72 109 )
=
= 60.52
( ) =
1
97 106
361.8 > 60.52
Comparing:
Long column ( )
b) Square bar
= 2
= = 600 = 24.5
4 24. 54
=
=
= 30000 4
12
12
30000
600
= =
= 7.07
2500
= 353.6
( )=
7.07
353.6 > 60.52
Long column ( )
The example shows that for the same cross-sectional area the square section has
slightly higher critical buckling load than the circular one.
To increase the critical buckling load without increasing the cross-sectional area,
hollow tube sections are used (since they have higher moment of inertia).
When thin-walled hollow tubes are used, wall buckling is considered too. For this
reason circular tubes are better than square tubes because the buckling load of
curved walls is higher than that of flat walls.
The critical stress causing wall buckling of thin-wall circular tubes can be found as:
=
3(1 2 )
& are youngs modulus and poisons ratio and & are the tube diameter and wall thickness.
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed.
CH 4
2
2
we get:
Using the same procedure used before to solve the differential equation, and
the same B.C.s we can obtain the deflection equation. The maximum deflection
occurs at mid-span (x=L/2) and it is found to be:
= = [ ( ) 1]
2
and thus, maximum moment at mid-span is:
= ( + ) = ( )
2
The maximum compressive stress at mid-span has two components; axial and
bending:
=
= 2
[1 + 2 ( )]
=
1+(
) ( )
2
2
()
+
= +
= (1 + 2 )
(1 + 2 )
If the maximum stress value is , then we can solve for the critical load .
To distinguish short columns (or struts) from long columns with eccentric loading
the slenderness ratio is used, where the limiting value is:
Limiting value of slenderness ratio
for columns with eccentric loading
( ) = 0.282
2
if
if
>( )
<( )
( )
( )