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CHRISTOPHER BHARATH.M
DHINESH KUMAR.U
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
Page 1
ANNA UNIVERSITY::
CHENNAI 600 025
NOVEMBER 2012
RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
THANDALAM 602 105
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
UNIVERSITY REGISTER No.
211091010
This is to certify that this is a bonafide record of work done by the student ,
,III year Aeronautical Engineering in the AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT -1 Laboratory
during the academic year 2011-2012.
Page 2
Internal Examiner
External Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Prof. Yogesh Kumar Sinha for
giving us his able support and encouragement. At this juncture we must emphasis
the point that this design project would not have been possible without the highly
informative and valuable guidance of Mr. Surendra Bogadi (Asst. Professor of
Aeronautical Department), whose vast knowledge and experience has greatly
helped us in this project. We have great pleasure in expressing our sincere and
whole hearted gratitude to them.
It is worth mentioning about my friends and colleagues of the Aeronautical
department for extending their kind help whenever the necessity arose. I thank one
and all who have directly or indirectly helped us in making this design.
Page 3
INDEX
Serial no.
Content
1.
Introduction
2.
3.
4.
5.
V-n Diagram
6.
Gust Envelope
7.
Schrenks Curve
8.
9.
Material Selection
10.
11.
Conclusion
12.
Page no
Page 4
Page 6
1.INTRODUCTION
Page 7
INTRODUCTION
The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or Vn diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane can withstand at any
particular flight velocity. However in normal practice the airplane might experience loads that
are much higher than the design loads. Some of the factors that lead to the structural overload of
an airplane are high gust velocities, sudden movements of the controls, fatigue load in some
cases, bird strikes or lightning strikes. So to add some inherent ability to withstand these rare but
large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design.
The two major members that need to be considered for the structural design of an
airplane are wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned, the most significant
load is the bending load. So the primary load carrying member in the wing structure is the spar
(the front and rear spars) whose cross section is an I section. Apart from the spars to take the
bending loads, suitable stringers need to take the shear loads acting on the wings.
Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much
simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical crossing and symmetrical loading. The
main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is
transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and
fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The
maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of
the material chosen for the respective member.
The Structural design involves:
Determination of loads acting on aircraft:
a) V-n diagram for the design study
b) Gust and maneuverability envelopes
c) Schrenks Curve
d) Critical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation
Determination of loads acting on individual structures
a) Structural design study Theory approach
b) Load estimation of wings
c) Load estimation of fuselage.
d) Material Selection for structural members
e) Detailed structural layouts
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Page 9
Page 10
Page 11
Page 12
TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Page 13
2. V-n DIAGRAM
Page 14
In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the aircraft.
This implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This force causes stresses on the aircraft
structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to the weight at any instant is defined as the Load
Factor (n).
Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a quadratic variation with velocity.
However, this is true only up to a certain velocity.
This velocity is determined by simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically
((CL)max) as well as structurally (nmax). This velocity is called the Corner Velocity, and is
determined using the following formula,
In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load factor, and attempt to draw
the variation of load factor with velocity, commonly known as the V-n Diagram. The Vn
diagram is drawn for Sea level Standard conditions.
V-n diagram is used primarily in the determination of combination of flight conditions
and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed. V-n diagram precisely gives
Page 15
From the table the limit load factor for our UCAV ranges between
lim(+ve) = 9
lim(-ve) = 3
First of all we need to find the
a. Design Maneuvering Speed Va
b. Design Cruising Speed Vc
c. Design Diving Speed Vd
Load Factor
n=L/W
L = 1/2V 2SCl
Where
=1.224 Kg/m3
S = 57.77 m2
Cl=1.589
For V = 25 m/s
L=35112.125 N
n = 0.65
For V = 30 m/s
L = 50561.46 N
n = 0.94
For V = 40 m/s
L = 89887.04 N
n = 1.665
For V = 60 m/s
L = 202245.84 N
n = 3.748
For Va = 87 m/s
L = 425221.878 N
n = 7.88
Page 17
Load Factor
For V = 25 m/s
L = 17556.25 N
n = 0.33
For V = 30 m/s
L = 25281 N
n = 0.47
For V = 40 m/s
L = 44944 N
n = 0.84
For V = 60 m/s
L = 101124 N
n = 1.88
For Va = 50.23 m/s
L = 70872.55 N
n = 1.31
Table Containing the load Factor Values For Positive And Negative Curve.
v
Page 18
25
0.65
25
-0.3253
30
0.9371
30
-0.4685
40
1.6659
40
-0.833
60
3.748
50.23
-1.31
87
7.88
175
-1.31
175
7.88
192.5
-1
192.5
6.88
192.5
6.88
The V-n plot is shown below, which clearly explains the load factor behavior of the Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle
Page 19
This V-n diagram helps in predicting the positive load limit, negative load limit, Positive
accelerated stall, negative accelerated stall, speed limit, Caution range, Safety limit, structural
damage, etc.,
Page 20
3. GUST ENVELOPE
Page 21
Page 22
Where ,
K
Umax
Where
g
Page 23
ct=
Chord at tip = 8 m
cr
5.64
a = 0.074
Therefore we obtain,
=374.85
K=0.176
We know ,
Page 24
Load Factor
Velocity
Load Factor
25
0.3125
25
0.3125
30
0.432
30
0.175
40
0.702
40
-0.1
60
1.894
50.23
-0.38
87
5.785
175
-3.81
192.5
3.156
192.5
-0.434
The load factors at the various points can be found using the formula using the corresponding
values of Umax and the gust envelope is found to be,
Page 25
Page 26
4.SCHRENKS CURVE
Page 27
Schrenks Curve
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of attack and sweep
along the span. Schrenks curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an aircraft,
also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve. Schrenks Curve is given by
Where
y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1.
y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2.
a =5
Linear Lift Distribution:
Lift at root
Lroot=238450 N
Lift at tip
Ltip=64262N
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Lift intermediate
L1=110283N
L2=64262N
By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the wing.
Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
Y1 = -64262x+348733
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by x in general,
Y1 = 64262x+348733
For the Schrenks curve we only consider half of the linear distribution of lift and hence we
derive y1/2
Y1/2 = -32131x + 174366.5
Page 29
Where
b1 is Actual lift at root
a is wing semi span
Lift at tip
b1=6869.74
Equation of elliptic lift distribution
Y2 = 1373.95*(25-x2)
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For the remaining Schrenks curve we consider the half of the eliptic distribution of lift and
hence we derive y2/2
Y2/2 = 686.975*(25-x2)
Construction of Schrenks Curve:
Schrenks Curve is given by
-32131x + 174366.5+686.975*(25-x2)
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Substituting different values for x we can get the lift distribution for the wing semi span
Lift distribution table along semi span
x
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
linear
348733
316602
284471
252340
220209
188078
155947
123816
91685
59554
27423
elliptic
6869.74
6835.305
6730.943
6553.314
6296.221
5949.369
5495.792
4905.976
4121.844
2994.45
0
Combined
177801.4
161718.7
145601
129446.7
113252.6
97013.68
80721.4
64360.99
47903.42
31274.23
13711.5
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Page 33
The solution methods which follow Eulers beam bending theory (/y=M/I=E/R) use the
bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam
due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction. Most
engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and approximate
methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the deflection and
slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as
analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is
about the longitudinal (x) axis.
Shear force and bending moment diagrams due to loads along transverse
direction at cruise condition:
Lift Force given by Schrenks Curve:
Y2/2 = 686.975*(25-x2)
Hence
-32131x + 174366.5+686.975*(25-x2)
Lift distribution (linear)
Page 35
Where b
= span
When we integrate from x=0 (root location) to x=b (tip location) we get the net weight of port
wing.
y3 = k ( x 5)
Substituting various values of x in the above equation we get the self-weight of the wing.
Fuel weight:
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in the wing.
Again by using general formula for straight line y=mx + c we get,
Yf=441.95x-1878.3
Page 37
Area enclosed /
structural weight (N)
943557.5
Centroid (from
wing root)
2.0835
Page 38
26977.4
2.122
Wing
3683
1.875
Fuel
3093.63
1.955
VA= 0
VA-943557.5-26977.4+3683+3093.63 = 0
VA = 963758.27 N
MA= 0
MA+(3683*1.875)+(3093.63*1.955)-(943557.5*2.0835)-(26977.4*2.122) = 0
MA = 2010194.42 Nm
Now we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and Bending moment.
Page 39
Shear Force:
SFBC =(
SFBC
y1 + y 2
+ y 3)dx VA
2
x3
64262 2
2
1 x
=
x + 348733x + 1374 x 25 x + 25sin 88.3 5 x 2 + 25 x
2
5
3
963758.24
SFDC = (
y1 + y 2
+ y 3)dx VA + ( yfuel )dx
2
SFAD = (
y1 + y 2
+ y 3)dx VA + 3094
2
Page 40
Bending moment
y +y
BM BC = 1 2 + y3 VA dx 2 + M A
2
x
BM BC = 10710 x 3 +174366.5 x2 + 687 x x 25 x 2 + 25sin 1
5
1.5
x4
+37.5 ( 25 x 2 ) 88.3
1.66 x3 +12.5 x 2 963758.24 x + 2010194.42
12
BM DC = BM BC + y fuel dx
BM DC = BM BC + 220.975 x 3 939.15 x 2
BM AD = BM DC 3094 x
By substituting the values of x for the above equations of bending moments obtained we can get
a continuous bending moment curve for the port wing.
Note: if we replace the x by -x in each term we get the distribution of starboard wing
Page 41
Shear force and bending moment diagrams due to loads along chordwise
direction at cruise condition:
Aerodynamic center- This is a point on the chord of an airfoil section where the bending
moment due to the components of resultant aerodynamic force (Lift and Drag) is constant
irrespective of the angle of attack. Hence the forces are transferred to this point for obtaining
constant Mac
Shear center- This is a point on the airfoil section where if a force acts, it produces only bending
and no twisting. Hence the force is transferred to this point and the torque is found.
Cruise CL=0.05 @ V= 175 m/s
Cruise CD= 0.0125
Angle of attack= -4 (obtained from the lift curve slope)
Angle of attack @ zero lift= -5.5
Wing lift curve slope (a)= 0.074 /degree
Page 42
xac/c=0.25
Location of shear centre:
xsc/c=0.3
Lift and drag are the components of resultant aerodynamic force acting normal to and along the
direction of relative wind respectively. As a result, components of them act in the chordwise
direction also which produce a bending moment about the normal (z) axis.V
Page 43
FR = (0.5*0.1212*1.225*1752*8)
FR = 18187.575 N/m
Chord wise force at tip,
FT = (0.5*0.1212*1.225*1752*2.156)
FT = 4901.55 N/m
Chord wise force at intermediate length,
F1 = 8411.75 N/m
F2 = 4901.55 N*m
By using y = mx +c again we get the equation as
y = -2565.5x + 15219
The above equation gives the profile of load acting chordwise, by integrating this above equation
we get a component of Shear force and again by integrating the same we get the component of
Bending Moment
ydx = 1282.75 x
ydx
+ 15219 x
= 427.58 x 3 + 7609.5 x 2
VA = 0
VA = 40394.32 N
MA = 0
MA = 83616.24 Nm
Shear Force:
SF = ydx VA
SF = 1282.75 x 2 + 15219 x 40394.32
Page 45
Bending Moment:
BM = ydx 2 VA x + M A
BM = 427.58 x 3 + 7609.5 x 2 40394.32 x + 83616.24
Page 46
Torque due to normal forces and constant pitching moment at cruise condition:
The lift and drag forces produce a moment on the surface of cross-section of the wing, otherwise
called a torque, about the shear center. Moment about the aerodynamic center gets transferred to
the shear center. The power plant also produces a torque about the shear center on the chord
under which it is located.
Page 47
1
Cn V 2c * 0.05c
2
1
T1 = *0.05*1.225*1752 * 0.05c
2
T1 = 46.89c 2
T1 =
Where
c = chord
The equation for chord can also be represented in terms of x by taking c= mx+k
c = -1.1285x + 6.6944
Therefore torque
T1 = 46.89 c 2 dx
2
Page 48
T2 = Fc * 0
T2 =0
1 2 2
V c
2
T3 = 0.15*0.5*1.225*1752 * c 2
T3 = CM ac
T3 = 2813.67c 2
T3 = 2813.67 0.424 x3 7.55 x 2 + 44.82 x
Page 49
Then the different torque components are brought together in a same graph to make a
comparison
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Page 51
7. MATERIAL SELECTION
Page 52
Aircraft Metals
Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths,limitations, and other characteristics of
structuralmetals is vital to properly construct and maintain any equipment, especially airframes.
In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specification, or the
substitution of inferior materials,may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of
unsuitable materials can readily erase the finestcraftsmanship. The selection of the correct
material fora specific repair job demands familiarity with the most common physical properties
of various metals.
Properties of Metals
Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are suchgeneral properties of metals and their alloys
as hardness,malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, brittleness, fusibility,
conductivity contractionand expansion, and so forth. These terms are explainedto establish a
basis for further discussion of structuralmetals.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resistabrasion, penetration, cutting action, or
permanentdistortion. Hardness may be increased by cold working the metal and, in the case of
steel and certain aluminumalloys, by heat treatment. Structural parts are often
formed from metals in their soft state and are then heattreated to harden them so that the finished
shape will beretained. Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of metals.
Strength
One of the most important properties of a material isstrength. Strength is the ability of a material
to resistdeformation. Strength is also the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.
The type of load orstress on the material affects the strength it exhibits.
Density
Page 53
Malleability
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressedinto various shapes without cracking,
breaking, orleaving some other detrimental effect, is said to bemalleable. This property is
necessary in sheet metalthat is worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings,fairings, or wingtips.
Copper is an example of a malleablemetal.
Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it tobe permanently drawn, bent, or twisted
into variousshapes without breaking. This property is essential formetals used in making wire
and tubing. Ductile metalsare greatly preferred for aircraft use because of theirease of forming
and resistance to failure under shockloads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for
cowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and formed orextruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and
bulkheads.Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed intodesired shapes. Ductility is
similar to malleability.
Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to returnto its original size and shape when the
force whichcauses the change of shape is removed. This propertyis extremely valuable because it
would be highlyundesirable to have a part permanently distorted afteran applied load was
removed. Each metal has a pointknown as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be
loaded without causing permanent distortion. In aircraftconstruction, members and parts are so
designed that the maximum loads to which they are subjected willnot stress them beyond their
elastic limits. This desirableproperty is present in spring steel.
Toughness
Page 54
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows littlebending or deformation without
shattering. A brittlemetal is apt to break or crack without change of shape.Because structural
metals are often subjected to shockloads, brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast
iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examplesof brittle metals.
Fusibility
Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid bythe application of heat. Metals are fused in
welding.Steels fuse around 2,600 F and aluminum alloys atapproximately 1,100 F.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metalto carry heat or electricity. The heat
conductivity ofa metal is especially important in welding because itgoverns the amount of heat
that will be required forproper fusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certainextent, determines
the type of jig to be used to controlexpansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical conductivity
must also be considered in conjunction withbonding, to eliminate radio interference.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansionthat are reactions produced in metals as
the result ofheating or cooling. Heat applied to a metal will causeit to expand or become larger.
Cooling and heatingaffect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerancesnecessary for hot
rolled material.
Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the
length, is much larger than the others - width or height. For example, the span of the wing and
Page 55
Page 56
Basic properties
6061 has a density of 2.70 g/cm (0.0975 lb/in).
Chemical composition
The alloy composition of 6061 is:
Silicon minimum 0.4%, maximum 0.8% by weight
Iron no minimum, maximum 0.7%
Copper minimum 0.15%, maximum 0.40%
Manganese no minimum, maximum 0.15%
Magnesium minimum 0.8%, maximum 1.2%
Chromium minimum 0.04%, maximum 0.35%
Zinc no minimum, maximum 0.25%
Titanium no minimum, maximum 0.15%
Other elements no more than 0.05% each, 0.15% total
Remainder Aluminium
Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of 6061 depend greatly on the temper, or heat treatment, of the
material.
a) 6061-0
Annealed 6061 (6061-0 temper) has maximum tensile strength no more than 18,000 psi (125
MPa), and maximum yield strength no more than 8,000 psi (55 MPa). The material has
elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 25-30 %.
Page 57
c) 6061-T6
T6temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 42,000 psi (290 MPa) and yield
strength of at least 35,000 psi (241 MPa). In thicknesses of 0.250 inch (6.35 mm) or less, it has
elongation of 8% or more; in thicker sections, it has elongation of 10%. T651 temper has similar
mechanical properties. The famous Pioneer plaque was made of this particular alloy.
Uses
6061 is widely used for construction of aircraft structures, such as wings and fuselages, more
commonly in homebuilt aircraft than commercial or military aircraft.
6061 is used for yacht construction, including small utility boats.
6061 is commonly used in the construction of bicycle frames and components.
Welding
6061 is highly weldable, for example using tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) or metal inert gas
welding (MIG). Typically, after welding, the properties near the weld are those of 6061-0, a loss
of strength of around 80%. The material can be re-heat-treated to restore -T4 or -T6 temper for
the whole piece.
Extrusions
6061 is also an alloy used in the production of extrusionslong constantcross-section structural
shapes produced by pushing metal through a shaped die.
Page 58
Page 59
Page 60
Where
h1 =height of front spar
h2 =height of rear spar
FIRST SECTION
Page 61
The yield tensile stress y for 6061 Al Alloy is 276MPa. The area of the flanges is determined
using the relation
Where
is yield strength(276 Mpa)
M is bending moment taken up by each spar(2010194.42),
A is the flange area of each spar,
z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2
Afs= 0.0235
Area of the rear spar
Ars= 0.0173
Assumptions:
T sections are chosen for top and bottom flanges of front and rear spars.
Both the flanges are connected by a vertical stiffener through spot welding
From the buckling equation,
Page 62
DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES by BRUHN, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section
By equating all the three values of the ratio in area of the section equation, the dimensions of the
spar can be found.
Specification For Front Spar:
t2 = 1.02616*10-3
t = 0.0320 m
bf= 0.2079 m
bw= 0.315 m
Specification For Rear Spar:
t2 = 7.5753*10-4
t = 0.0275 m
bf= 0.178 m
bw= 0.270 m
SECOND SECTION
The yield tensile stress y for 6061 Al Alloy is 276 MPa. The area of the flanges is determined
using the relation
Page 63
Where
is yield strength(276 Mpa)
M is bending moment taken up by each spar(2010194.42),
A is the flange area of each spar,
z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2
Area of the front Spar,
Afs= 0.0485
Area of the rear spar
Ars= 0.0393
Assumptions:
T sections are chosen for top and bottom flanges of front and rear spars.
Both the flanges are connected by a vertical stiffener through spot welding
From the buckling equation,
DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES by BRUHN, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section
By equating all the three values of the ratio in area of the section equation, the dimensions of the
spar can be found.
Specification For Front Spar:
Page 64
The yield tensile stress y for 6061 Al Alloy is 276 MPa. The area of the flanges is determined
using the relation
Where
is yield strength(276 Mpa)
M is bending moment taken up by each spar(2010194.42),
A is the flange area of each spar,
z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2
Area of the front Spar,
Page 65
Ars= 0.052
Assumptions:
T sections are chosen for top and bottom flanges of front and rear spars.
Both the flanges are connected by a vertical stiffener through spot welding
From the buckling equation,
DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES by BRUHN, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section
By equating all the three values of the ratio in area of the section equation, the dimensions of the
spar can be found.
Specification For Front Spar:
t2 = 4.1148*10-3
t = 0.0642 m
bf= 0.4164m
bw= 0.631 m
FIRST SECTION
SECOND SECTION
Page 67
THIRD SECTION
Page 68
CONCLUSION
The structural design part 2 of the UNMANNED COMBAT AERIAL VEHILE which is a
continuation of the aerodynamic design part 1 carried out last semester, is completed
satisfactorily.
As earlier said, many of the methods used in the design are no longer in regular usage, having
been supplanted by finite element methods. The older methods are useful, however for
approximating the correct answers to insure that the finite element results are in the right ball
park
According to Raymer, the study of classical methods is useful for learning the vocabulary of the
structural design
Page 69
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Raymer, D.P, Aircraft Design - a Conceptual Approach ,AIAA educational series second
edition 1992.
2. T.H.G.Megson , Aircraft Structures for engineering students, 4th EditionElsevier Ltd USA
2007.
3. E.F.Bruhn , Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures,1st Edition, tri-state offset
company,USA,1973.
4. Micheal Chun-Yung Niu, Airframe structural design, 2nd Edition, Hong Kong Conmilit
Press Ltd, Hong Kong, 2001.
5.Anderson, John D, Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 2nd Edition McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1991.
6.Anderson, John D , Aircraft design and performance by Anderson, 3rd Edition , Tata
McGraw-Hill, New York , 2010.
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