Chapter 7

POWER CYCLE
By: Dr. Muhammad Ayoub

Contents
Introduction of Carnot, Rankine and
refrigeration cycle
Calculate Efficiency for Rankine and
refrigeration cycle
Shaft Work in a Reversible SteadyState Process

Learning Outcome
By the end of this lecture, you are expected to:
Able to understand Shaft Work in a Reversible SteadyState Process
Understand and be able to apply the Carnot cycle and
Rankine cycle
Understand and be able to apply the refrigeration cycle

The Carnot Cycle

 The representation of a Carnot heat engine on

a T S diagram is shown in Figure

The Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle is taken as standard for fossil-fuelburning power plants, instead of the Carnot cycle.

It is an idealized vapor power system that contains the

major components found in more detailed and practical
steam power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not
involve any internal irreversibilities

Difference between Rankine and Carnot cycle:

The heating step 1
2 goes beyond vaporization to
produce superheated vapor.
The cooling step 3
4 results in complete
condensation, producing saturated liquid to be pumped
to the boiler.

The Rankine Cycle

For an ideal Rankine cycle:

(

1
2
3
4

2:
3:
4:
1:

Isobaric heating (boiler)

Isentropic expansion (turbine)
Isobaric cooling (condenser)
Isentropic compression (pump)

The Rankine cycle on a T S diagram

Steps:
1 2: A constant-pressure heating process in a boiler. Includes heating of subcooled
liquid water to its saturation temperature, vaporization at constant T and P, and
superheating of vapor.
2 3: Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of vapor in turbine to the condenser
pressure. Crosses the saturation curve, producing a wet exhaust.
3 4: A constant-pressure, constant temperature process in a condenser to produce
saturated liquid.
4 1: Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) pumping of saturated liquid to the boiler
pressure, producing compressed (subcooled) liquid.

Deviation of Actual from Ideal

Power plants operate on a cycle that departs from the ideal
Rankine cycle as a result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two
common sources of irreversibilities
Difference: Irreversibilities of work-producing and work-requiring
steps (2 3 and 4 1).

Irreversibility
in the turbine
Irreversibility
in the pump

Heat transfer in boiler

and condenser:
or
Turbine and pump:

Simple practical power cycle

RANKINE CYCLE

A Rankine cycle describes a

model of steam-operated heat
engine most commonly found in
power
generation
plants.
Common heat sources for power
plants using the Rankine cycle
are the combustion of coal,
natural gas and oil, and nuclear
fission.
The Rankine cycle is sometimes
referred to as a practical Carnot
cycle because, when an efficient
turbine is used, the TS diagram
begins to resemble the Carnot
cycle.

RANKINE CYCLE

The main difference is that heat addition (in the boiler) and rejection (in
the condenser) are isobaric in the Rankine cycle and isothermal in the
theoretical Carnot cycle.

A pump is used to pressurize the working fluid received from the

condenser as a liquid instead of as a gas.

pumping the working fluid through the cycle as a liquid requires a very
small fraction of the energy needed to transport it as compared to
compressing the working fluid as a gas in a compressor (as in the Carnot
cycle).

RANKINE CYCLE

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. These states are identified by
numbers (in brown) in the diagram to the left.
Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid is
a liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by
an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.

RANKINE CYCLE
Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine,
generating power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of
the vapor, and some condensation may occur.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is
condensed at a constant temperature to become a saturated liquid.

In an ideal Rankine cycle, the pump and turbine would be

isentropic, i.e., the pump and turbine would generate no entropy
and hence maximize the net work output.

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the

T-S diagram and more closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle.

The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor ending up in the
superheat region after the expansion in the turbine, which reduces
the energy removed by the condensers.

Shaft Work in a Reversible Steady-State Process

In the analysis of a Rankine cycle, it is necessary to calculate
the work required for the pump to increase the pressure of
the exit stream from the condenser to the boiler pressure, In a
reversible steady-state process, the equation to calculate the
shaft work is derived as follows.
The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system

If the process is reversible

Shaft Work in a Reversible Steady-State Process

The definition of enthalpy is
The differential form of this Eq.

Shaft Work in a Reversible Steady-State Process

Note that Eqs. consist of only properties and their differential changes.
These properties and their changes are state functions and are not
dependent on the path or process involved. Therefore, both equations
hold for all processes (reversible or irreversible) and for a change of state
in either an open or closed system.

Shaft Work in a Reversible Steady-State Process

Now
consider
the
first
law
of
thermodynamics for a steady-state flow
system

For a reversible process,

Shaft Work in a Reversible Steady-State Process

Thus, the reversible shaft work in a steady-flow process with negligible

changes in kinetic and potential energies is given by

1
v

For an incompressible fluid

and the pump work per unit mass is given by

ws

P2 P1

ws

The power required can be obtained by multiplying that Eq. by the mass
flow rate

m Q

and

ws

Therefore

Real Rankine cycle (non-ideal)

In a real Rankine cycle,

the compression by the pump and the expansion in the turbine are not
isentropic. In other words, these processes are non-reversible and entropy is
increased during the two processes. This somewhat increases the power
required by the pump and decreases the power generated by the turbine.

In particular the efficiency of the steam turbine will be limited by water

droplet formation.

The easiest way to overcome this problem is by superheating the steam.

Real Rankine cycle (non-ideal)

On the T-S diagram, state 3 is

above a two phase region of
steam and water so after
expansion the steam will be very
wet. By superheating, state 3
will move to the right of the
diagram and hence produce a
dryer steam after expansion.

Example
In a Rankine cycle, superheated steam leaves the boiler and
enters the turbine at 4MPa and 425 C. The condenser
pressure is 10 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.

Example

Consider a power plant operating on a Rankine cycle using steam as the

working fluid. The boiler pressure is 2.5MPa and the steam leaving the
boiler is superheated to a temperature 126 C above its saturation
temperature. The condenser temperature is 50 C and it discharges
saturated liquid. The efficiency of the turbine is 0.90 and of the pump 0.80
as compared to reversible and adiabatic machines operating at the same
pressure ranges.

a) Sketch the cycle on a T S diagram.

b) Calculate the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE

ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely
but is made up totally of internally reversible processes is
called an.

Thermal efficiency of
heat engines:

Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the highest

thermal efficiency of all heat engines operating between the
same temperature levels. Unlike ideal cycles, they are
totally reversible, and unsuitable as a realistic model.

22

The idealizations and simplifications in the

analysis of power cycles:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in
pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes take
place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various components
of a system are well insulated, and heat
transfer through them is negligible.

On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area

enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area
under the heat-addition process curve
represents the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
Any modification that increases the ratio
of these two areas will also increase the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.

THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS

VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency increases
with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is
supplied to the system or with a decrease in the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.

A steady-flow Carnot engine.

24

AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING
ENGINES
Compression ratio

Spark-ignition (SI) engines

Compression-ignition (CI) engines

OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARKIGNITION ENGINES

26

Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution

The two-stroke engines are

generally less efficient than
their four-stroke counterparts
but they are relatively simple
and inexpensive, and they have
high power-to-weight and
power-to-volume ratios.

Schematic of a two-stroke
reciprocating engine.
27

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

Refrigeration maintenance of a
temperature below that of the
surroundings.
The transfer of heat from a lowtemperature region to a hightemperature
region
requires
special devices called refrigerators.
Another device which transfers
heat from a low-temperature
medium to a high-temperature
medium is the heat pump.
Both the refrigerators and heat
pumps are essentially the same
devices; they differ in their
objectives only.
The objective of a refrigerator is to
remove heat from the cold
medium; the objective of a heat
pump is to supply heat to a warm
medium.

The Carnot Refrigerator (The reversed Carnot cycle)

A refrigeration cycle is a reversed heat-engine cycle.

For continuous refrigeration, heat absorbed at low temperature

is continuously rejected to the surroundings at higher
temperature.

Heat transfer from a low temperature

level to a higher temperature level
requires external source of energy

The reversed Carnot cycle is the most

efficient refrigeration cycle operating
between TH and TC .

The cycle requires the addition of net

work W to the system.

Because
of the working fluid is zero,
the first law can be written as

TC

QC
TC

Refrigeration cycle

Figure: Basic components of a

refrigeration system and typical
operating conditions.

The working fluid used in the

refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.

The most frequently used

refrigeration cycle is the vaporcompression refrigeration cycle.

In a household refrigerator, the

freezer compartment where heat
is absorbed by the refrigerant
serves as the evaporator, and
the coils usually behind the
refrigerator
where
heat
is
dissipated to the kitchen air
serve as the condenser.

Carnot Refrigeration cycle in P-V diagram

4
3

1
2

PV diagram of Carnot cycle

PV diagram of reverse Carnot cycle

(Refrigeration cycle)

CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

A refrigeration cycle is a reversed heat engine
cycle. Heat is transferred from a low
temperature level to a high temperature level
and this, according to the second law of
thermodynamics, cannot be accomplished
without the use of external energy.
The working mediums used in compression
refrigeration systems are called refrigerants.

CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

PROCESSES

The 4 processes are reversible, 2 isothermal heat

transfer and 2 adiabatic compression/expansion
processes

4-1 Some of the liquid in the liquid-vapor mixture

change
to vapor due to heat transfer in the
evaporator
(constant T and P)

1-2 Adiabatic compression in the compressor

(increase in
T and P). Saturated vapor at state 2
2-3 Due to heat transfer out of the condenser, the
saturated vapor becomes saturated liquid at state
3. (constant T and P)

3-4 Adiabatic expansion in the turbine (decrease in T

and P)

 The performance of a refrigeration

cycle is measured in terms of the
coefficient of performance, COP.
It is the ratio of the refrigeration
obtained to the work required

The COP of a Carnot refrigeration

cycle is given by

TC

QC
TC
The objective of a refrigerator
is to remove QL from the
cooled space.

Unit

A common unit used in practice to describe the

refrigeration effect is the ton. One ton of
refrigeration is the term used to refer to 12, 000
Btu/ h.
Thus, a chiller or condensing unit with a
cooling capacity of 60, 000Btu/ h is said to
have a capacity of 5 tons.
One ton of refrigeration approximates to 3.5kW
of cooling.

Disadvantages

As seen from pervious Figure, both the compression and

expansion steps in the Carnot refrigeration occur within the
two-phase region.

The compression of a two-phase mixture, however, is very

difficult in practice and is generally avoided.

The problem can be eliminated by simply allowing the

refrigerant to evaporate completely in the evaporator,
producing a saturated vapor.

On the other hand, the fluid passing through the expander is

mostly liquid and its specific volume is relatively low.

Consequently, the amount of work produced by the expander is

not appreciable.

For this reason, much less expensive and almost maintenancefree throttling expansion devices are preferred over expanders
in practice.

Heat Pumps: Coefficient of performance (COPHP)

The objective
of a heat
pump is to
supply heat
QH into the
warmer
space.

TC

The work
supplied to a
heat pump is
used to extract
energy from the
cold outdoors
and carry it into
the warm
indoors.

QC

TC

QC

Can the value of COPHP

be lower than unity?
QC

QC

for fixed values of QC and QH

What does COPHP=1

represent?

IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

CYCLE

1-2: Isentropic compression in the compressor

2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4: Throttling in the expansion device
4-1: Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator.

REFRIGERANTS
A large number of different fluids (refrigerants) are utilized in vaporcompression refrigeration systems.
The desirable properties for a refrigerant can be summarized as
follows:
Positive evaporating pressures: This would prevent leakage of
atmospheric air into the system during operation.
Moderately low condensing pressures: This feature permits the use of
light weight equipment on the high-pressure side of the system.
Low freezing point.
High latent heat of vaporization and relatively high critical
temperatures: A high latent heat means a high refrigeration effect per kg
of refrigerant circulated and low power cost for circulation.
Low cost.
Inertness and stability.
Toxicity;
Corrosiveness;

REFRIGERANTS

REFRIGERANTS
In the 80s, a hole in the ozone layer was found over the
Antarctic.
This lead to the Vienna convention and the Montreal
Protocol(1987):
CFCs will be phased out by 2006 (2011 ??);
HCFCs will be phased out by 2030-2040.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were developed as

alternatives to the ozone-depleting refrigerants.
HFC-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane - CF3CH2F) has
become the refrigerant of choice to replace CFC-12 in
most refrigeration and auto air conditioning systems.

Example 1
The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid and operates on an ideal vaporcompression refrigeration cycle between 0.14 and
0.8 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant is
0.05 kg/s, determine (a) the rate of heat removal
from the refrigerated space and the power input to
the compressor, (b) the rate of heat rejection to
the environment, and (c) the COP of the
refrigerator.

Assumptions: ???