Journal of Hydrology, 150 (1993) 277 299

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[3]

Riparian zone, stream, and floodplain issues: a review

L.J. B r e n *
Forestry Section, University of Melbourne, Creswiek, Vic. 3363, Australia
(Received 3 May 1993; revision accepted 27 May 1993)

Abstract
In the last two decades, the effects of forest management on streams, riparian zones, and floodplains
have become of much interest. In general, there is agreement that such areas should be maintained in a state
approximating naturalness, although it is recognised that definition of this state is usually difficult or
impossible. A diversity of management effects has been recognised and, in some cases quantified. For
upland catchments, issues particularly relate to direct disturbance of the zone, changes in the flow of
woody debris into the stream, or disturbance to the environment by effects generated upstream or downstream. For many areas, a particularly important commercial aspect is the definition of a 'stream', as this
can impose m a n y expensive and severe restrictions on management of the land. For large rivers, a c o m m o n
issue is the effect of river management on flooding forests. In each case, the issues are complex, information
is difficult to collect, and there are fundamental difficulties in going from anecdotal observation to data.
Currently, most information appears to be at a relatively local level, and there is a very inadequate
knowledge base to give a more holistic overview, although the concept of 'cumulative effects', with the
effects accumulated over both space and time, has much potential value. There are many opportunities for
work in this field.

Introduction
As forest hydrologists, we are intimately concerned with the management of
riparian zones, streams, and floodplains. This paper examines current issues in
the management of such zones. The underlying concept of the paper is that
these areas should be managed 'naturally', and consideration is given to what
this might imply and whether the concept is quantifiable. Streams and their
environs have always been attractive for or necessary to humans, and hence
the demands on such areas can be complex and varied. Perusal of forest
hydrology literature suggests that formalised study of such areas is relatively
new to forestry discipline; thus, for instance, the proceedings of the influential
* T e l e p h o n e : 615345 2405.

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forest hydrology conference of 1966 (Sopper and Lull, 1966) make virtually
no reference to such matters.
Rigorous but simple definition of such areas is probably impossible, and
this leads to m a n y disputes. We can define the stream as a more or less
permanent body of water moving to a position of lower energy. The floodplain can be described as relatively level areas of sediment deposited by such
streams and which are periodically inundated by the stream. The riparian
zone is an area in close proximity to a stream or river, the environment of
which is distinctly influenced by that proximity. As forest hydrologists, our
interests probably change with increasing stream size. For small streams,
forestry practices can have a direct effect on stream flows, floodplains (if
any), and riparian environments. As the stream size becomes larger, forestry
becomes one of many competing land uses, and the river or stream may be a
major economic resource of the state. Forested floodplains may be extremely
extensive on large rivers (e.g. the Atchafalaya River in southern Louisiana),
and there may be m a n y organisations and issues involved in the management
of the river. Polemicists argue that such definitions, although convenient, are
'reductionism', and we will examine whether the concepts of cumulative
effects may, in the future, allow a more holistic approach.
Underlying most management decisions is a desire to have a 'natural'
stream; however, it is difficult to define 'natural'. This implies a definite
course that the overall development of the system would have taken without
intervention by humanity. As we try to define this more tightly, difficulties
become apparent (e.g. Anderson, 1991; Fairweather, 1993). A c o m m o n one is
the long history of environmental modification by indigenous societies. In
m a n y cases (e.g. Java), there is no definable 'natural stream' because of the
long history of population pressure. In other cases (e.g. Australia), some
riparian environments may have been extensively modified before the advent
of European races by traditional land management practices including burning. Even if we do not accept scenarios of climate change, the propensity of
long-term climates to wander off on long excursions on one side or the other
of their mean value (e.g. Mandelbrot and Wallis, 1969) gives difficulties in
definitions based on a few decades (or centuries) of data or experience. If we
do accept that long-term climate change is occurring, what is the value of
'natural management' that perpetuates a relic environment? Critics or commentators on stream management usually refer their criticism to an underlying concept of what the stream should be, and that conception may be
arguable or ill-founded, or based on differing personal views of nature.
In examining issues we must also recognise many types of interest in such
areas. To the limnologist, these areas may be an interesting or inspiring source
of aquatic life, whereas, to a recreationist, they provide a site for a pleasant

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279

picnic. To a logger, the riparian area may be a major source of good logs,
whereas, to a land manager, the areas are to be managed to maximise society's
overall wealth. In steep country such areas may provide the only possible
route for roads and railways (e.g. Kellerhals, 1985). For downstream water
users the area must provide clean, potable water, but it may also be a potential
site for a major water storage to ensure continued supply or to give flood
protection. For river town dwellers the larger rivers must have adequate water
for boating or navigation, leading to constant inundation of lower riparian
areas. Irrigation farmers can, with justifiable pride, point to the food produced from their holdings by regulation of an otherwise wild river. Values can
be classed as tangible and intangible, and there is no widely accepted means
(and possibly never will be) of trading off one against the other (see, e.g. Dan
Tarlock, 1991). As forest hydrologists, it is argued that our interests must
transcend the local interests of disciplines or land use needs and aim at
developing a comprehensive knowledge of our entire stream, floodplain,
and riparian zone resource, and perhaps balancing the conflicting demands
of society. This demands both a detailed (mechanistic) knowledge and a wider
'overview' knowledge integrating biological, hydrologic, hydraulic, and land
management issues with knowledge of the economic, ecological, social and
political ramifications.

Little streams and bigger streams

The question of when a small catchment can be said to have a stream is a

serious question in much land management, and one on which scientific
literature gives little guidance. Figure 1 gives a view of a research catchment
(Clem Creek, 46 ha), showing a small first-order stream commencing as the
outflow of a spring. Research on this stream (Bren and Turner, 1985; Bren and
Papworth, 1991) showed that the flow generally commenced at point A as a
rather invariant spring outflow. Occasionally, during wet periods, flow would
commence about point B. Observations showed that rarely, under the natural
conditions, would flow occur upstream of this, although there was a definite
stream bed. After clearing, in the wettest periods, flow would commence at
point C (reflecting a generally wetter catchment), although in most circumstances the flow still commenced at A. A number of questions arise in dealing
with these stream-catchment systems in forest management.
(1) The judgement of whether it is a 'stream' or lesser form ('drainage line',
'seep', etc.) varies with the perception and orientation of the observer and the
recent hydrologic history. Indeed, an examination of forest practices around

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Fig. I. A topographic view of Clem Creek Research Catchment in north-eastern Victoria (Australia). The
path of Clem Creek is partly obscured by the catchment ridge. Under natural conditions flow in the stream
appeared near point A. Under wetter conditions flow in the stream could be found at points B. After
clearing, in wet conditions, flow would start appearing in the channel near points C, reflecting the greater
catchment wetness. Should the sections between points B and C be accorded the full protection of a
permanent stream?

the world suggests that in many countries a catchment of this size would not
be recognised as possessing a stream for regulation purposes.
(2) The characteristics of the stream are changed by catchment actions. By
planning, the flowing stream can be entirely protected during logging, but as
catchment wetness increases because of decreased transpiration, hitherto dry
areas suddenly become connected to the stream (e.g. the dry channel between
B and C), and these may flow through logged areas, across roads, etc. This can
be very testing of supervisors, although use of planning aids that link topography and hydrology (e.g. 'TOPOG', as described by Moore et al. (1988))
can directly avoid such situations.
(3) In mild hydrologic environments the usually dry sections of streams are
important. These may be extremely c o m m o n in many forest areas. They may
have some rudimentary properties of stream channels but do not carry normal
stream biota, reflecting their very ephemeral or occasional flow. Often, they

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p r o v i d e accessible p a t h s to u p p e r slopes in steep c o u n t r y . Q u e s t i o n s arise as t o

w h y t h e y m u s t be d e m a r c a t e d a n d p r o t e c t e d ( h o w m i g h t the use o f s u c h a n
a r e a f o r f o r e s t h a r v e s t i n g lead t o d o w n s t r e a m d e g r a d a t i o n ? ) . C o n v e n t i o n a l l y ,
the a n s w e r is t h a t flow m i g h t o c c u r , l e a d i n g t o e r o s i o n , b u t this is h a r d to
d e m o n s t r a t e u n d e r the n o r m a l h y d r o l o g i c regime. Similarly, o n e c a n a r g u e
t h a t t h e r e is a c u m u l a t i v e effect o n d o w n s t r e a m r e s o u r c e s , b u t a g a i n this is
h a r d t o d e m o n s t r a t e , a n d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y varies a c c o r d i n g to the w e a t h e r
Table 1
Examples of current wording used for stream definition in Australian states (because of
topography there is little problem in South Australia; in each case there were qualifications
and elaborations attached)
State

Stream definition

Distance of edge of
reserve from stream

New South Wales

A filter s t r i p . . , where the catchment area

exceeds 100 ha; where erosion hazard is
h i g h . . . 40 ha
In plantation areas:
Streams: if flow occurs for at least 2 months
after normal summer rains
If not a stream:
Gullies: cannot be traversed easily by wheeled
vehicles

Generally 20 m; lesser
protection for
ephemeral streams
Streams:
Large (> 20 m width
at top of banks): 30 m
Medium (10-20m
width): 30 m
Small (< 20 m
width): 10m
Gullies and
waterways: 5 m
In native forest: as
designated
Guidelines only:
first- to third-order
30m
fourth-order - - 75 m
fifth-order - - 200 m
Class 1: 40 m
Class 2:30 m
Class 3:20 m
Class 4:10 m (provision for machinery
movement)

Queensland

Waterways if traversable
In native forest: as designated
Western
Australia

Tasmania

Victoria

All streams, permanent and ephemeral.., to be

protected by riparian zones; timber harvesting
to be excluded from all riparian zones

Class 1: rivers and lakes

Class 2: catchment area exceeds 100 ha
Class 3: watercourses carrying running water
most of the year between the points where
their catchment is 50-100 ha
Class 4: all other watercourses carrying water
for part or all of the year for most years
Permanent: flow all year
Temporary: flow at wetter times only

Variable, but typically

20 m along permanent
streams, and 5 m filter
strip along temporary
streams

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after harvesting. Although one does not wish to see a cavalier attitude towards
stream protection, it must be recognised that regulation of land use on the
basis of numerous ephemeral streams can make management actions onerous
or impossible.
Examples of the wording and buffer protection used by most Australian
states in such matters are shown in Table 1. These were provided by officers
from each of the states. In discussion, these officers stated that conscious
attempts are made to modify prescriptions to individual streams and
drainage lines, and that although there may be wording difficulties the actual
prescriptions adopted work well. Equally, however, in each state one can find
independent observers critical of the stream protection given for specific cases.
The issue would be a fruitful field of research provided some agreement on the
values being traded off could be reached. However, there is a direct trade
between priced and non-priced goods and services, with both involving an
anthropocentric view. This, of course, is a major issue in environmental
philosophy (e.g. Fairweather, 1993), and it is unlikely that there will be any
agreement on such trade-offs for a long time. As forest hydrologists, it is
hoped that our role will be in managing such conflicts rather than as active
participants.

The stream channel

Central to all of this is the stream. This body of water moves in a container
formed by the rock, earth, and organic matter of the surrounding forest. In
most forestry cases the stream receives water from the surrounding land, but
sometimes it may pass water back to the catchment by bank recharge (Cooper
and Rorabough, 1963). The stream is usually characterised by a
well-developed armoured stream-bed which may show sequences of pools,
riffles, and drops, distinct substrate environments, a characteristic and often
distinctive biota, and usually a pleasantly distinctive noise and appearance.
Hawkins (1975) has shown that streams dissipate a small portion of their
hydraulic energy as low-frequency, atonal noise, and this also provides a
unique (and little explored) characteristic of riparian environments. In highenergy streams the noise may be associated with water spray, helping further
to create a distinctive riparian environment. Most issues relate to interaction
between the stream channel and forest management, and the cumulative
effects of disruption of streams. Many such controversies either reflect or
show our paucity of quantitative knowledge of the stream environments
that we manage.
Probably the most visually distinctive and difficult characteristic of streams

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283

is their temporal and spatial variability, and the absence of developed, natural
geometric measures that assist in defining change, complexity, degree of
similarity or uniqueness, or other valued attributes. If the stream channels
of many natural streams in mountain country are viewed as containers, they
could be reasonably said to have difficult and non-homogeneous properties.
These channels seem to have no natural scale or simple characteristic
measurement that can be used as direct indicators of their properties (a
characteristic shared by clouds and coastlines - - see Feder (1988) for a
discussion of this). The small-scale structure is difficult to quantify and can
make nonsense of many textbook parameters. For instance, the definition of
hydraulic radius usually requires the ratio of the wetted area to the wetted
perimeter (Streeter, 1971). The former is definable, but the latter increases as
the measurement step size decreases, leading to the concept of fractal dimension developed by Mandelbrot (1982), but making our definition of hydraulic
radius useless unless we care to nominate a basic distance of measurement
below which we will not consider. Study of actual small streams suggests that
the concept of a thalweg is convenient fiction. Furbish (1985) noted that the
flow structure of a mountain stream consists largely of an alternating series of
backwater spillage sites and that the thalweg wanders across the channel
essentially independently of bed form. The coarseness of the bed and bank
materials effectively damps inertial effects so that 'the distance at which local
conditioning outweighs flow structure derived upstream is relatively short'.
Fractal dimension provides an attractive analytical method for quantifying
such variation but is difficult to apply in specific cases, and it would seem that
the concept of self-similarity is, at best, a dubious approximation in stream
channels. However, the development of such techniques does show that
abstract thought can lead to new and better natural geometries which can
be used to tame otherwise intractable forms, but these concepts can only be
made useful in practical terms by solid field measurement work. They can then
allow us to define new questions and to develop comparative methods in much
the same way that use of dimensionless ratios (Reynolds number, Froude
number, etc.) stimulated and changed hydraulics a century ago. It is hoped
that forest hydrology studies will, in the future, develop an array of such
measures that will allow better quantification of the properties of our forest
stream channels.
In most cases, the stream channel is viewed as a more or less fixed container.
This ignores the role of large woody debris in this container, perhaps the role
of trees in stabilising the sides, and the influence of unusually large flows in
forming it. It is easy to show that the presence of organic debris has a number
of direct physical effects. First, it provides a flow obstruction, creating swirls
and turbulence. These may lead to local redistribution of material (e.g. Fig. 2,

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L.J. Bren / Journal of Itydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

Fig. 2 Change in the longitudinal profile of a small alluvial-bed stream associated with a piece of large
woody debris (from Beschta and Platts 1986).

taken from Beschta and Platts (1986)), but have been shown to provide
microhabitats favourable to some biota. Second, organic material represents
an input to the stream ecosystem, thereby providing food material for stream
biota, and this may be a strong influence on water quality parameters. Third,
the obstructions created trap and hold sediment (Mosley, 1981). Fourth,
depending on the range of flows, organic debris may represent a major source
of stream stability or instability. The stability or instability comes from the
massive nature of trees in many upland environments, and the sheer volume of
such material. In many cases, the most probable range of flows is inadequate
to move such material. Instability is not commonly manifested, but in very
high flow periods the water depth may be adequate to move the material,
leading to dramatic changes in the riparian stream environment and damage
to human property values. In such cases, limnologists will refer to the stream
as having been 'blown out', reflecting the relative violence of the changes. For
instance, the December 1964 storm in the US West Coast is known to have
completely re-formed stream channels, stripped away streamside vegetation,
and left very different stream channels compared with those before the storm
(Stewart and LaMarche, 1967; Lyons and Beschta, 1983). In many cases,
allegations will be made against land management agencies that this reflects
a non-natural regime, although there is much anecdotal evidence that such
non-continuous change is entirely natural. There is a body of anecdotal
evidence and observation on the role of 'episodic events', but we do not
have much information to allow individual cases to be viewed in a perspective

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285

of long-term change, nor even to make good estimates of how often such
instabilities may occur (in this regard, see the comments of Klemes (1986)
on our abilities to estimate higher flow). What is well known is the damage
caused by the accumulation of debris on bridges, etc., and the demands to 'do
something to stop it happening again'. This can lead to measures which, in
hindsight, are viewed as ill considered (e.g. the removal of large pieces of
stream debris from otherwise natural streams to avoid such change).
One area of concern has been the drive to modify river channels for
improved hydraulic conveyance or navigation (e.g. Walker and Thoms,
1991). Structures have been built, large pieces of woody debris have normally
been removed, and a distinctly non-natural turbulence regime has been developed. Resultant declines in fishing and biotic values have sometimes led to an
appreciation of the loss, although it seems rare that management has
attempted directly to reverse the situation (e.g. Cadwallader and Lawrence,
1990). The need is for us, as forest hydrologists, to derive a good theoretical
knowledge of forest stream environments, the natural woody debris regime,
and the effects of land and stream management, and to ensure that good
practice is used in the management of the channel. Such work must be tied
to the occurrence of extreme and episodic events, with due recognition given
to these. In this, as in other matters, the question of how much we should bow
to economic requirements is moot and should be continually discussed; on one
hand, we must be realistic about meeting needs of our society, but, on the
other hand, we must strive to protect natural values.

The riparian zone

The riparian zone is in intimate connection with the stream. A strict construction of the term might include only vegetation along a water course, but
the term has come to include vegetative areas associated with some nonflowing waters, including lakeside wetlands. Most developed countries have
extensive bodies of riparian law and water rights aimed at protection of
various conceptions of 'public good' (e.g. Lamb and Lord, 1992). The zone
is important for human recreation, water quality, wildlife habitat, and
physical productivity of vegetation. The trees in this zone have direct access
to the stream water or groundwater flowing either to or from the stream. They
shade the stream. Sometimes they fall into it. Their debris provides organic
matter for the stream; if they are 'natural' species (e.g. eucalypts in Australia)
this is 'good', but if they are introduced species (willows) this is 'bad'. The
roots may provide mechanical reinforcement of the banks and form 'nickpoints' - - points of stability of the channel. With willows, the masses of roots

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L.J. Bren / Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

may give completely non-natural channels. Because they are close to both the
stream and the groundwater the trees tend to be unusually well-favoured,
having faster growth rates and better form than more remote trees, and this
means that such areas have higher commercial value. The areas provide
repositories for sediment (Lowrance et al., 1986), serve as nutrient sinks for
surrounding watersheds (Cooper et al., 1987), and may improve the quality of
water leaving the watershed (Karr and Schlosser, 1978). The riparian zone
may coincide with the floodplain, but equally (particularly in mountain
country) it may be separate. Intuitively, there is an assumption that the
condition of the stream and the condition of the riparian zone are intimately
linked, but this is hard to quantify.
We can quantify some aspects of the stream-riparian zone relationship.
First, Elmore and Beschta (1987) demonstrated that one of the benefits of
improved stream rehabilitation is bank storage in the riparian zone, which
increases the sustained low-flow capacity of the stream, and this is claimed for
other areas (e.g. Savory, 1988). Second, we can show reasonably well that tree
removal along streams may increase the insolation load reaching the stream,
and thus lead to increased daytime stream temperatures and changes in
oxygenation of the water. Beschta and Taylor (1988) found that stream
temperatures remained elevated for several years after major storms when
riparian zones and bars remain partially devegetated. Third, the importance
of riparian vegetation in providing seston and allochthonous vegetation, and
in stopping the passage of sediment pollutants into flowing water is
self-evident. In each of these cases, however, it is hard to put an observed
change in a small catchment or a small reach of stream into the context of a
larger catchment over an extended time-scale, and this must be a direction of
future work.
The riparian zone may also contain sections of older stream channels (cutoff meanders, oxbow lakes, or 'billabongs'), and these may be important
sources of food for organisms able to take advantage of them. These cut-off
sections have, at best, an intermittent connection to the main channel at flood
times. Many stream organisms have evolved mechanisms which appear to
maximise their ability to take advantage of this periodic access to the
resources of the floodplain system. Boon et al. (1990) suggested that these
areas have an important but unappreciated role in the maintenance of biotic
diversity of stream systems, and that good riparian management should both
ensure their preservation and a natural flow regime that allows periodic
connection of such areas to the main flow channel for the health of both.
The issues in riparian zone management generally involve, on the one hand,
desire to utilise some commercial values of the site, and, on the other, desire to
protect the stream environment. It is not hard to show examples of riparian

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287

degradation caused by poor forestry practices (particularly roading), mining,

cattle grazing, or drainage. It is hard to quantify the offsite effects of all of
these except in unusually bad cases. The riparian degradation may include
destruction of visual values, sediment input (from roads and machine activity
areas), input of polluted water (particularly turbidity pollution), introduction
of inappropriate vegetation, and inappropriate modification of the vegetation.
Often dramatic cases of damaged riparian values (particularly as a result of
roads) can be relatively easily cured by relocation, rehabilitation, and time.
The more subtle and difficult-to-answer questions relate to management of the
vegetation and protection from offsite influences. Thus, for instance, skilled
forestry management may result in lower-land vegetation being harvested and
the area restocked with virtually no detectable effect on measurable stream
variables at the time. However, this process will, ultimately, change the probability of accretion and the type of debris in the stream channel over time,
perhaps leading to corresponding changes in the biota of the stream. It is
difficult to determine whether this is an important or trivial change. First, it
is subtle. Second, the reach affected by an individual coupe management is
small, and there are many other such reaches (but possibly at any given time
these are undergoing similar types of change). Third, the entirely natural
environment could hardly have been static at all. The utilisation produces
marketable goods and services which are important to the economy. The
problem is as old as the concept of ecology and economics, and seems no
closer to being resolved now than in the past.
More difficult to deal with can be damage to riparian zones induced by off
site or unappreciated changes. Thus Conner and Toliver (1990) have
described how damage to riparian swamp cypress forests was caused by
flood control, navigation, and agricultural activities many kilometres from
the site of the forest. Factors that lead to changes in water levels similarly alter
groundwater levels in the riparian zone. Thus backwater effects from downstream weirs may completely alter riparian vegetation although the area is not
flooded. Erosion from downstream change (river straightening, swamp clearing, etc.) has often been known to propagate upstream (sometimes for many
kilometres), leading to simplified streams, degraded bed levels, and lowered
groundwater levels, thereby changing riparian zone soil moisture conditions.
In Australia, a common cause of degradation has been straightening of
streams to hasten drainage of water from the floodplain of agricultural
land. In one case, in Tasmania (E. O'Loughlin, personal communication,
1993), this led to an increase in the erosion potential of the stream of 200%
compared with the undisturbed channel. The stream responded by headward
erosion which passed into the adjoining forest area, damaging the riparian
zone and leading to unfounded allegations of logging damage. Harvey and

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Bencala (1993) suggested that water exchange between stream channels and
adjacent aquifers is enhanced by convexities and concavities in streambed
topography. Thus factors that reduce these, such as siltation, 'river management' to improve hydraulic conveyance, bed degradation, or loss of large
organic matter components to the stream, may alter the bank
recharge discharge relationship, leading to changed soil moisture conditions
in the riparian zone and possibly to change in the vegetation. This may also
help explain the observations of Elmore and Beschta (1987) noted above
concerning improved bank recharge after stream rehabilitation. In
summary, anticipation of possible effects and vigilance that such effects do
not occur seems to be essential.

The riparian zone as a stream buffer

There is a growing appreciation of the utility of a small belt of riparian

forest to protect the stream against agricultural pollution. Thus Phillips (1989)
found that all riparian forests provided significant protection but that there
was a wide variation in buffer effectiveness, and suggested a range of widths of
1 5 - 8 0 m for different situations. Clinnick (1985) reviewed the use of buffer
strips in Australian forestry, and showed that there was considerable variation
from state to state; from Table 1 it can be seen that 20 m is about a median
figure for well-defined streams, and perhaps 5 m for ephemeral streams. One
can also find many variations in practice relating to personal definitions of
such features as 'the edge of streams' or 'drainage lines'. There seems to be
little rational design of buffer strips at present, and it is hoped that this will be
remedied by good research in the near future.
Although it is possible to conceive, for a given situation, of a minimum
buffer width that gives satisfactory stream protection, buffer strips are
regarded by biologists as having many other values for wildlife preservation
and as wildlife corridors (e.g. Triquat et al., 1990). Attempts to reduce buffer
widths below current levels would be strongly resisted on non-hydrologic
grounds even if they did meet hydrologic criteria.
Floodplain management

Many of the forest hydrology issues in floodplain management are the same
as those of riparian land management. There is one issue, however, that is
proving very challenging, and that is the issue of flooding forests on major,
regulated rivers. These depend on a periodic flooding for their survival, and
generally on a periodic drying out for regeneration. Inadequate or excessive

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289

flooding will change the nature of the forests. Typically, the vegetation has
oxygen transport mechanisms that allow survival under flooding. The following are examples of forests affected by major induced change in flooding
frequency and duration; many other examples could be detailed:
(1) Taxodium forests including T. distichum in the southern USA. These
need dry periods to regenerate, but many of the forests have become permanent wetlands because of river works, incursions into bayous for oil drilling,
etc. (Conner and Toliver, 1990). Thus, for instance, Finn and Rykiel (1979)
found that construction of a small sill on the Suwannee River raised the water
level in the major Okefenokee Swamp by l l 0 m m , with a major change in
hydroperiod over 28% of the wetland area.
(2) River red gum (E. camaldulensis) forests along the River Murray in
Australia. These extensive forests grow in a sub-humid to semi-arid zone,
and require flooding from the river to have adequate water for transpiration
(Dexter et al., 1986). Regulation for irrigation, navigation, and water supply
purposes has reduced the frequency and duration of flooding, and in some
cases substantially changed the season of flooding, reducing growth and
leading to long-term structural changes in the ecology of the areas (e.g.
Bren, 1992).
(3) Ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) and other forests along the Danube River.
Modification of the river for drainage and navigation and, more latterly,
development of hydroelectric potential are leading to major changes in the
hydrology of these areas (Wenger et al., 1990).
Jackson (1990) listed many other examples. In most cases, the importance
of large waterways for meeting national needs has affected the floodplain
ecology. In the examples listed above, the species involved have physiological
adaptations which make them suited to the environment. Similarly the (shortterm) economic value of the installations to be protected or built is far in
excess of any economic valuation of the forest areas in any commercial
sense. The changes may be attributable to very large structures or river
works, hundreds of kilometres away, and often the linkage is substantially
unappreciated. In each case, the situation is complex and the land management may involve very many interested parties with interlocking interests.
Invariably, sound management will require:
(1) Information on the 'natural' hydrologic environments of the particular
ecology, including timing, depth, and duration of inundation, the quality of
the water, and the mechanism by which water reaches and leaves particular
areas. The hydraulic head of the water may be of critical importance in
ensuring adequate water penetration into large blocks of forest. There may
also be demands from neighbours that their private property should not be
flooded at the same time.

L.J. Bren / Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

290

(2) Information on alternative sources of water; e.g. can the trees survive on
groundwater? Can water from this branch be used to water that area of forest?
(3) Information on trade-offs of 'naturalism'; e.g. 'We know that the normal flooding is in winter and spring but we can give you the same extent of
flooding for the same duration in summer. Will that be OK?'
(4) Mechanisms for implementing change or management options. The
techniques of ensuring maintenance of flooding may be complex and very
600 Post-Hume
and

~-

E2

. . . .

400

Dartmouth

Natural

River

E ~' 200

~z

" - ~

. .1200
. . . . . . .1600
.

2o'oo

Estimated monthly flow, GL

(a)
Pre Hume
;-;___

Feb

"

Mar

;o

April

May

2"--; . . . .

June

..............................................
,_. . . . . . . . . . .
: _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ i . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

July

.............

Aug

................

Sept

o o o
o

a ~
o

o o

o o

Post Hume

Jan

o o.
o

Jan

,_. . . . . . . .

Feb

;";

Mar

;""'-;
;
:

June

...............

Oct

, .....................

; ............................

Dec

;. ; .. . ... . ... . ... . . ; .. . ... . ... . ... . ... . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. e c. . . . .C .. . . . . . . . . . .

of

forest

...........................................

'. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . .;. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .'. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .N o v

Fraction

o ~

....................................

.................

2.0 .'0 6'0 8.0 16o

o
o

~ o
o

Nov

...........

............................................................
t_. . . . . . . . . . . . .
_*. . . . . . ~_ Sept
........
..............

April

.......................................................................
,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*_. . . . . . . . .
~_. . . .
Aug

.........................

.....

May

.; ........................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .;. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . J. .u. .l .y

Oct

, ............

~: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
; .................

,_-;

.....................................

;
flooded

; .........

2;

;0

; ....................

6'0 8'0 16o

(%)

(b)
Fig. 3 (a) Frequency distribution of monthly flows for 'natural' and the 'current regulation" case of the
River Murray. (b) Box and whisker plots showing the statistical distributions or the percentage P of the
forest flooded in each month for the pre-Hume (1895 1930) and post-Hume (1935 84) periods. In these
representations the 'box' contains the distribution median ( + ) with its limits defined by the upper and lower
quartites (l), the "whiskers' (dashed lines) show the effective range of the data, and the outliers (*) and
exteme outliers (O) are shown individually. Reproduced with permission of CSIRO (Bren, 1987).

L.J. Bren /Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277-299

291

difficult to implement, given limited information and resources. These include

structural modification of levee banks and inverts of stream channels passing
through the levees, earthen walls across the forest to allow water to be ponded,
large channels to ensure hydraulic conveyance of water to specific points,
groundwater recharge, pumped water, and dam release policy changes.
Figure 3 illustrates some of these changes for a 30000ha river red gum
forest along the River Murray. Figure 3(a) (from Bren, 1991a) shows frequency polygons of monthly River Murray flow for the 'natural' and the
'currently regulated' river. The latter case includes the effects of one major
dam and minor dams. The dramatic change in the lowest flows experienced in

Fig. 4 Changes in a natural plain-red gum forest boundary reflecting changes in flooding frequency. Each
photograph shows an area of 1.2 x 2 km. The left photograph, taken in 1945, shows a clear, stable tree-grass
plain boundary. The right photograph shows exactly the same area in 1985. The aggressive growth of young
red gum and the transition to forest can be seen. The change apparently reflects siltation on the flood plain,
reduced winter-spring flooding and increased summer flooding. Under the natural regime the grass plain
was too wet in winter and too dry in summer for the trees to invade, but the changes dues to river regulation
appear to have favoured the tree growth. Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scientific Publications
(Bren, 1992).

L.J. Bren / Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

292
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1985

2030

2075

(Ac~al)

(Es~mated)

(Es~mated)

Forest

Intermediate

II

Plain

Fig. 5 Mapped progression of vegetation on the plains of Fig. 4 from 1945 to 1985, and distribution of the
vegetation in 2030 and 2075, as predicted using a Monte-Carlo model. Each letter represents a grid cell of
200 x 200m. F means the cell contains only forest, P means only plain, and I ('Intermediate') means an
intimate mixture of forest and plain, it can be seen that the large expanses of open plain will cease to exist,
apparently because of river-regulation changes. Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scientific
Publications (Bren, 1992).

summer months and the tendency of river managers to keep the flow at their
preferred level of about 400 G1 month-1 can be seen. Not so obvious are the
reductions in frequency of the less commonly occurring higher flows. Figure
3(b) (Bren, 1987) gives box plots showing the estimated range of forest flooding before and after the construction of the first (Hume) major dam. Clearly
shown are the advent of smaller 'unseasonal' summer floods in JanuaryMarch, and the reduction in size and duration, and increase in the variability
of 'winter-spring flooding'. Bren and Gibbs (1986) showed that, in this
environment, the plant communities are distributed more or less in accord
with the flooding frequency and duration, and hence a change in this presumably changes the associated forest ecology. Figure 4 shows a possible effect of
such change, in that a hitherto stable forest is invading a natural grass plain; a
Markov chain model examining this (Bren, 1992) showed the more or less
complete elimination of the latter in the near future (Fig. 5). In this environment, a number of changes immediately can be shown:
(1) under the natural flooding regime, the areas with the highest flooding

L.J. Bren / Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

293

frequency and duration are flooded only in winter. Under the managed river
regime, substantial flooding of these areas can occur all year, but with a reduced
winter-spring flooding frequency and an increased summer flooding frequency.
(2) The forest flooding is both reduced and more variable. Many of the
areas with a lower flood frequency will hardly be flooded at all, leading to
changes in ecology and reduced site quality.
(3) Although one can demonstrate historic change and extrapolate it into
the future (as in Fig. 5), one can never be dogmatic about the exact cause and
effect relationship between flooding and vegetation development.
Forest water managers may also be faced with hard decisions on how much
they care (or dare) to emulate nature. For instance, in this area of variable
Australian streamflows, natural ibis breeding seasons were often interrupted
by flood recession. The fledgling ibis would be abandoned to die (Chesterfield
et al., 1984). Such emulation of nature by river managers withdrawing water
from the forest by a major reduction in river levels during the breeding season
would be an act of political courage because ibis breeding is perceived as
'natural'. Maintenance of water levels to allow the fledglings to mature forces
a distinctly modified hydrologic regime onto the vegetation, leading to a
corresponding decline in certain vegetation types.
The actual hydraulics of flooding in channel-rich, large, flat plains is both
complex and little explored in the literature. It becomes of importance in
attempts to implement a water management scheme to counter river regulation changes. First, the elevation of the inverts of the water offtakes through
the river bank and the conveyance of the channels control the river stage at
which water enters the forest and the time at which backwater effects began to
restrict outflow from the river. It is easy to show that these have been arbitrarily modified many times and for many reasons, but there are rarely records
of such changes. Second, the hydraulic conveyance capacity of the channels is
linked to the accumulation of debris, vegetation growth, and actions which
modify channels (road construction, bridge construction, etc). Third, because
of the flatness of such areas, the resultant changes in water levels may propagate over many kilometres. Fourth, such areas commonly have complex
branching networks of distributaries, with water being able to reach a given
point by many different paths. It can be shown (in laboratory flows) that water
passing through a branch is unstable in which branch it will favour, and that
small changes in the turbulence will cause the water to switch branches (see
Streeter, 1971). Somewhat similarly, in braided river channels it can be shown
that complex feedback mechanisms exist that cause flow to change spontaneously from favouring one side of a branch to another (Ferguson et al.,
1992). Observations in channel-rich floodplains suggest that a somewhat
similar switching mechanism operates; thus a tree falling into a channel

294

L.J. Bren / Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

may cause the main flow to switch suddenly from favouring the left-hand to
the right-hand branch. In principle, perhaps, one could set up large complex
simulations on hydraulic models but the infinity of detail required is too great
for any practical case. Fifth, in the Australian environment at least, it is
thought that changes in burning frequency associated with European settlement led to the death of large areas of reed beds, which then made the forest
much more freely draining, again changing the hydrology. The upshot of all of
this is that the hydraulics of these large, flowing wetlands is complex and
sensitive to many small changes. They can probably never be modelled as
deterministic systems but, rather, are better viewed as an exercise in statistical
mechanics. This has many implications for the way in which we think about
management of these areas, and is a subject that will require much
experimentation in the future. Ideally, the information to help answer such
questions should be systematically collected over many years by the management authority. In many cases, the urgency of the political process is such that
specific answers are needed over short time-spans that preclude long-term
data collection, and when the urgency fades the will to collect information
also fades.
There are no simple answers to any of the questions raised. Modelling in
such situations has some applicability, but adequate verification of models is
almost impossible. A fundamental question is the description of the natural
hydrologic variation, but often the river systems had been grossly changed
before any data were ever collected; in some cases, it is arguable that there has
never been a period in the last millennium when the river could have been
called entirely 'natural'. In Australia, there has been a growing appreciation of
how indigenous populations actually modified floodplain inlets and outlets to
trap fish. It can be easily shown that such changes can be a powerful modifying agent for at least the distribution of small floods. The questions raised are
amenable to resolution in the long term, and the development of optimal
solutions gives fascinating insights into our allocations of resources and
necessary trade-offs of values.

Rehabilitation and enhancement of riparian, stream, and floodplain resources

Rehabilitation (also called reclamation) involves returning areas to something reminiscent of their pristine state. Let us consider the following examples:
(1) the modification of grazing practices to allow development of meadow
vegetation along streams emanating from overgrazed semi-arid land (e.g.
Elmore and Beschta, 1987).
(2) The rebuilding of wildland streams to develop habitats for anadromous

L.J. Bren / Journal of Hydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

295

fish, including the placing of logs to make pools, and other riparian habitats
(De Bano and Schmidt, 1990).
(3) Management to increase or restore depleted populations of beavers in
North American streams, with the resultant backwater effects and riparian
modification by the beaver dams.
(4) Demolition of old or inappropriate dams to recover the riparian values
and remove obstacles to fish. This seems to have been more discussed than
undertaken for larger dams. An example is the Hetch-Hetchy Dam, built to
provide San Francisco with water and power, which occupies a valley close to
and similar to that at Yosemite (Wilkinson, 1991). About 1987, suggestions
were made that the dam be demolished to recover some of the pristine river
and scenic values foregone by its construction. The proposition of the demolition has indicated some of the unknowns. First, is there a replacement water
and power supply? Second, once the structure is gone, how long would an
attractive riparian environment take to form on the sulphide-rich beds of
deposited sediment? Third, would the deposition of sediment have irreversibly destroyed the valley form? It is likely that forest hydrologists will be faced
with such issues in the near future.
(5) Replanting of denuded stream banks in agricultural land to approximate the natural vegetation condition.
The common thread in each of these is the recognition that our streams are
a fundamental resource to be guarded, nurtured, and restored to a more
natural state. In each case, the practitioner is forced to make significant and
difficult judgements with little direct information base.
Riparian habitat enhancement has been defined by Platts and Rinne (1985)
as 'returning the riparian/stream habitat to a more productive condition by
natural or artificial means'. This has been undergoing a wave of popularity in
parts of the USA (De Bano and Schmidt, 1990). These projects basically
create near-perennial streamflow by providing a more consistent year-long
supply of water, or supplying more water to an area. Typically, channel
structures are installed which trap and store sediments and create artificial
ponds. Traditionally, the technology has been used for restoring habitat in
degraded areas, but there has been a tendency to use the same methods to
improve the abundance of certain fish species in streams that are already
arguably natural. Although not wishing to decry the value and excellence of
the work, the ethical questions posed by making a natural stream 'more
natural' or 'more productive' are interesting and worthy of philosophic
debate and research.
Information needs: local and holistic
A basic yet often unmet need in forest management is simple characterisa-

296

L.J. Bren / Journal of ttydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

tion of our stream, riparian zone, and floodplain environments in terms of the
variables of length, area, and geographic extent, and examination of their
changes over time. Further, there is a need for classification of distinct
hydraulic environments and guarding of them, and development of
techniques such as those of Grant (1988) for assessment of possible change.
We cannot pretend that all such environments can be retained indefinitely, but
any change made should rely on a thorough knowledge of values foregone. As
forest hydrologists, we must further develop our knowledge of protection of
these zones, whether it be by planning laws, legal sanctions, or better techniques in forestry (Lamb and Lord, 1992). Realistically, there will be
continued pressure on these areas to meet all sorts of demands, and we
must continue to evolve workable mechanisms that protect such areas but
also help to meet the demands of our society.
More difficult is the question of putting it all together to give a 'holistic'
view (holism: tendency in nature to form wholes that are more than the sum of
the parts by creative evolution - - Concise Oxford Dictionary). The concept of
cumulative effects offers the chance of developing a holistic view provided
adequate information on the linkages between separate ecosystem components can be obtained, but the information needs are formidable. A cumulative impact is 'the impact on the environment which results from the
incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and
reasonably foreseeable future actions... Cumulative impacts can result
from individually minor but collectively significant actions taking place over
a period of time' (Reid, 1992). Thus, for instance, Potter (1991) showed that
the effects of many small improvements in riparian habitat and agricultural
practices were apparent in measured hydrographs from a catchment of 221
miles 2 in Wisconsin, although the individual projects were small. It must be
recognised that no one person or organisation can ever have an 'overall view'
or knowledge of where any decision taken may ultimately lead, and knowledge is generally inadequate to define these linkages. Work such as that by
Leibowitz et al. (1992) is showing the way towards developing usable quantitative approaches involving concepts of cumulative effects for riparian issues,
but there are many difficulties. It is to be hoped that, at least for specific river
basins or areas, a knowledge of the cumulative effects of the land management
decisions on key environmental variables will be developed to help guide the
way to more sustainable long-term management. In particular, this need will
probably lead, ultimately, to a return to multiple catchment experimentation
with measurement continued over a much longer time-span and with more
complex experimental layouts to give information on assessment of cumulative effects. In some cases, it may lead to a reopening of long unmeasured
multiple catchment experiments (e.g. Stednick, 1991) to determine the effects

L.J. Bren/JournalofHydrology 150 (1993) 277 299

297

o f f o r e s t r y t r e a t m e n t s o v e r m u c h longer time-spans t h a n t r a d i t i o n a l l y envisaged, a n d to a t t e m p t to view them in a m u c h less restricted f r a m e (spatially

a n d temporally).

Conclusions
T h e science o r k n o w l e d g e o f these areas is n o t well d e v e l o p e d , but is
growing fast. In general, the needs a p p e a r to be g o o d fieldwork to allow
q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f otherwise vague concepts, d e v e l o p m e n t o f new and better
m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r e m e n t and o f formalising i n f o r m a t i o n , and reconciliation
o f the needs o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t with e c o n o m i c and social needs.
Because o f h u m a n i t y ' s liking for streams and riparian areas, it is likely that
conflict a b o u t the o p t i m a l use o f these areas will increase in the future. It is
h o p e d that, by d e v e l o p m e n t o f m e a s u r e m e n t techniques and collection o f
i n f o r m a t i o n , forest h y d r o l o g y will be able to help resolve conflicts and
p r o t e c t e n v i r o n m e n t a l values.

Acknowledgements
T h e c o n c e p t s in this p a p e r owe m u c h to discussion with P r o f e s s o r Bob
Beschta o f O r e g o n State University, Pat O ' S h a u g h n e s s y o f M e l b o u r n e
W a t e r , a n d Dr. E m m e t t O ' L o u g h l i n o f the C R C on C a t c h m e n t H y d r o l o g y .

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