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How do you decide whether or not to pursue a mathematical idea? How do you decide when to give more
information or let students grapple with their ideas?
How do you help students clarify and justify their ideas?
How does discourse encourage reasoning and sense
making in your classroom?
How do teacher-to-student conversations in your
classroom become student-to-student conversations?
How do you give more ownership of the classroom to
students?
The Editorial Panel of Mathematics Teaching in the
Middle School (MTMS) encourages readers to submit
manuscripts concerning discourse. We especially invite
responses from middle school classroom teachers who
are incorporating action research into their practice to
reflect on how discourse impacts students learning and
understanding.
Send submissions to this open-ended call for
manuscripts by accessing mtms.msubmit.net. On the
Keywords, Categories, Special Sections tab, select this
specific call from the list in the Department/Call section.
mathematics
Middle School
teaching in the
Discourse
Copyright 2010 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org. All rights reserved.
This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in any other format without written permission from NCTM.
Linear Functions
Solving Quadratic
Equations
System of Equations
Statistics
Statistics
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20
37
41
44
45
25
19
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2
34
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Dilations
Exponential Functions
Trigonometric Ratios
x
24
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Statistics
Probability
Logarithmic Functions
Trigonometric Identities
Simplify:
cos + sin tan
Sequences
Fundamental
Theorem of
Statistics
Algebra
Common Core Math III
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Handout 5.h
A.
Questioning
Level
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-------Explaining mathematical
C. Source of mathematical
thlnklnq
ideas
No or minimal teacher elicitation of
Teacher is physically at the board
students thinking, strategies, or
usually chalk in hand, telling and
explanations; teacher expects answershowing students how to do math.
focused responses. Teacher may tell
answers.
No student thinking or strategyStudents respond to math
focused explanation of work. Only
presented by the teacher. They do
answers are given.
not offer their own math ideas.
B.
A.
<,
Questioning
~"-'"
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.. _._
h _. .- --_ ..
Source of mathematical
ideas
_.- . ~............
C.
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Session 5 - How Can Professional Development Enable Teachers to Improve Student Achievement?
.-,,,. Secondary Lenses on Learning: Team Leadership for Mathematics in Middle and High Schools
Corwin Press
Copyright 2009
....
D.
--_
d-
...
--_.
Responsibility
Teacher
directed
students'
showing
for learning
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D. Responsibility
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Level 2: Teacher modeling and helping students build new roles. Some co-teaching and co-learning begins as student-to-student talk increases. Teacher
de or back of th - . ....
B. ExplaininQ mathematical thinking
D. Responsibility
for learning
C. Source of mathematical
ideas
A. QuestioninQ
Teacher follows up on explanations
Teacher encourages students' responsibility
Teacher probes more deeply to learn
Teacher continues to ask
and builds on. them by asking
for understanding the mathematical ideas of
about student thinking and supports
probing questions and also asks
detailed descriptions from students.
students to compare and contrast
others. Teacher asks other students
more open questions. She also
them. Teacher is comfortable using
questions about student work and whether
facilitates student-to-student talk,
Teacher open to and elicits multiple
student errors as opportunities for
they agree or disagree and why.
strategies.
e.g., by asking students to be
learning.
prepared to ask questions about
other students' work.
Students usually give information as it is
Students exhibit confidence about
Students begin to listen to understand one
Students ask questions of one
probed by the teacher with some
their ideas and share their own
another. When the teacher requests, they
another's work on the board,
volunteering of thoughts. They begin to
thinking and strategies even if they
explain other students' ideas in their own
often at the prompting of the
are different from others. Student
words. Helping involves clarifying other
stake a position and articulate more
teacher. Students listen to one
ideas sometimes guide the direction
another so they do not repeat
information in response to probes. They
students' ideas for themselves and others.
explain steps in their thinking by
of the math lesson.
Students imitate and model teacher's probing
questions.
providing fuller descriptions and begin to
in pair work and in whole-class discussions.
defend their answers and methods.
Other students listen supportivelv,
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Teacher monitors all that occurs, still fully engaged. Teacher is ready to assist, but now in more peripheral
_. "~-'"
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B. Explalnlnq mathematical thinklnq
C. Source of mathematical
ideas
D. Responsibility for laarnlnq
Teacher follows along closely to student
Teacher allows for interruptions from
The teacher expects students to be
students during her explanations; she
descriptions of their thinking,
responsible for co-evaluation of everyone's
lets students explain and "own" new
work and thinking. She supports students as
encouraging students to make their
explanations more compete; may ask
strategies. (Teacher is still engaged
they help one another sort out
and deciding what is important to
probing questions to make explanations
misconceptions.
She helps and/or follows up
continue exploring.) Teacher uses
more complete. Teacher stimulates
when needed.
student ideas and methods as the
students to think more deeply about
basis for lessons or mini-extensions.
sireieaies.
Students describe more complete
Students interject their ideas as the
Students listen to understand, then initiate
strategies; they defend and justify their
teacher or other students are
clarifying other students' work and ideas for
teaching, confident that their ideas
answers with little prompting from the
themselves and for others during whole-class
teacher. Students realize that they will
are valued. Students spontaneously
discussions as well as in small group and
be asked questions from other students
compare and contrast and build 011
pair work. Students assist each other in
when they finish, so they are motivated
ideas. Student ideas form part of the
understanding and correcting errors.
content of many math lessons.
and careful to be thorough. Other
students support with active listening.
I,
Corwin Press
Copyright 2009
Question
Whatshouldyounotwritethere?
Ifyouhaveamapping,whatdoyouputintheleftcircleandtherightcircle?
WhatdoIwritehere?
Dowewanttousethe3twice?
Whatdowedonow?Forthemapping?
HowdoIdrawthelines?
Howcanwetellfromthemappingwhethertheyrepeat?
Howcanyouseetherepeating?
Dowehavemultiplelines?
Isthisafunction?
WhatdoestheVerticalLineTestdoforus?
Howdoweusethat?
Doyouremember?
Whatdoesthattellus?
Howdoyouknowitsnotafunction?
Thenextsectionstaysflat.Whatwouldwesayforthat?
Whatwordswouldyouuse?
Anotherone?
Thenextsection?
Whatdoesthismeantosquare?
What'sanegativetimesanegativegoingtobe?
What'sthedomainagain?
Iftheygiveyouthexvalues,whatdoyouthinktheywantustodo?
Howdotheywantustowritethis?
Howwouldyoufindthat?
Whatisf(x)equalto?
Whatisg(x)?
Whatdotheywantustodowiththosethings?
OnwhichdaysdidJackshopaDollarDeals?
Howcouldyoutell?
Isthereapatternyousaw?
Doyourememberwhatwecalledthatyesterday?
Whydowecallthattheidentityfunction?
HowmuchdidhespendperitematStuffMart?
Howdoyouknow?
WheredoesJackshopmostoften?
AtDollarDeals,what'sthecostfor10items?
Whatistheorderedpair?
Whyisthat?Whichiswhat?
Whatdoesthatorderedpairmean?
Whatcanyoutellmeaboutthisfunction?
Tellmewhatyouknowaboutthisfunction?
Whatelsecanyoutellme?
Whatdoyoumeanbythat?
Givemesomethingelse.
Who'sdependentonwhohere?
Isthatwhatthatmeans?
Howdoesitwork?
Whatdidshegiveyou?
Whydidshegiveyou$6?
Sothatmakessense?
Didanybodyfigureourwhatgoesuphere?
Whydoesithavetobea2?
Whydidithavetobe2timesx?
Whatcouldyoutellmeincomparison?
WhataresomedifferenecesbetweenDollarDealsandPugglyWuggly?
Whichoneoftheslopesisgoingtobesteeper?
Why?
Whywouldthatmakeitsteeper?
Whatcanyoutellmeaboutthatstore?
Whatelsecanyoutellmebasedonwhatwejustsaid?
Howwouldyoubeabletotell(whichdaythemanagerwasoutsick)?
Whatkindofpatterndidthosetwodaysmake?
HowdoyouknowitwasaDollarDealsfunction?
Whatpointsisthatgoingtogothrough?
Whatcanyoutellmebasedonthosetwolines?
Whatdoesthathelpyousee?
Whichoneissteeper?
Howcanwetell?
Whyisredsteeper?
Whatiscontinuousdata?
DoeseveryoneseethesamethingIsee?
Howweretheycharged(Customer2and3)?
Howcouldyoutell?
Whatdoesthatmeantoyou?
Whatwouldbethefunction?
Whatwouldbetheslope?
Whatistheslopeorcostperitem?
HowdoesFivealisciouscomparetoDollarDealsandPugglyWuggly?
Isitsteeper?
Type
Bloom'sLevel
Yes/No
12WordAns
ShortAns
ExtendedAns
Rhetorical
Remembering
Understanding
Applying
Analysing
Evaluating
Creating
CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
Students
Are actively engaged in the lesson and
demonstrate their understanding of
mathematics in the way they think, talk
agree, and disagree by:
Posing and answering questions
Student to student
Student to teacher
Listening to the reasoning of others
Making conjectures
Presenting solutions
Exploring examples
Examining counter examples
Using a variety of tools
Using multiple representations
Making connections
Providing logical mathematical arguments
to defend answers
Teachers
Elicit, engage and challenge students
thinking by:
Selecting appropriate worthwhile
mathematical task
Posing questions that require use of higher
order thinking
Asking probing questions to initiate the
thinking process
Listening to students ideas
Requiring students to clarify and justify
Facilitating participation of all students
Acknowledging multiple pathways
Allowing appropriate wait time
DATA TOOL
Comments
Comments
Adapted from
Field Experience Guide Elementary And Middle School Mathematics Teaching Developmentally,
John A. Van de Walle
August 2005
observed. The follow section provides a detailed description of each aspect of the notation
system and outlines the method observers should use to record evidence of mathematical
discourse among students.
Mode of DiscourseMathematical discoursethat is, the act of articulating mathematical ideas
or proceduresmay take place in several modes. The observer should identify who the student is
addressing. Exhibit 2 provides the codes, definitions, and descriptions of the various modes that
are applicable in this study.
Exhibit 2Modes of Mathematical Discourse
Code
Definition
Explanation
Student to Teacher
The student primarily addresses the teacher even though the entire class or
group hears the students comments.
Student to Student
IR
Individual Reflection
Please note that the teacher to student and teacher to group or class modes, although common,
are not listed because they relate to the mathematical thinking of the teacher, not the student.
Types of DiscourseEffective mathematical discourse is an iterative process by which students
engage in a variety of types of discourse at different cognitive levels. Student questions lead to
explanations and justifications that may be challenged and subsequently defended, which might
in turn lead to the formation of new generalizations or conjectures, thereby initiating a new
cycle. Exhibit 3 describes the types of mathematical discourse the observer should document
during classroom observation.
Exhibit 3Types of Mathematical Discourse
Code
Level
Answering
A student gives a short answer to a direct question from the teacher or another
student.
Making a
Statement or
Sharing
A student makes a simple statement or assertion, or shares his or her work with
others and the statement or sharing does not involve an explanation of how or why.
For example, a student reads what she wrote in her journal to the class.
Explaining
Questioning
Challenging
Relating
August 2005
Definition
Explanation
Code
Level
Definition
Explanation
Predicting or
Conjecturing
Justifying
Generalizing
Tools for DiscourseStudents may employ a variety of tools to help them communicate the
mathematical ideas or procedures. The tools they choose to use are important indicators of their
level of sophistication with respect to mathematics. Exhibit 4 describes some of the tools that
students are likely to use.
Exhibit 4Tools for Mathematical Discourse
Code
Definition
Explanation
Verbal
Gesturing/Acting
Written
A student uses tables, graphs, charts, sketches, or other visual aids to depict
mathematical ideas or procedures.
Manipulative
Symbolization
Notation
Computers/Calculators
Other
Using the NotationThe observer will use the codes that appear in Exhibits 2 through 4 to
document the quantity and quality of the mathematical discourse that occurs among the students
in the classrooms observed. Exhibit 5 provides examples of observers notations of evidence of
mathematical discourse along with explanation of each set of notations.
August 2005
Type
Tools
A student verbally asked the teacher a question to clarify a mathematical idea or procedure
he or she did not understand.
E, J
V, A
S
S
E, J
Q
G
V
A student presented a mathematical idea or procedure to another student using tables and
graphs. The second student asked questions to clarify his or her understanding of the idea or
procedure but did not challenge its validity.
A student shared with the class an observation that he or she made about a pattern in a
number sequence.
IR
E, J
Students individually reflected on a mathematical idea or procedure and wrote their thoughts
in their journals.
Explanation
Students did not engage in any discourse during the lesson episode observed.
VM
One student in a small group uses a wooded cube to point out (make a statement) that a cube
has 8 corners, 12 edges, and 6 flat surfaces.
V, G
A student drew a diagram on the board and explained to the class how he or she solved a
mathematics problem.
S
S
S
E, J,
C
J
G, N
N
G
August 2005
RMC Research will send a letter to the teachers selected to participate in the observations
explaining their involvement and how and why they were selected and inviting them to
participate. Copies of the letters will also be sent to the school principals. The letter will include
a consent form that the teachers will sign and return if they choose to participate. Those teachers
who participate will receive $100 in 2 installments.
RMC Research will notify the appropriate observer once a teacher agrees to participate. At that
point the observer should follow up with a telephone call to schedule the exact date and time for
the observation. Observers must remember to schedule time for both the pre- and
postobservation interviews and the observation itself. Contact information for teachers is
available on the OMLI Professional Development Database (www.rmccorp.com/OMLI).
Step 2: Prepare for the Observation
Observers may find the following tips helpful when preparing for an observation:
Make sure you have enough copies of the Discourse and Summary forms. You will need
one copy of the Classroom Observation Summary Form for each observation but will
likely need several copies of the Classroom Observation Discourse Form for each
observation.
Bring a tablet for taking notes, pencils and pens, and possibly a clipboard.
Be sure you know how to find the school. Observers may wish to ask for directions when
scheduling the observation or use an online map service such as MapQuest
(www.mapquest.com) to help find the school. The address of all participating schools
appears in the OMLI Professional Development Database.
Check on the availability of parking if you are visiting a high school. Observers may wish
to ask the teacher about parking when scheduling the observation.
Allow enough time to drive to the school, park, sign in at the main office, obtain a
visitors pass, and find your way to the teachers classroom.
August 2005
The information gained through the preobservation interview will assist in the completion of the
lesson context portion of the Classroom Observation Summary Form. Observers should be sure
to express appreciation to the teachers for allowing the observation and should answer any
questions they have about confidentiality, the use of the data collected, the incentive, and so on.
If the teacher is using published materials, be sure to note the complete name of the materials,
publisher, chapter, section, and pages that relate to the lesson observed. If the teacher developed
the lesson, get a copy of the lesson plan and include it with your submission.
Step 4: Observe the Lesson
The observer must be as unobtrusive as possible during the lesson. Avoid distracting the students
by staying out of the spotlight as much as possible. Avoid interacting with the students in a way
that takes their attention away from the lesson. Definitely avoid the urge to help the students with
the activities or assignments.
Any lesson observed is likely to comprise distinct episodes and transitions between the episodes.
Episodes have a distinct beginning and end and usually focus on 1 or 2 instructional objectives.
The time during which students work in small groups to solve problems using manipulatives is a
distinct episode. A large group discussion that engages students in sharing a variety of
approaches to solving a problem followed by time for students to write in their journals is 2
episodes: the large group discussion is one episode and the journal time is another episode. Not
all episodes will present opportunities for mathematical discourse among students. For example,
a lesson may include materials cleanup. Such episodes do not require the observer to record
evidence of mathematical discourse because none is likely to occur.
Observers should collect data on each distinct episode that has an instructional focus. The
approach to data collection will change depending upon the type of episode that is observed.
Exhibit 7 provides guidelines for collecting data on each type of episode. Observers should use
the Classroom Observation Discourse Form to document evidence of mathematical discourse
and ensure that all information required is captured for each episode that occurs during the
lessons.
Exhibit 7Episode Data Collection Guidelines
Episode Type
Observe the entire group and record the evidence of mathematical discourse as it occurs.
Randomly choose one of the pairs or small groups and observe the interaction among
the members of the selected group, recording evidence of mathematical discourse as it
occurs. If the group is off task, move to another group of the same size.
Individual
Circulate among the students and observe what they are working on. If students are
solving problems, it is unlikely any mathematical discourse will occur unless student
interaction is involved. If all students are writing in their journals, record a single
notation indicating as much (IR/E, J/W). If the teacher is circulating among the students
or working with individual students, follow the teacher and record evidence of
mathematical discourse on the part of the students.
August 2005
The Classroom Observation Discourse Form is intended for use during the observation to record
lesson episodes and the evidence of mathematical discourse that is observed during each episode.
Because a lesson may involve any number of distinct episodes, observers must have a supply of
blank Classroom Observation Discourse Forms readily available. Observers should indicate the
teachers name, the date of the observation, and page number at the top of each Classroom
Observation Discourse Form to ensure that the forms can easily be associated with the
corresponding Classroom Observation Summary Form. Exhibit 8 provides guidelines for
completing each column of the Classroom Observation Discourse Form.
Exhibit 8Classroom Observation Discourse Form Field Definitions
Field
Explanation
Episode Type
Check the ONE column that best describes how students are grouped for the episode. A
change in the grouping is a good indicator that an episode has ended and a new one is about
to begin.
Start/End Times
Record the time of day that the episode starts and when it ends to the nearest minute. It is
very important that both of these times are recorded.
Students Observed
Episode Description
Write a brief description of the episode, describing what students are doing.
Discourse Codes
Use these columns to record every incident of student mathematical discourse observed
during the episode using the specified notation system described earlier. Assign a mode,
type, and tools code to every incident.
Tally
For each incident of mathematical discourse that occurs, tally the number of times that it is
observed during an episode. Remember to tally the first case.
Episodes that have a management or logistics focus such as cleanup or roll call need not be
recorded. When one episode ends and another begins, draw a horizontal line across the
Classroom Obseration Discourse Form to indicate the transition between episodes. Be sure to
note the time each episode begins and ends. Use as many copies of the form as necessary to
document each episode that has an instructional focus. Gaps in segments of the lesson with
instructional focus should be indicated as a gap between the end time of one episode and the start
time of the next instructional episode.
Step 5: Conduct the Postobservation Interview
Conduct a brief postobservation interview with the teacher as soon after the classroom
observation as possible. Exhibit 9 lists questions that observers can use to obtain the information
needed to complete the Classroom Observation Summary Form and to assess the degree to which
the class observed represented a typical class taught by this teacher. Observers should express
appreciation for the opportunity to observe the class at the conclusion of the postobservation
interview.
Exhibit 9Suggested Postobservation Interview Questions
1. Did this lesson turn out different from what you planned? If so, in what ways?
2. How typical was this lesson for the students?
August 2005
3. What do you think the students learned from this lesson, and what they still need to
learn?
4. What challenges did you confront in encouraging students to engage in the mathematical
discourse?
5. What do you plan to do in the next lesson with these students?
Step 6: Complete the Classroom Observation Summary Form
Observers should complete the Classroom Observation Summary Form as soon after each
observation and postobservation interview as possible. The form includes a Lesson Context
section and an Observation Summary section.
Lesson ContextUse this section of the form to document the lesson context. Be sure to
complete all items in this section. Exhibit 10 provides an explanation of each fields in this
section of the form.
Exhibit 10Classroom Observation Summary Form Lesson Context Field Definitions
Field
Explanation
Observer
The first and last name of the person who conducted the classroom observation and
completed the form.
Date
The date the observation took place. Not the date the form was submitted.
Teacher
The first and last name of the teacher of the class that was observed.
School
Grade(s)
Course
The name of the course (e.g., Algebra I, Interactive Math, Grade 3 Math)
Unit/Topic
The name of the unit and topic the students were studying the day of the observation (e.g.,
percentage, polynomials, whole number multiplication)
Learning Objective
A brief statement that explicitly describes what the teacher intended the students to learn
from the lesson. This statement should not describe what students were intended to do, but
what they should have learned.
Instructional Materials
A specific reference to the instructional materials (including manipulatives) that were used
in the lesson. If the materials were printed, please record the title, publisher, chapter,
section, and page. If the lesson is teacher developed, get a copy of the lesson plans.
Students
The total number of students present during the observation. If the number of students
changed during the class period, the maximum number of students.
Percent Minority
An estimate of the percentage of the students present during the observation who were
ethnic minority (non-White).
Relationship to previous
and future lessons
A brief description of students had learned prior to the lesson observed and what the
teacher planned to address in future lessons. This description should place the lesson
observed in the overarching instructional.
Other comments
Other comments regarding the aspects of the lesson context not already addressed (e.g.,
the presence of an instructional aide, information about the classroom environment,
unexpected events that occurred such as a fire drill).
August 2005
Observation SummaryUse this section of the form to rate the overall lesson according to key
lesson characteristics. Base the ratings on the information gathered during the observation and
the interviews. Provide a rationale for extreme ratings and general impressions regarding the
lesson on the last page of the form (use the back side if necessary).
Step 7: Submit the Results
Observers are responsible for submitting the classroom observation results to RMC Research via
the OMLI Professional Development Database. The URL for the web site is:
http://www.rmccorp.com/OMLI
Passwords for access to the web site will be issued to each observer by RMC Research staff. The
observations forms can be found under the data collection menu.
Once the data have been submitted electronically, mail the original forms to:
Dave Weaver
RMC Research Corporation
522 SW Fifth Avenue, Suite 1407
Portland, OR 97204-2131
If you have any questions regarding classroom observations procedures or about submitting data,
feel free to contact Dave by phone at (503) 223-8248 or (800) 788-1887 or by e-mail at
dweaver@rmccorp.com.
References
Some of the items used in this protocol were adapted from instruments available from the
following sources:
Horizon Research, Inc. (2003). Local systemic change 200304 core evaluation data
collection manual. Chapel Hill, NC: Author.
Secada, W. & Byrd, L. (1993). Classroom observation scales: School-level reform in the
teaching of mathematics. Madison, WI: National Center for Research in
Mathematical Sciences Education.
August 2005
August 2005
Date: ______________________
Discourse Codes
Start/End
Times
Students
Observed
Individual
Pairs/Small
Group
Large
Group
Episode Type
Page: _____
Episode Description
Mode
Type
Tools
Tally
MODES
Code
Definition
Student to Teacher
Student to Student
Student to Group or
Class
Individual Reflection
TYPES
Code
Definition
Answering
Stating or Sharing
Explaining
Questioning
Challenging
Relating
Predicting or
Conjecturing
Justifying
Generalizing
August 2005
TOOLS
Code
Definition
Verbal
Gesturing/Acting
Written
Manipulative
Symbolization
Notation
Computers/Calculators
Other
Date: __________________________
Students: ________________
August 2005
Observation Summary
Assess this lesson based on your observation data and the information gathered during the preand postobservation interviews.
A. RepresentativenessHow typical was the lesson observed in comparison to other lessons
taught by this teacher?
Somewhat Typical
Mostly Typical
Very Typical
To a Great
Extent
Mostly
Some
Very Little
Not at All
The instructional objectives of the lesson were clear and the teacher was
able to clearly articulate what mathematical ideas and/or procedures the
students were expected to learn.
The pace of the lesson was appropriate for the developmental level/needs
of the students and the purpose of the lesson.
The teacher was flexible and able to make adjustments to address student
needs or to take advantage of teachable moments.
The vast majority of the students were engaged in the lesson and remained
on task.
August 2005
Not at All
Very Little
Some
Mostly
To a Great
Extent
10
D. Task Implementation
1
E. Classroom Culture
1
The classroom climate was one of respect for the students ideas,
questions, and contributions.
August 2005
F. Overall RatingFor each section below, mark the choice that best describes your overall
summary of the lesson based on the observation.
1. Depth of Student Knowledge and UnderstandingThis scale measures the depth of the students
mathematical knowledge as evidenced by the opportunities students had to produce new knowledge
by discovering relationships, justifying their hypotheses, and drawing conclusions.
Knowledge was very superficial. Mathematical concepts were treated trivially or presented as nonproblematic.
Students were involved in the coverage of information which they are to remember, but no attention was paid to the
underlying mathematical concepts. For example, students applied an algorithm for factoring binomials or used the
FOIL method of multiplicationin either case with no attention to the underlying concepts.
Knowledge was superficial or fragmented. Underlying or related mathematical concepts and ideas were mentioned
or covered, but only a superficial acquaintance with or trivialized understanding of these ideas was evident. For
example, a teacher might have explained why binomials are factored or why the FOIL method works, but the focus
remained on students mastering these procedures.
Knowledge was uneven; a deep understanding of some mathematics concepts was countered by a superficial
understanding of other concepts. At least one idea was presented in depth and its significance was grasped by some
students, but in general the focus was not sustained.
Knowledge was relatively deep because the students provide information, arguments, or reasoning that
demonstrate the complexity of one or more ideas. The teacher structured the lesson so that many (20% to
50%) students did at least one of the following: sustain a focus on a topic for a significant period of time;
demonstrate their understanding of the problematic nature of a mathematical concept; arrive at a reasoned,
supported conclusion with respect to a complex mathematical concept; or explain how they solved a
relatively complex problem. Many (20% to 50%) students clearly demonstrated understanding of the
complexity of at least one mathematical concept.
Knowledge was very deep. The teacher successfully structured the lesson so that almost all (90% to 100%)
students did at least one of the following: sustain a focus on a topic for a significant period of time;
demonstrate their understanding of the problematic nature of a mathematical concept; arrive at a reasoned,
supported conclusion with respect to a complex mathematical concept; or explain how they solved a complex
problem. Most (51% to 90%) students clearly demonstrated understanding of the complexity of more than
one mathematical concept.
2. Locus of Mathematical AuthorityThis scale determines the extent to which the lesson
supported a shared sense of authority for validating students mathematical reasoning.
Students relied on the teacher or textbook as the legitimate source of mathematical authority. Students accepted an
answer as correct only if the teacher said it was correct or if it was found in the textbook. If stuck on a problem,
students almost always asked the teacher for help.
Students relied on the teacher and some of their more capable peers (who were clearly recognized as being better at
math) as the legitimate sources of mathematical authority. The teacher often relied on the more capable students to
provide the right answers when pacing the lesson or to correct erroneous answers. As a result, other students often
relied on these students for correct solutions, verification of right answers, or help when stuck.
Many (20% to 50%) students shared mathematical authority among themselves. They tended to rely on the
soundness of their own arguments for verification of answers, but, they still looked to the teacher as the authority
for making final decisions. The teacher intervened with answers to speed things up when students seemed to be
getting bogged down in the details of an argument.
Most (51% to 90%) students shared in the mathematical authority of the class. Though the teacher intervened when
the students got bogged down, he or she did so with questions that focused the students attention or helped the
students see a contradiction that they were missing. The teacher often answered a question with a question, though
from time to time he or she provided the students with an answer.
Almost all (90% to 100%) of the students shared in the mathematical authority of the class. Students relied on the
soundness of their own arguments and reasoning. The teacher almost always answered a question with a question.
Many (20% to 50%) students left the class still arguing about one or more mathematical concepts.
August 2005
3. Social SupportThis scale measures the extent to which the teacher supported the students
by conveying high expectations for all students.
Social support was negative. Negative teacher or student comments or behaviors were observed. The classroom
atmosphere was negative.
d
e
Social support was mixed. Both negative and positive teacher or student comments or behaviors were observed.
Social support from the teacher was clearly positive and there was some evidence of social support among students.
The teacher conveyed high expectations for all, promoted mutual respect, and encouraged the students try hard and
risk initial failure.
Social support was strong. The class was characterized by high expectations, challenging work, strong effort,
mutual respect, and assistance for all students. The teacher and the students demonstrated these attitudes by
soliciting contributions from all students, who were expected to put forth their best efforts. Broad participation was
an indication that low-achieving students received social support for learning.
Social support was neutral or mildly positive. The teacher expressed verbal approval of the students efforts. Such
support tended, however, to be directed to students who were already taking initiative in the class and tended not to
be directed to students who were reluctant participants or less articulate or skilled in mathematical concepts.
Students were disruptive and disengaged. Students were frequently off task as evidenced by gross inattention or
serious disruptions by many (20% to 50%).
Students were passive and disengaged. Students appeared lethargic and were only occasionally on task. Many
(20% to 50%) students were either clearly off task or nominally on task but not trying very hard.
Students were sporadically or episodically engaged. Most (51% to 90%) students were engaged in class activities
some of the time, but this engagement was uneven, mildly enthusiastic, or dependent on frequent prodding from the
teacher.
Student engagement was widespread. Most (51% to 90%) students were on task pursuing the substance of the
lesson most of the time. Most (51% to 90%) students seemed to take the work seriously and try hard.
Students were seriously engaged. Almost all (90% to 100%) students were deeply engaged in pursuing the
substance of the lesson almost all (90% to 100%) of the time.
Rationale/General Impressions:
August 2005
use clear definitions in discussion with others and in their own reasoning.
state the meaning of the symbols they choose, including using the equal sign consistently and appropriately.
specify units of measure and label axes to clarify the correspondence with quantities in a problem.
calculate accurately and efficiently, express numerical answers with a degree of precision appropriate for the
context.
In the elementary grades, students give carefully formulated explanations to each other.
In high school, students have learned to examine claims and make explicit use of definitions.
7 Look for and make use of structure.
Mathematically proficient students:
look closely to discern a pattern or structure.
Young students might notice that three and seven more is the same amount as seven and three more.
Later, students will see 7 x 8 equals the well-remembered 7 x 5 + 7 x 3, in preparation for the distributive
property.
2
In the expression x + 9x + 14, older students can see the 14 as 2 x 7 and the 9 as 2 + 7.
step back for an overview and can shift perspective.
see complicated things, such as some algebraic expressions, as single objects or composed of several objects.
8 Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.
Mathematically proficient students:
notice if calculations are repeated
look both for general methods and for shortcuts.
maintain oversight of the process, while attending to the details.
continually evaluate the reasonableness of intermediate results.
effective if students face each other, either sitting in a circle or semi-circle on the oor or sitting in chairs
arranged in a circle. Teachers can sit with students as part of the circle to encourage peer-to-peer discussion.
If teachers are still having difculty getting children to talk, they can remove themselves from the group and
stand outside the circle. As a result, students are left looking only at each other, which encourages them to
direct their comments to one another.
Careful consideration of the placement of visual aids and mathematically related vocabulary is important
in supporting the level of talk. If charts are not visually accessible when they need to be, they will likely not
be resourced by the students during whole group conversations. To increase the extent to which English
Language Learners participate in group discussions, having related vocabulary and sentence frames where
they can be easily accessed is critical.
For rich discussions, the emotional environment of the classroom must be safe and must be one where
students want to learn and think deeply about the mathematics. When these elements are not present, the
discussion stays at the surface level. Imagine a third grade classroom where the teacher introduces division
for the rst time and is met with cheers. It can happen! It happens when the value is on learning, challenging
each other, and working together to solve problems as opposed to just getting the right answer. For more
on setting up a supportive classroom environment for discourse, see Chapter 8 of Classroom Discussions.
Practice 5: Orchestrating the Discourse
The teacher becomes not unlike a conductor as he supports students to deepen their understanding of
mathematics through a carefully orchestrated environment. In Orchestrating Discussions, Smith, Hughes,
Engle, and Stein outline the Five Practices Model, which gives teachers inuence over what is likely to
happen in a discussion.
Even if the teacher is focused, he still needs to hold students accountable. Otherwise the discussion
will be unproductive. A lot of explicit teaching must go into how to engage in each level of discussion:
whole group, small group, and partnerships. In the younger grades, one will nd teachers showing students
exactly what they should look like and sound like when discussing their thinking. Teachers may say things
like, Today in math, we are going to practice turning and talking with our partner. When I say go, you are
going to turn like this and look at your partner. When I say stop, you are going to turn around and face me.
Lets practice that right now. Even older students need to be explicitly taught what to do and say. A teacher
might teach how a partnership functions by saying, It sounds like you have an idea and you have an idea,
but what seems to be lacking is for you two to put your ideas together to come up with a solution. So, what
is your plan?
One very effective method of holding students accountable is to let them know exactly what they should
be saying when they are talking in their partnerships or small groups. For example, Today, when you are
talking to your partners and describing your solid shapes, I expect to hear you using the words faces, edges,
and vertices. It is also supportive to let students know what they should be focusing on when someone
is sharing a strategy, so they have a lens for listening, which heightens the level of engagement. A teacher
might say, When he is sharing his thinking, I want you to be thinking of how his way is similar or different
to your way.
Students need to be aware of themselves as learners, and a great way to heighten this awareness is
through self-evaluation and goal setting. Sometimes the child is the last one to know that he is distracting
or not listening. Part of developing a safe culture is supporting students in being open with each other
regarding their strengths and weaknesses so they can improve their communication skills and behaviors.
It is wonderful to hear one child compliment another when she has participated for the rst time or give
gentle correction when another has been dominating the conversation. This level of self-awareness happens
through consistent venues such as class meetings and tracking the progress of personal goals related to
participation in mathematical discussions. The more students open up about themselves as learners, the
deeper the relationships and, as a result, the deeper the trust.
Kindergarten
Teaching Points
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Partnerships
Partner Talk Expectations
Problem solving possible partner problems, such as:
What do you do if you both want to go rst?
How do you talk to your partner if they are not sharing?
Modeling language such as, You can go rst, or I can go rst
X
much less
prompting
X
X
X
X
X
X
prompting prompting
rene
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Very
Guided
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
mimic with
a partner
X
X
X
X
X
X
prompting
X
X exposure
Sept
X
X
Oct
Nov
Dec
Partner
coaching really
paying off!!
Jan Feb
Partnerships
You two dont agree? Who is right? Dont just let it be,
but push-back on each other
How can you gure that out? Can your partner help you with that?
Students are pushing on each other and keeping each other accountable
X
X
Students are voicing
disagreement on
own respectfully
X
X
Coaching on how to wait for your partner to nish her turn. Watch your partner.
Do you agree with how she took her turn?
Model how to help telling with out telling answer. You could say...you have a lot
of coins, do you think you could trade?
Disagreeing and justifying
Is the way he/she did it the same as how you did it?
Providing list of questions students were to ask as partnership during games (race
to a stack with beans and cups)
Talk to your partner about ____s way
Modeling how to ask partner to repeat and how to explain
Using sentence starters
Providing limited tools to promote discussion in small groups
Provide team activities where members have to decide how to solve
and which strategy to share
Table 2: Teaching points of a second grade teacher during the year for Partnerships
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2nd Grade
Teaching Points
Sept Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
X
X
X
X
X
X
Referring to other kids ways as a way to celebrate students taking risks by trying a new way
Is your strategy the same or different than _____s strategy? Which strategy did _____
use? (referring to the chart)
Teacher scripting childrens strategies on their papers and on the chart.
Highlighting students who try on another students strategies
Trying to get students to see that their peers are their teachers to foster reason for listening
more carefully
Getting students to try on another someone elses strategy and acknowledging it with
students, such as Oh, Marquis did it like Yosef did yesterday.
Helping students learn how to articulate their thinking (e.g., What did you do? Tools you
used? Where did you start?) to be easier understood by others
Helping students to record their thinking. Model how to record each step
so the listeners can see what you did
Highlighting different ways of recording and different tools used in solving a problem
(Let me show you another way to record When you put the blocks together,
how can you show that on paper?)
Slowing down the person sharing between each step and ask class Does that make sense?
Do you understand Who can explain that step Why do you think she did that?
Which ways are the same or kind of the same? Whos might you try on?
Having preselected student writing strategies to share
Discussing incorrect answers to see if kids will listen and respectfully agree and disagree
Allow time for the other person to react to partner during share out
Moving position from front of the room to promote explaining
Share partners strategy rather than your own
What do you think _______did next (heighten engagement)
Using document camera more for share out since students have become
more procient with recording
Reminders
Reminders
X
X
Kids starting to
notice, Oh, that
is how __ did it
Reminders
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 3: Teaching points of a second grade teacher during the year for Whole Group Discussion
First Discourse Experience 3rd- 6th Grade
Teaching Points
Whole Group Discussion
Explain that we are having a conversation about what we built (model for problem given)
What do we do when someone is explaining his/her thinking?
*Listen (not just hearing, but thinking about what they said)
*Listening to compare to see if we thought the same thing the speaker did
*What does paying attention look like?
Dont merely think what you are going to say next, rather respond back to the speaker - adding on or comparing
How do we talk like adults? - taking turns, not raising hands
Who would like to share? - opening it up to anyone (sometimes - other times choosing someone specic this depends on if the focus is on the act of sharing or a specic strategy.
When one person shares, ask some to restate
Teach students how to ask someone to speak up or to repeat themselves if they werent listening or if they couldnt hear
Could you please say that again, I wasnt listening.
Lots of turn and talk to partner with something specic to talk about
I have to listen so I can highlight a partnership and ask students to think about their thinking
Asking students to try on someone elses way and explain what they did.
Asking lots of questions such as Does their way make sense?
**It is necessary to remind students often where their eyes need to be and to listen to what the speaker is saying.
Partner Talk
Generally on the rst day I go around and listen and make sure that the partnerships are working together rather than side-by-side play and coach
accordingly
I will ask questions such as, Do you know what he did? Can you explain it?
Direct when necessary (if students are having trouble working together) by saying, When we share out, I want you to explain what your partner
did.
Note:
At the end of one lesson, the discourse is not beautiful, but if the teacher is explicit with expectations and how to engage in discourse. children
will talk, mostly to partner, as they are a little shy about the group at rst. Students denitely engage in what the other students are thinking and
make sense of other strategies. I would expect to be emphasizing the above points repeatedly for the next couple of months.
Table 4: Teaching points that can be made on the rst day in an upper grade classroom around discourse
Managing a classroom that makes students are responsible for their own learning means that the teacher
has to become accustomed to not doing all of the work for them. One of the hardest things for teachers is
to stop jumping in too soon and answering their own questions. Once a teacher I was working with told me
that if she wasnt always doing the talking, she felt that she was not doing her job. Just because the students
are the ones who should be doing the thinking and talking doesnt mean that the teacher does not play a
signicant role. One of the biggest jobs of the teacher is that of decision maker. The NCTM Standards state
that teachers must decide what to pursue in depth, when and how to attach mathematical notation and
language to students ideas, when to provide information, when to clarify an issue, when to model, when to
lead, and when to let a student struggle with difculty, and how to encourage each student to participate.
These decisions, so well-articulated by NCTM, are central to effective math teaching and remain crucial as
we move into the implementation of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Works Cited
Chapin, S. H., C. OConnor, and N.C. Anderson. Classroom Discussions: Using Math Talk to Help Students
Learn, Grades K-6, Second Edition (Math Solutions, 2009)
Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991)
Smith, M. S., E. K. Hughes, R. A. Engle & M. K. Stein. Orchestrating Discussions, (Mathematics Teaching in
the Middle School, 14 (9). 548-556, 2009)
Lets
Talk
Promoting Mathematical
Discourse in the Classroom
Catherine C. Stein
Train 1
Train 2
Train 3
Student 2
Solution: p = 4n + 2
Explanation: Each hexagon has at least four sides
on the outside of the train, so I multiplied four by
the number of hexagons (n). The hexagons on the
end have one extra side, so I added two for the two
sides on the end.
Student 1
Solution: p = 4(n 2) + 10
Explanation: The middle blocks of the train have
four sides out of six total sides that can be counted
in the perimeter. So n equals the number of blocks.
I took away the two blocks on the end since Im
only counting the middle. Then I multiplied by four
to find the number of sides that can be counted for
the perimeter. The two end blocks each have five
sides showing, so I added ten.
286 Mathematics Teacher | Vol. 101, No. 4 November 2007
FACILITATING DISCOURSE
My students understand the expectations and norms.
Now what do I do?
There is a misconception that the shift toward the
use of classroom discourse in teaching mathematics
means that the teacher simply presents the problem and then stands aside while students discuss
and solve it (Chazan and Ball 1995). The teachers
instructional role is perceived as dont tell the
answer. This perception severely underrates the
complexity of the teachers role in classroom discourse (Chazan and Ball 1995). So what should
teachers do during discussions to increase participation and conceptual understanding? There are
two aspects of teacher discourse to be considered:
cognitive discourse and motivational discourse.
Cognitive discourse refers to what the teacher
says to promote conceptual understanding of the
mathematics itself. Kazemi and Stipek (1997)
found that some inquiry-based classrooms,
described as low-press, are still not effective in
facilitating student discourse because they focus
only on explanations of procedure and do not link
to a conceptual understanding of mathematics. In
the following example, a teacher and a student are
discussing the students solution to the Skeleton
Tower problem (see fig. 2).
Tower 1
Tower 2
Tower 3
Table 1
Levels of Discourse in a Mathematics Classroom
Levels
Characteristics of Discourse
The teacher asks questions and affirms the accuracy of answers or introduces and explains
mathematical ideas. Students listen and give short answers to the teachers questions.
The teacher asks students direct questions about their thinking while other students listen.
The teacher explains student strategies, filling in any gaps before continuing to present
mathematical ideas. The teacher may ask one student to help another by showing how to do
a problem.
The teacher asks open-ended questions to elicit student thinking and asks students to comment on one anothers work. Students answer the questions posed to them and voluntarily
provide additional information about their thinking.
The teacher facilitates the discussion by encouraging students to ask questions of one
another to clarify ideas. Ideas from the community build on one another as students thoroughly explain their thinking and listen to the explanations of others.
ASSESSING DISCOURSE
How do I know if the discourse in my classroom is
successful?
Mathematics discourse does not happen overnight,
particularly if students have experienced only
teacher-directed, procedure-oriented mathematics
classrooms. As a result, mathematics classroom
discourse is a dynamic process that is often hard to
assess. Hufferd-Ackles, Fuson, and Sherin (2004)
created a framework to describe and evaluate the
process a class goes through when discourse is
introduced. Four categories are examinedquestioning, explanation of mathematical thinking,
288 Mathematics Teacher | Vol. 101, No. 4 November 2007
CONCLUSION
Participating in a mathematical community through
discourse is as much a part of learning mathematics
as the conceptual understanding of the mathematics
itself. As students learn to make and test conjectures,
question, and agree or disagree about problems, they
are learning the essence of what it means to do mathematics. If all students are to be engaged, teachers must
foster classroom discourse by providing a welcoming
community, establishing norms, using supportive
motivational discourse, and pressing for conceptual
understanding. As Johnston (2004) puts it, In other
words, the language that teachers (and their students)
use in classrooms is a big deal (p. 10).
REFERENCES
Chazan, D., and D. Ball. Beyond Exhortations Not to
Tell: The Teachers Role in Discussion-Intensive
Mathematics Classes. (Craft Paper 95-2). East
Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on
Teacher Learning, 1995.
Hufferd-Ackles, K., K. Fuson, and M. Sherin.
Describing Levels and Components of a Math-
UNPACKING THE
NATURE OF DISCOURSE
in Mathematics
Classrooms
AND
DOMINIC PERESSINI
ERIC KNUTH
over the last four years in a longitudinal professional development project funded by the Colorado
Commission of Higher Education. Our focus has
been to help teachers better understand and implement reform-based mathematics instruction and assessment. One of our central goals was to help
teachers foster more meaningful discourse in their
classrooms. We soon realized, however, the difficulties involved in discussing meaningful mathematical discourse. We drew on the work of Yuri
Lotman to develop a framework to help us make
sense of the different roles that discourse plays.
Lotman (1988) suggested that all discourse is
distinguished by two very different functions: to
convey meaning and to generate meaning. Wertsch
(1991) used the terms univocal and dialogic, respectively, to represent these two functions. Univocal discourse is characterized by communication in
which the listener receives the exact message
that the speaker intends for the listener to receive.
Once the speakers intended meaning has been
conveyed, the episode of univocal communication
is considered to be successfully finished. Dialogic
discourse, in contrast, is characterized by give-andtake communication in which the listener initially
receives the exact message sent by the speaker.
Different types
of discourse
emerge as
students solve
different tasks
V O L . 6 , N O . 5 . JANUARY 2001
321
Univocal
discourse
focuses on
sending an
exact message
Dialogic
discourse
focuses on
two-way
communication
(7) How about the two of you? Are you also using
the calculator to find the sum?
(8) No, weve been looking for a pattern, and I
think we found one, Gomer responded.
(9) Great. First of all, Andy, why dont you tell me
what sum you have found? asked Ms. Bee.
(10) Andy replied, 1720.
(11) That seems a little high. Have you found your
sum yet, Helen?
(12) No, I had to start over because I hit a wrong
key.
(13) Addressing the entire group, Ms. Bee asked,
Why do you think I said that Andys sum seems a
little high?
V O L . 6 , N O . 5 . JANUARY 2001
323
Communication
mismatch can
be a point of
departure for
inquiry
(21) At this point, Ms. Bee decided to involve the rest of the
class in this discussion. She
asked for the students attention and described what this
group was attempting to figure
out. After a brief discussion,
Ms. Bee turned her attention
back to Barney and Gomer and
asked about the pattern that
they claimed to have found.
(Lotman 1988, p. 36) but rather as a point of departure to generate new meanings for herself and her
students; thus, the students and teachers utterances function as thinking devices. When Ms. Bee
leaves Barney and Gomer alone to explore how
their pattern might be used to solve the problem,
she and her students also seem comfortable in
sharing the mathematical authority in the classroom (lines 27 and 28).
This passage is primarily dialogic because (a)
the teacher intends to understand her students
thinking, (b) the teacher uses her students statements as thinking devices, and (c) the students use
Ms. Bees suggestion and their classmates statements as thinking devices. Ms. Bee does not attempt to convey a particular message, that is, to engage students in a specific approach. Instead, she is
open to her students ideas and is willing to pursue
unexpected approaches to generate new mathematical understandingthe core of dialogic discourse.
Understanding
deepens when
students use
their own
statements
References
Ball, Deborah. Implementing the Professional Standards
for Teaching Mathematics: Whats All This Talk about
Discourse? Arithmetic Teacher 39 (November 1991):
4448.
Lotman, Yuri. Text within a Text. Soviet Psychology 24
(1988): 3251.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics. Reston,
Va.: NCTM, 1991.
. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics.
Reston, Va.: NCTM, 2000.
Steinbring, Heinz, Maria Bartolini Bussi, and Anna Sierpinska, eds. Language and Communication in the
Mathematics Classroom. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1998.
Wertsch, James. Voices of the Mind. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1991. C
V O L . 6 , N O . 5 . JANUARY 2001
325
Help students rely more on themselves to determine whether something is mathematically correct
o How did you reach that conclusion?
o Does that make sense?
o Can you make a model and show that?
Help students learn to reason mathematically
o Why does . . . work?
o Does that always work?
o Is that true for all cases?
o Can you think of a counterexample?
o How could you prove that?
Help students to learn to conjecture, invent, and solve problems
o What would happen if?
o Do you see a pattern?
o Can you predict the next one? What about the last one?
o When does . . . work?
o When will . . . be (larger, smaller, equal to, exactly twice, etc.) compared to . . .?
o When will . . . be as large (small) as possible?
o How are they alike? How are they different?
o Describe how to find . . .?
o What do I do if I want . . . to happen?
Help students connect mathematics, its ideas and applications
o How does this relate to . . .?
o What ideas that we have learned were useful in solving this problem?
o What advantages does this strategy have?
Remembering
Understanding
Applying
Analyzing
Evaluating
Creating
S. DeMatteo, 8/13/2014
Because the purpose of writing learning outcomes is to define what the instructor wants
the student to do with the content, using learning outcomes will help students to better
understand the purpose of each activity by clarifying the students activity. Verbs such as
"know", "appreciate", "internalizing", and "valuing" do not define an explicit
performance to be carried out by the learner. (Mager, 1997)
Unclear Outcomes
Revised Outcomes
References
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching
and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational outcomes:
Complete edition, New York : Longman.
Cruz, E. (2003). Bloom's revised taxonomy. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
Educational Technology. Retrieved August 22, 2007, from
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/bloomrev/start.htm
Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised.. In M. Orey (Ed.),
Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved August
22, 2007, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/
S. DeMatteo, 8/13/2014
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Implementing Math
Talk in Your
Classroom
Sonia Dupree, Sr. Administrator for High School Math
Anna Jackson, Coordinating Teacher for High School Math
Wake County
Defining Mathematical
Discourse
Brainstorm
What is mathematical discourse?
What teacher and student behaviors occur
in a classroom where the teacher
promotes discourse?
or debate
- Oxford Dictionary
communication
Communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly
to peers, teachers, and others
Analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of
others;
Use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas
precisely.
See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=322#sthash.rEE2w8Ms.dpuf
Underline or highlight
everything that is related to
discourse.
Talk with a shoulder buddy:
Definition of Mathematical
Discourse
A process by which students use discourse, both verbal and
written, to reflect on the mathematics they have engaged with
in order to discover important mathematical concepts and to
develop mathematical thinking.
on?
Use wait time!
questions)
Help students rely more on themselves to determine whether something is
mathematically correct How did you reach that conclusion? Does that make sense?
Can you make a model and show that?
Help students learn to reason mathematically - Does that always work? Is that
true for all cases? Can you think of a counterexample? How could you prove that?
Help students learn to conjecture, invent, and solve problems What would
happen if ? Do you see a pattern? Can you predict the next one? What about the last
one?
Help students connect mathematics, its ideas and applications How does this
relate to . . .? What ideas that we have learned were useful in solving this problem?
class)
Be strategic about who shares during the discussion
Choose ideas, strategies, and representations in a purposeful way
tasks;
order; and
I liked how Sarah asked Tom to explain what he meant, That group
did a great job with listening to each other, etc.
Do a plus/delta on the discussion What went well? Where do
we need to improve?
Experience
Mathematical Discourse
from a Students
Perspective
Example Discourse:
The Good, the Bad, and
the Ugly
and explain).
How could the discourse be improved?
Keys to Mathematical
Discourse
Question Analysis
Revised Blooms Taxonomy
Question Analysis Activity
http://nrich.maths.org/6299
a real challenge involved and thus there is also the potential to extend
those who need and demand more (low threshold - high ceiling tasks),
allow for learners to pose their own problems,
allow for different methods and different responses (different starting
http://nrich.maths.org/5662
unexpected results,
have the potential to reveal underlying principles or make connections
Typical Problem
Better Problem
Typical Problem
Better Problem
Assessing Discourse
http://www.nctm.org/publications/mt.aspx?id=8594
Observation Tools
Thank you!