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Original article
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 16 November 2014
Received in revised form
15 April 2015
Accepted 17 April 2015
Available online xxx
Cu smelting has had a severe impact on the environment around the town of Karabash, Russia.
Dispersion modelling has been carried out to estimate atmospheric fallout of metals and metalloids
(henceforth termed metals for brevity) from the copper smelter, calibrated and ground-truthed using
metal concentrations in transplanted and naturally growing lichens.
Lichens (Hypogymnia physodes) were transplanted in June 2011 from a relatively little impacted
reference site to stations in NEeSW and WeE transects centred on the smelter at Karabash. The
transplants were removed during September 2011 and then analysed for As, Cu and Pb. The results were
compared with deposition loads estimated using TAPM modelling which was carried out for particles of
various sizes, and with simple chemistries, and with the smelter conceptualised as a continuously
emitting point source.
Variation in the ratio of lichen divided by modelled concentrations was lowest for Pb, ranging from
30.3 to 939.9 and 4.9e107.8 for PM2.5 and PM10, respectively, across eight sample points.
The TAPM modelling is in agreement with previous studies that smelter emissions are the major
source of environmental Pb deposition around Karabash. Further modelling will be required to determine whether the Pb in the lichens is largely sourced from current smelter airborne emissions or
windblown soil particles containing historic additions of Pb.
Copyright 2015 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and
hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Air pollution
Deposition
Heavy metals
Lichens
Environmental impact assessment
1. Introduction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2015.04.003
1309-1042/Copyright 2015 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003
Fig. 1. Sites at which lichens were transplanted around the smelter at Karabash and
which lay within the solution grid (grid spacing 2 km). The smelter lies at the centre of
this grid depicted by the yellow square (source: TAPM, CSIRO). The green areas
represent land whereas bodies of surface water are shown as blue. This graphic is
taken directly from TAPM. Overlain is a radial plot of the wind direction, (in three
gure compass bearings and rounded to the nearest 22.5 ) relative to the smelter
taken hourly throughout the model period. Wind direction is predominantly from the
NW.
Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003
Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003
between the two measures were determined. The empirical relationship that holds for Pb deposition is:
BcC
(3.1)
Where
B is the dry deposition across a modelling period in mg m2.
-C is the increase in element concentrations in transplanted lichens during the same sampling period in ppm.
The parameter c is an element specic coefcient. For example, c
is 1.01 for Pb.
Pb concentrations modelled using TAPM and equation (3.1)
were compared with actual levels within each transplanted
lichen, providing inferences as to the emission strength of the
smelter.
4. Results
Across all of the sample points, the t between concentrations of
As, Cu and Pb found in the lichens and the modelled dry deposition
was closest for Pb (Table S2 and Table S3) in all but one of the model
subcategories. Consequently, the analysis presented in this study
focuses on the suitability of TAPM to predict Pb deposition around
the Karabash smelter.
The size of the modelled smelter plume is affected by a variety of
factors including wind direction and strength. An analysis of wind
conditions revealed that the wind blew from a direction between
West and North-North-East for 80% of the time during the
modelling period (Fig. 1). In addition to their direction relative to
the smelter, the distance of each point from the smelter is presented in Table S2. With respect to the smelter, sites NJU3, NJU11,
TSU4 and TSU5 lie downwind whilst the remaining sites lie in a
direction more orthogonal to the prevailing wind. Across all of
these sites, there is some correlation between Pb concentrations
found in transplanted lichens (Figure S1), but different relationships appear when the points are subdivided between those
downwind of the smelter and otherwise (Figure S2).
Actual Pb concentrations found in the transplanted lichens were
compared with modelled concentrations of the three particle sizes
(Table 1). This was undertaken to illustrate the sensitivity in model
output to model quantum used and proximity to the smelter, and to
demonstrate the range in accuracy between the points of the model
framework employed. Without exception, the actual concentrations within the lichens were higher than modelled. Factors
Table 1
Pb concentrations in lichen at each site throughout the modelling period (Lichen);
modelled accumulations of particulate matter of three types and rened using
Sondergaard's ndings; a coefcient of regression between modelled and actual
levels; and the ratio of the actual to modelled levels. Results were obtained using the
combined Eulerian and Lagrangian approach.
Lichen (ppm)a
Lichen/Modelled
(ratio)c
Pb
PM2.5
PM10
AAPM
PM2.5
PM10
AAPM
17.0
75.4
160.0
768.9
145.1
44.5
24.2
30.4
0.6
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.39
3.5
3.7
6.8
7.1
2.7
1.3
0.8
0.6
0.51
15.9
15.4
26.2
31.6
14.3
10.2
10.4
10.2
0.70
30.3
181.9
192.9
939.9
417.1
251.8
227.5
361.8
4.9
20.3
23.6
107.8
52.9
34.2
30.0
47.9
1.1
4.9
6.1
24.3
10.2
4.4
2.3
3.0
Site
NJU3
NJU11
TSU4
TSU5
TSU6
TSU7
NJU9
NJU10
R2
a
Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003
Table 2
The range in ratio of observed Pb concentrations to modelled concentrations at sample points proportioned by their position relative to the smelter and the direction of the
prevailing wind. For each set of points, the number in square brackets is the maximum ratio divided by the minimum.
Quantum
Downwind (4 points)
Lateral (4 points)
PM2.5
30.3e939.9
[31.0]
4.9e107.8
[22.0]
1.1e24.3
[22.1]
181.9e417.1
[2.29]
20.3e52.9
[2.61]
2.3e10.2
[4.43]
30.3e192.9
[6.37]
4.9e23.6
[4.82]
1.1e6.1
[5.55]
227.5e417.1
[1.83]
30.0e52.9
[1.76]
2.3e10.2
[4.43]
PM10
APM
1
Dry (kg ha yr )
Wet (kg ha1 yr1)
Rate 0
Rate 1
Rate 2
UK
48.7e69.9
336e1207
156e224
1046e3870
3173e4551
21 233e78 571
<2.5 e >50
<5 e >100
Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003
Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003
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Please cite this article in press as: Pollard, A.S., et al., Integrating dispersion modelling and lichen sampling to assess harmful heavy metal
pollution around the Karabash copper smelter, Russian Federation, Atmospheric Pollution Research (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apr.2015.04.003