Early Japan

Nara and Heian Periods

Kamakura Period
Muromachi Period
Azuchi-Momoyama Period
Edo Period
Meiji Period
Taisho and Early Showa Period
Postwar Period

until 710
710-1192
1192-1333
1338-1573
1573-1603
1603-1868
1868-1912
1912-1945
since 1945

Period

Name

-300 BC

Jomon

The early Japanese were gatherers, hunters and fishers.

300 BC300

Yayoi

The introduction of rice agriculture begins the development of a

social hierarchy and hundreds of small countries that started to
unify into larger countries.

300-538

Kofun

300 Japan is for the first time more or less united. Large tombs
(kofun) were built for the deceased leaders.

538-710

Asuka

538/552 Introduction of Buddhism.

604 Prince Shotoku's Constitution of seventeen articles is
promulgated.
645 The Taika reform is introduced. The Fujiwara era starts.

710-784

Nara

710 Nara becomes the first permanent capital.

784 The capital moves to Nagaoka.

Heian

794 The capital moves to Heian (Kyoto).

1016 Fujiwara Michinaga becomes regent.
1159 The Taira clan under Taira Kiyomori takes over the power
after the Heiji war.
1175 The Buddhist Jodo sect (Pure land sect) is introduced.
1180-85 In the Gempei War, the Minamoto clan puts an end to
Taira supremacy.

7941185

11921333

13381573

Kamakura

Description

1191 The Zen sect is introduced.

1192 Minamoto Yoritomo is appointed shogun and establishes the
Kamakura government.
1221 The Jokyu Disturbance ends a struggle between Kamakura
and Kyoto resulting in the supremacy of the Hojo regents in
Kamakura.
1232 A legal code, the Joei Shikimoku, is promulgated.
1274 and 1281 The Mongols try to invade Japan twice, but fail
mainly because of bad weather conditions.
1333 The Kamakura bakufu falls.

Muromachi 1334 Kemmu restoration: the emperor restores power over Japan.
1336 Ashikaga Takauji captures Kyoto.
1337 The emperor flees and establishes the Southern court in

Yoshino.
1338 Takauji establishes the Muromachi government and a
second emperor in Kyoto (Northern court).
1392 Unification of the Southern and Northern courts.
1467-1477 Onin war.
1542 Portuguese introduce firearms and Christianity to Japan.
1568 Nobunaga enters Kyoto.
1573 The Muromachi Bakufu falls.

15731603

1575 The Takeda clan is defeated in the battle of Nagashino.

1582 Nobunaga is murdered and succeeded by Toyotomi
Hideyoshi.
1588 Hideyoshi confiscates the weapons of farmers and religious
Azuchi
institutions in the "Sword Hunt".
Momoyama 1590 Japan is reunited after the fall of Odawara (Hojo).
1592-98 Unsuccessful invasion of Korea.
1598 Death of Hideyoshi.
1600 Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats his rivals in the battle of
Sekigahara.

Edo

1603 Ieyasu is appointed shogun and establishes the Tokugawa

government in Edo (Tokyo).
1614 Ieyasu intensifies persecution of Christianity.
1615 The Toyotomi clan is destroyed after Ieyasu captures Osaka
Castle.
1639 Almost complete isolation of Japan from the rest of the
world.
1688-1703 Genroku era: popular culture flourishes.
1792 The Russians unsuccessfuly try to establish trade relations
with Japan.
1854 Commodore Matthew Perry forces the Japanese government
to open a limited number of ports for trade.

18681912

Meiji

1868 Meiji restoration.

1872 First railway line between Tokyo and Yokohama.
1889 The Meiji Constitution is promulgated.
1894-95 Sino-Japanese War.
1904-05 Russo-Japanese War.
1910 Annexation of Korea.
1912 Death of emperor Meiji.

19121926

Taisho

1914-18 Japan joins allied forces in WW1.

1923 The Great Kanto Earthquake devastates Tokyo and
Yokohama.

19261989

Showa

1931 Manchurian Incident.

1937 Second Sino-Japanese War starts.
1941 Pacific War starts.
1945 Japan surrenders after two atomic bombs are dropped over
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
1946 The new constitution is promulgated.
1952 The Allied Occupation of Japan ends.
1956 Japan becomes member of the UN.
1972 Normalization of relations to China.
1973 Oil crisis.

1989-

Heisei

1603 1867

1993 The LDP loses its majority in the diet.

1995 The Great Hanshin Earthquake hits Kobe.

Sarin Gas attack in the Tokyo subway by AUM sect.

2009 The Democratic Party of Japan becomes the ruling party.
2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

Early Japan

During the Jomon Period (13000 BC to 300 BC), the inhabitants of the Japanese
islands were gatherers, fishers and hunters. Jomon is the name of the era's pottery.
During the Yayoi Period (300 BC to 300 AD), the rice culture was imported into Japan
around 100 BC. With the introduction of agriculture, social classes started to evolve, and
parts of the country began to unite under powerful land owners. Chinese travellers
during the Han and Wei dynasties reported that a queen called Himiko (or Pimiku)
reigned over Japan at that time. The Yayoi period brought also the introduction of iron
and other modern ideas from Korea into Japan. Again, its pottery gave the period its
name.
By the beginning of the Kofun Period (300 - 538), a center of power had developed in
the fertile Kinai plain, and by about 400 AD the country was united as Yamato
Japan with its political center in and around the province of Yamato (about today's Nara
Prefecture). The period's name comes from the large tombs (kofun) that were built for
the political leaders of that era. Yamato Japan extended from Kyushu to the Kinai plain,
but did not yet include the Kanto, Tohoku and Hokkaido.
The emperor was ruler of Yamato Japan and resided in a capital that was moved
frequently from one city to another. However, the Soga clan soon took over the actual
political power, resulting in a system in which most of the emperors only acted as the
symbol of the state and performed Shintorituals.
During the Asuka Period (538-710), the influence from the mainland increased strongly
thanks to friendly relations to the kingdom of Kudara (or Paikche) on the Korean
peninsula. Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the year 538 or 552 and was promoted
by the ruling class. Prince Shotoku is said to have played an especially important role
in promoting Chinese ideas. He also wrote the Constitution of Seventeen Articles about
moral and political principles. The theories of Confucianism and Taoism, as well as
the Chinese writing system had also been introduced to Japan by then.
In 645, Nakatomi no Kamatari started the era of the Fujiwara clan that was to last until
the rise of the military class (samurai) in the 11th century. In the same year, the Taika
reforms were realized: A new government and administrative system was established
after the Chinese model. All land was bought by the state and redistributed equally
among the farmers in a large land reform in order to introduce the new tax system that
was also adopted from China.

Nara and Heian Periods (710 - 1185)

In the year 710, the first permanent Japanese capital was established in Nara, a city modelled
after the Chinese capital. Large Buddhist monasteries were built in the new capital. The
monasteries quickly gained such strong political influence that, in order to protect the
position of the emperor and central government, the capital was moved to Nagaoka in 784,
and finally to Heian (Kyoto) in 794 where it would remain for over one thousand years.
One characteristic of the Nara and Heian periods is a gradual decline of Chinese influence
which, nevertheless, remained strong. Many of the imported ideas were gradually
"Japanized". In order to meet particular Japanese needs, several governmental offices were
established in addition to the government system which was copied after the Chinese model,
for example. In the arts too, native Japanese movements became increasingly popular. The
development of the Kana syllables made the creation of actual Japanese literature possible.
Several new Buddhist sects that were imported from China during the Heian period, were
also "Japanized".
Among the worst failures of the Taika reforms were the land and taxation reforms: High taxes
resulted in the impoverishment of many farmers who then had to sell their properties and
became tenants of larger land owners. Furthermore, many aristocrats and the Buddhist
monasteries succeeded in achieving tax immunity. As a result, the state income decreased,
and over the centuries, the political power steadily shifted from the central government to the
large independent land owners.
The Fujiwara family controlled the political scene of the Heian period over several centuries
through strategic intermarriages with the imperial family and by occupying all the important
political offices in Kyoto and the major provinces. The power of the clan reached its peak
with Fujiwara Michinaga in the year 1016. After Michinaga, however, the ability of the
Fujiwara leaders began to decline, and public order could not be maintained. Many land
owners hired samurai for the protection of their properties. That is how the military class
became more and more influential, especially in Eastern Japan.
The Fujiwara supremacy came to an end in 1068 when the new emperor Go-Sanjo was
determined to rule the country by himself, and the Fujiwara failed to control him. In the year
1086 Go-Sanjo abdicated but continued to rule from behind the political stage. This new form
of government was called Insei government. Insei emperors exerted political power from
1086 until 1156 when Taira Kiyomori became the new leader of Japan.
In the 12th century, two military families with aristocratic backgrounds gained much power:
the Minamoto (or Genji) and Taira (or Heike) families. The Taira replaced many Fujiwara
nobles in important offices while the Minamoto gained military experience by bringing parts
of Northern Honshu under Japanese control in the Early Nine Years War (1050 - 1059) and
the Later Three Years war (1083 - 1087).
After the Heiji Rising (1159), a struggle for power between the two families, Taira
Kiyomori evolved as the leader of Japan and ruled the country from 1168 to 1178 through
the emperor. The major threats with which he was confronted were not only the rivalling
Minamoto but also the increasingly militant Buddhist monasteries which frequently led wars
between each other and disturbed public order.

After Kiyomori's death, the Taira and Minamoto clans fought a deciding war for supremacy,
the Gempei War, which lasted from 1180 to 1185. By the end of the war, the Minamoto were
able to put an end to Taira supremacy, and Minamoto Yoritomo succeeded as the leader of
Japan. After eliminating all of his potential and acute enemies, including close family
members, he was appointed Shogun (highest military officer) and established a new
government in his home city Kamakura.
Kamakura Period (1192 - 1333)

In 1185, the Minamoto family took over the control over Japan after defeating the Taira clan
in the Gempei war. Minamoto Yoritomo was appointed shogun in the year 1192 and
established a new government, the Kamakura Bakufu. The new feudal government was
organized in a simpler way than the one in Kyoto and worked much more efficient under
Japanese conditions.
After Yoritomo's death in 1199, quarrels for supremacy started between the Bakufu
of Kamakura and the Imperial court in Kyoto. Those quarrels for supremacy found an end in
the Jokyu disturbance in 1221 when Kamakura defeated the Imperial army in Kyoto, and
the Hojo regents in Kamakura achieved complete control over Japan. By redistributing the
land gained during the Jokyu disturbance, they were able to achieve loyalty among all the
powerful people throughout the country. The emperor and the remaining governmental
offices in Kyoto lost practically all effective power.
Chinese influence continued to be relatively strong during the Kamakura period. New
Buddhist sects were introduced: the Zen sect (introduced 1191) found large numbers of
followers among the samurai, which were now the leading social class. Another
new Buddhist sect, the radical and intolerant Lotus Sutra sect was founded in 1253 by
Nichiren.
In 1232 a legal code, the Joei Shikimoku was promulgated. It stressed Confucian values
such as the importance of loyalty to the master, and generally attempted to suppress a decline
of morals and discipline. Tight control was maintained by the Hojo clan, and any signs of
rebellions were destroyed immediately.
The shogun stayed in Kamakura without much power while deputies of him were located in
Kyoto and Western Japan. Stewards and constables controlled the provinces tightly and
loyally. Indeed, the Hojo regents were able to bring several decades of peace and economic
expansion to the country until an external power began to threaten Japan.
By 1259, the Mongols had conquered China and became also interested in Japan. Several
threatening messages of the powerful Mongols were ignored by Kamakura. This resulted in
the first Mongol invasion attempt in 1274 on the island of Kyushu. After only a few hours of
fighting, however, the large naval invasion fleet, was forced to pull back because of bad
weather conditions. This was very fortunate for the Japanese since their odds against the large
and modern Mongol force were not favourable at all.

Due to good preparations, the Japanese were able to maintain a strong defence for several
weeks during a second invasion attempt which occurred in 1281. But again, the Mongols
were finally forced to withdraw mainly because of bad weather. Kyushu remained in alert for
a possible third invasion attempt, but the Mongols soon had too many problems on the
mainland in order to care about Japan.
The consequences of the many years of war preparations against the Mongols were fatal to
the Kamakura government since they resulted only in expenditures and no profits. Many of
the loyal men who were fighting for Kamakura, were now waiting for rewards that the
government could not pay. Hence, financial problems and decreasing loyalty among the
powerful lords were some of the reasons for the fall of the Kamakura government.
By 1333 the power of the Hojo regents had declined to such a degree that the emperor GoDaigo was able to restore imperial power and overthrow the Kamakura Bakufu.

Muromachi Period (1333 - 1573)

The emperor Go-Daigo was able to restore imperial power in Kyoto and to overthrow
the Kamakura Bakufu in 1333. However, the revival of the old imperial offices under
the Kemmu restoration (1334) did not last for long because the old administration system
was out of date and practice, and incompetent officials failed gaining the support of the
powerful landowners.
Ashikaga Takauji, once fighting for the emperor, now challenged the imperial court and
succeeded in capturing Kyoto in 1336. Go-Daigo, consequently, fled to Yoshino in the South
of Kyoto where he founded the Southern court. At the same time, another emperor was
appointed in Kyoto. This was possible because of a succession dispute that had been going on
between two lines of the imperial family since the death of emperor Go-Saga in 1272.
In 1338 Takauji appointed himself shogun and established his government in Kyoto.
The Muromachidistrict where the government buildings were located from 1378 gave the
government and the historical period their names.
Two imperial courts existed in Japan for over 50 years: the Southern and Northern courts.
They fought many battles against each other. The Northern court usually was in a more
advantageous position; nevertheless, the South succeeded in capturing Kyoto several times
for short time periods resulting in the destruction of the capital on a regular basis. The
Southern court finally gave in in 1392, and the country became emperor-wise reunited again.
During the era of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1368 - 1408), the Muromachi Bakufu was
able to control the central provinces, but gradually lost its influence over outer regions.
Yoshimitsu established good trade relations with Ming China. Domestic production also
increased through improvements in agriculture and the consequences of a new inheritance
system. These economic changes resulted in the development of markets, several kinds of
towns and new social classes.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, the influence of the Ashikaga shoguns and the
government in Kyoto declined to practically nothing. The political newcomers of the
Muromachi period were members of land owning, military families (ji-samurai). By first
cooperating and then surpassing provincial constables, a few of them achieved influence over
whole provinces. Those new feudal lords were to be called daimyo. They exerted the actual
control over the different parts of Japan, and continuously fought against each other for
several decades during the complicated age of civil wars (Sengoku jidai). Some of the most
powerful lords were the Takeda, Uesugi and Hojo in the East, and Ouchi, Mori, and
Hosokawa in the West.
In 1542 the first Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries arrived in Kyushu, and
introduced firearms and christianity to Japan. The Jesuit Francis Xavier undertook a mission
to Kyoto in 1549-50. Despite Buddhist opposition, most of the Western warlords welcomed
Christianity because they were keen in trade with overseas nations mainly for military
reasons.
By the middle of the 16th century, several of the most powerful warlords were competing for
control over the whole country. One of them was Oda Nobunaga. He made the first big steps
towards unification of Japan by capturing Kyoto in 1568 and overthrowing the Muromachi
bakufu in 1573.
Please read more about the rise of Nobunaga and the developments in the AzuchiMomoyama period here.

Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573 - 1603)

Oda Nobunaga achieved control over the province of Owari (around the modern city
of Nagoya) in 1559. As many other daimyo, he was keen in uniting Japan. Strategically
favorably located, he succeeded in capturing the capital in 1568.
After establishing himself in Kyoto, Nobunaga continued to eliminate his enemies. Among
them were some militant Buddhist sects, especially the Ikko sect (Pure Land Sect) which had
become very powerful in several provinces. Nobunaga destroyed the Enryakuji monastery
near Kyoto completely in 1571. His fight against the Ikko sect continued until 1580.
Rather fortunate was Nobunaga concerning two of his most dangerous rivals in the
East: Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin. Both of them died before they were able to
confront Nobunaga. After Shingen's death, Nobunaga defeated the Takeda clan in the battle of
Nagashino (1575), making use of modern warfare.
In 1582, general Akechi murdered Nobunaga and captured his Azuchi castle. Toyotomi
Hideyoshi, a general fighting for Nobunaga, reacted very quickly, defeated Akechi, and took
over control. Hideyoshi continued to eliminate remaining rivals. He subdued the Northern
provinces and Shikokuin 1583 and Kyushu in 1587. After defeating the Hojo family in
Odawara in 1590, Japan was finally reunited.

In order to bring the country under absolute control, Hideyoshi destroyed many castles that
were built throughout the country during the era of civil wars. In 1588 he confiscated the
weapons of all the farmers and religious institutions in the "Sword Hunt". He forbade
the samurai to be active as farmers and forced them to move into the castle towns. A clear
distinction between the social classes should increase the government's control over the
people. In addition, a land survey was started in 1583, and a census carried out in 1590. In the
same year, Hideyoshi's large castle, the Osaka Castle, was completed.
In 1587, Hideyoshi issued an edict expelling Christian missionaries. Nevertheless,
Franciscans were able to enter the country in 1593, and the Jesuits remained active in Western
Japan. In 1597 Hideyoshi intensified the persecution of Christian missionaries, forbade
further conversions, and executed 26 Franciscans as a warning. Foreign traders and
missionaries had acted aggressively and intolerant towards native Japanese institutions in an
era when their fellow countrymen were conquering and colonizing other parts of the world in
the name of Christianity.
After uniting the country, Hideyoshi attempted to realize his rather megalomaniac dream of
conquering China. In 1592, his armies invaded Korea and captured Seoul within a few weeks;
however, they were pushed back again by Chinese and Korean forces in the following year.
Hideyoshi stubbornly didn't give in until the final evacuation from Korea in 1598, the same
year in which he died.
Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had been an intelligent partner of Hideyoshi and Nobunaga,
succeeded Hideyoshi as the most powerful man of Japan.

Edo Period (1603 - 1867)

Tokugawa Ieyasu was the most powerful man in Japan after Hideyoshi had died in 1598.
Against his promises he did not respect Hideyoshi's successor Hideyori because he wanted to
become the absolute ruler of Japan.
In the battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Ieyasu defeated the Hideyori loyalists and other Western
rivals. Hence, he achieved almost unlimited power and wealth. In 1603, Ieyasu was appointed
Shogun by the emperor and established his government in Edo (Tokyo). The Tokugawa
shoguns continued to rule Japan for a remarkable 250 years.
Ieyasu brought the whole country under tight control. He cleverly redistributed the gained
land among the daimyo: more loyal vassals (the ones who supported him already before
Sekigahara) received strategically more important domains accordingly. The daimyo were
also required to spend every second year in Edo. This meant a huge financial burden for the
daimyo and moderated his power at home.
Ieyasu continued to promote foreign trade. He established relations with the English and the
Dutch. On the other hand, he enforced the suppression and persecution of Christianity from
1614 on.

After the destruction of the Toyotomi clan in 1615 when Ieyasu captured Osaka Castle, he
and his successors had practically no rivals anymore, and peace prevailed throughout the Edo
period. Therefore, the warriors (samurai) were educating themselves not only in the martial
arts but also in literature, philosophy and the arts, e.g. the tea ceremony.
In 1633, shogun Iemitsu forbade travelling abroad and almost completely isolated Japan in
1639 by reducing the contacts to the outside world to very limited trade relations with China
and the Netherlands in the port of Nagasaki. In addition, all foreign books were banned.
Despite the isolation, domestic trade and agricultural production continued to improve.
During the Edo period and especially during the Genroku era (1688 - 1703), popular culture
flourished. New art forms like kabuki and ukiyo-e became very popular especially among the
townspeople.
The most important philosophy of Tokugawa Japan was Neo-Confucianism, stressing the
importance of morals, education and hierarchical order in the government and society: A
strict four class system existed during the Edo period: at the top of the social hierarchy stood
the samurai, followed by the peasants, artisans and merchants. The members of the four
classes were not allowed to change their social status. Outcasts, people with professions that
were considered impure, formed a fifth class.
In 1720, the ban of Western literature was cancelled, and several new teachings entered Japan
from China and Europe (Dutch Learning). New nationalist schools that combined Shinto and
Confucianist elements also developed.
Even though the Tokugawa government remained quite stable over several centuries, its
position was steadily declining for several reasons: A steady worsening of the financial
situation of the government led to higher taxes and riots among the farm population. In
addition, Japan regularly experienced natural disasters and years of famine that caused riots
and further financial problems for the central government and the daimyo. The social
hierarchy began to break down as the merchant class grew increasingly powerful while
some samurai became financially dependent of them. In the second half of the era,
corruption, incompetence and a decline of morals within the government caused further
problems.
In the end of the 18th century, external pressure started to be an increasingly important
issue, when the Russians first tried to establish trade contacts with Japan without success.
They were followed by other European nations and the Americans in the 19th century. It was
eventually Commodore Perry in 1853 and again in 1854 who forced the Tokugawa
government to open a limited number of ports for international trade. However, the trade
remained very limited until the Meiji restoration in 1868.
All factors combined, the anti-government feelings were growing and caused other
movements such as the demand for the restoration of imperial power and anti western
feelings, especially among ultra-conservative samurai in increasingly independently acting
domains such as Choshu and Satsuma. Many people, however, soon recognized the big
advantages of the Western nations in science and military, and favoured a complete opening

to the world. Finally, also the conservatives recognized this fact after being confronted with
Western warships in several incidents.
In 1867-68, the Tokugawa government fell because of heavy political pressure, and the power
of Emperor Meiji was restored.

Meiji Period (1868 - 1912)

In 1867/68, the Tokugawa era found an end in the Meiji Restoration. The emperor Meiji was
moved from Kyoto to Tokyo which became the new capital; his imperial power was restored.
The actual political power was transferred from the Tokugawa Bakufu into the hands of a
small group of nobles and former samurai.
Like other subjugated Asian nations, the Japanese were forced to sign unequal treaties with
Western powers. These treaties granted the Westerners one-sided economical and legal
advantages in Japan. In order to regain independence from the Europeans and Americans and
establish herself as a respected nation in the world, Meiji Japan was determined to close the
gap to the Western powers economically and militarily. Drastic reforms were carried out in
practically all areas.
The new government aimed to make Japan a democratic state with equality among all its
people. The boundaries between the social classes of Tokugawa Japan were gradually broken
down. Consequently, the samurai were the big losers of those social reforms since they lost
all their privileges. The reforms also included the establishment of human rights such
as religious freedom in 1873.
In order to stabilize the new government, the former feudal lords (daimyo) had to return all
their lands to the emperor. This was achieved already in 1870 and followed by the
restructuring of the country in prefectures.
The education system was reformed after the French and later after the German system.
Among those reforms was the introduction of compulsory education.
After about one to two decades of intensive westernization, a revival of conservative and
nationalistic feelings took place: principles of Confucianism and Shinto including the
worship of the emperor were increasingly emphasized and taught at educational institutions.
Catching up on the military sector was, of course, a high priority for Japan in an era of
European and American imperialism. Universal conscription was introduced, and a new army
modelled after the Prussian force, and a navy after the British one were established.
In order to transform the agrarian economy of Tokugawa Japan into a developed industrial
one, many Japanese scholars were sent abroad to study Western science and languages, while
foreign experts taught in Japan. The transportation and communication networks were
improved by means of large governmental investments. The government also directly

supported the prospering of businesses and industries, especially the large and powerful
family businesses called zaibatsu.
The large expenditures led to a financial crisis in the middle of the 1880's which was
followed by a reform of the currency system and the establishment of the Bank of Japan. The
textile industry grew fastest and remained the largest Japanese industry until WW2. Work
conditions in the early factories were very bad, but developing socialist and liberal
movements were soon suppressed by the ruling clique.
On the political sector, Japan received its first European style constitution in 1889. A
parliament, theDiet was established while the emperor kept sovereignty: he stood at the top of
the army, navy, executive and legislative power. The ruling clique, however, kept on holding
the actual power, and the able and intelligent emperor Meiji agreed with most of their actions.
Political parties did not yet gain real power due to the lack of unity among their members.
Conflicts of interests in Korea between China and Japan led to the Sino-Japanese War in
1894-95. Japan defeated China, received Taiwan, but was forced by Russia, France and
Germany to return other territories. The so called Triple Intervention caused the Japanese
army and navy to intensify their rearmament.
New conflicts of interests in Korea and Manchuria, this time between Russia and Japan, led
to the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-05. The Japanese army also won this war gaining
territory and finally some international respect. Japan further increased her influence on
Korea and annexed her completely in 1910. In Japan, the war successes caused nationalism to
increase even more, and other Asian nations also started to develop national self confidence.
In 1912 emperor Meiji died, and the era of the ruling clique of elder statesmen (genro) was
about to end.

Taisho and early Showa Period (1912 - 1945)

During the era of the weak emperor Taisho (1912-26), the political power shifted from the
oligarchic clique (genro) to the parliament and the democratic parties.
In the First World War, Japan joined the Allied powers, but played only a minor role in
fighting German colonial forces in East Asia. At the following Paris Peace Conference of
1919, Japan's proposal of amending a "racial equality clause" to the covenant of the League
of Nations was rejected by the United States, Britain and Australia. Arrogance and racial
discrimination towards the Japanese had plagued Japanese-Western relations since the forced
opening of the country in the 1800s, and were again a major factor for the deterioration of
relations in the decades preceeding World War 2. In 1924, for example, the US Congress
passed the Exclusion Act that prohibited further immigration from Japan.
After WW1, Japan's economical situation worsened. The Great Kanto Earthquake of
1923 and the world wide depression of 1929 intensified the crisis.

During the 1930s, the military established almost complete control over the government.
Many political enemies were assassinated, and communists persecuted. Indoctrination and
censorship in education and media were further intensified. Navy and army officers soon
occupied most of the important offices, including the one of the prime minister.
Already earlier, Japan followed the example of Western nations and forced China into
unequal economical and political treaties. Furthermore, Japan's influence over Manchuria had
been steadily growing since the end of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05. When the
Chinese Nationalists began to seriously challenge Japan's position in Manchuria in 1931, the
Kwantung Army (Japanese armed forces in Manchuria) occupied Manchuria. In the
following year, "Manchukuo" was declared an independent state, controlled by the Kwantung
Army through a puppet government. In the same year, the Japanese air force bombarded
Shanghai in order to protect Japanese residents from anti Japanese movements.
In 1933, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations since she was heavily criticized for her
actions in China.
In July 1937, the second Sino-Japanese War broke out. A small incident was soon made into
a full scale war by the Kwantung army which acted rather independently from a more
moderate government. The Japanese forces succeeded in occupying almost the whole coast of
China and committed severe war atrocities on the Chinese population, especially during the
fall of the capital Nanking. However, the Chinese government never surrendered completely,
and the war continued on a lower scale until 1945.
In 1940, Japan occupied French Indochina (Vietnam) upon agreement with the French Vichy
government, and joined the Axis powers Germany and Italy. These actions intensified Japan's
conflict with the United States and Great Britain which reacted with an oil boycott. The
resulting oil shortage and failures to solve the conflict diplomatically made Japan decide to
capture the oil rich Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) and to start a war with the US and Great
Britain.
In December 1941, Japan attacked the Allied powers at Pearl Harbor and several other points
throughout the Pacific. Japan was able to expand her control over a large territory that
expanded to the border of India in the West and New Guinea in the South within the
following six months.
The turning point in the Pacific War was the battle of Midway in June 1942. From then on,
the Allied forces slowly won back the territories occupied by Japan. In 1944, intensive air
raids started over Japan. In spring 1945, US forces invaded Okinawa in one of the war's
bloodiest battles.
On July 27, 1945, the Allied powers requested Japan in the Potsdam Declaration to surrender
unconditionally, or destruction would continue. However, the military did not consider
surrendering under such terms, partially even after US military forces dropped two atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, and the Soviet Union entered the war
against Japan on August 8.

On August 14, however, Emperor Showa finally decided to surrender unconditionally.

Post War History (since 1945)

After World War II had ended, Japan was devastated. All the large cities (with the exception
of Kyoto), the industries and the transportation networks were severely damaged. A severe
shortage of food continued for several years.
The occupation of Japan by the Allied Powers started in August 1945 and ended in April
1952. General MacArthur was its first Supreme Commander. The whole operation was
mainly carried out by the United States.
Japan basically lost all the territory acquired after 1894. In addition, the Kurile islands were
occupied by the Soviet Union, and the Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, were controlled
by the USA. Okinawa was returned to Japan in 1972, however a territorial dispute with
Russia concerning the Kurile Islands has not been resolved yet.
The remains of Japan's war machine were destroyed, and war crime trials were held. Over
500 military officers committed suicide right after Japan surrendered, and many hundreds
more were executed for committing war crimes. Emperor Showa was not declared a war
criminal.
A new constitution went into effect in 1947: The emperor lost all political and military power,
and was solely made the symbol of the state. Universal suffrage was introduced and human
rights were guaranteed. Japan was also forbidden to ever lead a war again or to maintain an
army. Furthermore, Shinto and the state were clearly separated.
MacArthur also intended to break up power concentrations by dissolving the zaibatsu and
other large companies, and by decentralizing the education system and the police. In a land
reform, concentrations in land ownership were removed.
Especially during the first half of the occupation, Japan's media was subject to a rigid
censorship of any anti-American statements and controversial topics such as the race issue.
The co-operation between the Japanese and the Allied powers worked relatively smooth.
Critics started to grow when the United States acted increasingly according to her self
interests in the Cold War, reintroduced the persecution of communists, stationed more troops
in Japan, and wanted Japan to establish an own self defence force despite the anti-war article
in the constitution. Many aspects of the occupation's so called "reverse course" were
welcomed by conservative Japanese politicians.
With the peace treaty that went into effect in 1952, the occupation ended. Japan's Self
Defence Forcewas established in 1954, accompanied by large public demonstrations. Great
public unrest was also caused by the renewal of the US-Japan Security Treaty of 1960.
After the Korean War, and accelerated by it, the recovery of Japan's economy flourished. The
economic growth resulted in a quick rise of the living standards, changes in society and the

stabilization of the ruling position of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), but also in severe
pollution.
Japan's relations to the Soviet Union were normalized in 1956, the ones to China in 1972.
The 1973 oil crisis shocked the Japanese economy which was heavily depended on oil. The
reaction was a shift to high technology industries.