Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Essay-writing brochure
Contents
Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Essay Checklists ......................................................................................................................... 1
Sample Essays ............................................................................................................................ 1
Before you begin ........................................................................................................................ 2
Parts of an Essay ........................................................................................................................ 5
Introductions............................................................................................................................... 6
Body ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 7
Organising Principle ................................................................................................................... 7
Developing a Paragraph ............................................................................................................. 9
TV Step 1: Preparing ................................................................................................................ 13
TV Step 2: Brainstorming ........................................................................................................ 14
TV Step 3: Organising and Adapting ....................................................................................... 15
TV Step 4: Final Plan ............................................................................................................... 16
Media Violence Step 1: Preparing ........................................................................................... 21
Media Violence Step 2: Brainstorming .................................................................................... 22
Media Violence Step 3: Organising and Adapting................................................................... 24
Media Violence Step 4: Final Plan ........................................................................................... 26
Essay Checklists
Checklist: Procedure .................................................................................................................. 3
Standard Essay Outline .............................................................................................................. 8
Readership, content and style ................................................................................................... 18
Some Useful Links ................................................................................................................... 32
Sample Essays
Sample essay on Paragraphs .................................................................................................... 11
Sample Essay on Paragraphs: examination of structure........................................................... 12
Simple Essay: The Importance of Television ......................................................................... 19
Complex Essay: Violence in the Media ................................................................................... 29
Essay-writing brochure
Essay Writing
Essay-writing brochure
Checklist: Procedure
Taking a systematic approach to essay writing ensures that you thoroughly develop the
necessary skills for a meaningful and well-balanced piece of writing. Practise following
the steps outlined here. Examples will be provided in the following sections.
1.
Preparing:
2. Brainstorming:
Write down all the ideas related to your topic, including seemingly bizarre
or outlandish ones.
Allow your thoughts free range - you can include sketches, diagrams,
tables if necessary.
Choose the elements relevant to the specific purpose of your essay and
arrange them in thematic groups and these in turn in logical steps.
Discard those ideas which do not relate to your purpose.
Adapt the subject to your own sphere of interest and knowledge.
4. Gather material:
Plan the structure of your essay, keeping in mind the main purpose. It may
help to refer to the essay outline template provided in the following
pages. Your outline will serve as a kind of check-list to consult while you
are writing.
Note the sub-elements under each particular section heading.
Modify the outline so that it indicates thesis statement, topic sentences
and supporting points
6. Check outline
Essay-writing brochure
At this stage you are more or less "padding out" your outline. You expand
each section heading, fill in the details, provide examples or descriptions,
connect the ideas logically.
Who are your readers? This will influence your choice of style and your
approach.
9. Revise draft:
Essay-writing brochure
Parts of an Essay
Essentially an essay consists of three major parts:
the introduction
the main body
the conclusion
Each of these parts has a function.
The introduction is intended to lead the reader into the topic and clarify what
the essay will specifically deal with. It usually consists of one paragraph, but this
depends on the length of the essay and the amount of background information
the context requires. The introduction will contain a key sentence (or, if
necessary, more than one) that represents the thread running through the whole
essay. This sentence is called the thesis statement.
The main body deals with the major ideas that support the thesis statement.
Each main idea is presented in a separate paragraph (one notion, one paragraph)
and developed with supporting ideas in the form of explanations, definitions, or
similar, and illustrated with examples where appropriate or necessary.
The conclusion brings the reader back to the purpose of the essay and draws all
the points together before making a final comment on the result of the
discussion/argument. Often this final comment will point towards some
consequence the discussion may have for the future or make some observation
about what the discussion has revealed on a general level.
Ultimately an essay will show a progression from a general level (in the introduction)
down to the specific (thesis statement and body) and back up to the general level again
(conclusion). The reader will be expecting this so it gives your essay a sense of
completion.
Essay-writing brochure
Introductions
The introduction lays the basis for the whole of the rest of the essay. It should tell
the reader about the topic and how the topic will be dealt with. However, an abrupt
statement of the topic and the controlling idea makes the readers feel uncomfortable
and does not give them time to warm up to the topic. Therefore it is best to lead in to
the topic by making a general statement about it, then narrowing the topic down before
dealing with the issue itself.
Note: Unlike the German Aufsatz, the English essay requires that you take a
standpoint at the beginning of the essay so that the reader knows what he is to expect.
English essays are "reader friendly" and guide the readership through the
argumentation. Do not leave the reader guessing about your opinion until the conclusion.
This gives the English-speaking reader the feeling that you werent sure about your own
opinion and that the essay was not sufficiently planned. This means your thesis
statement must clearly show your position on the topic.
Make a general statement about your topic
Narrow down the topic to lead towards your theme
State the issue/question you are dealing with
State your thesis/ controlling idea for the whole essay
Body
The body of the essay will contain several paragraphs, each dealing with one major idea
that supports the thesis statement. The major idea for the paragraph is given in a topic
sentence and all the other sentences in the paragraph are linked to this idea in some
form or another. The paragraphs should also contain a transition between the ideas, i.e.
moving from the introduction to the first topic sentence and between the body
paragraphs. This can be done in sentences or with individual words such as discourse
markers (linking words).
Topic sentence
Supporting ideas
Examples
Essay-writing brochure
Conclusions
In the conclusion you are drawing your ideas and observations together to make your
final point. Do not be afraid if it seems like you are repeating your ideas. It is part of
the task to remind the reader of your aims and your main discussion points. This
clarifies your purpose. However, do not just repeat word-for-word what you have said
before. Contextualise what you are saying.
Remind the reader of your topic and intention
Show the reader how the discussion has underlined this aim (in a way you are
summarising the topic sentences of the developmental paragraphs here)
State your perspective as a result of the discussion
Sum up the whole concept, e.g. by stating what this may mean for the future
Organising Principle
You can use the standard outline on the following page as a framework when preparing
for most kinds of essays. It may have to be varied according to the organising principle
and the aim involved, but serves as a solid basis.
The organising principle is the logic according to which you put together your ideas.
Your choice of organising principle will depend on the effect you want to achieve and
the expectations of your readership. For instance:
Organising principle
Possible effect
Chronological
Reverse chronological
Essay-writing brochure
2.
3.
Restate question
4.
2.
Supporting ideas
3.
Details
Conclusion
1.
2.
3.
4.
Essay-writing brochure
Developing a Paragraph
Your essay will consist of a series of paragraphs. Each paragraph is made up of a set of
related sentences all connected with a single idea and (apart from the introduction and
conclusion, because their purpose is slightly different) is constructed according to
similar principles. In order to effectively convey your ideas, each paragraph should
contain certain features. It should have a topic sentence, follow a single idea, be
appropriately developed, and be cogent. In addition, there is a formal feature to
consider: paragraphs in printed publications or in handwritten texts generally have an
indented first line to clearly indicate where it begins (thus clearly identifying it as a
unit). In some forms of writing, for example business letters, paragraphs are indicated
by leaving a line before and after. The preferred form for academic writing is
indentation. In any case, this formal feature helps the reader identify and process the
ideas.
Your paragraph should focus on the idea set out in the topic sentence. You should not
introduce other ideas or go off on a tangent. If you have finished an idea, you begin a
new paragraph. If your discussion of one idea is going to be lengthy, subdivide your
paragraph into two or more sub-notions and link them with new topic sentences / linking
sentences.
3. Sufficient development
The idea you introduce with your topic sentence should be sufficiently fleshed out to
get across your idea properly. The way you do this in each paragraph may vary,
depending on what you aim to achieve, for instance you might use examples, give
definitions, provide data, refer to other authors or quote them, outline causes and
effects, compare and contrast, summarise or explain.
4. Cogency:
Essay-writing brochure
grammatical structures:
Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form
Successive sentences can be constructed inversely.
linguistic bridges:
Repetition of key words over several sentences
Use of synonyms throughout the paragraph
Pronouns and deictic terms to refer back (or forward) to nouns or whole ideas in
other sentences
Lexical phrases and conjunctions can be used to link ideas from different
sentences or indicate attitude
On the following pages you will see an example of an essay based on some of the
information you have been given so far - an essay about essays. This is followed by an
analysis of its structure. Then I lead you through two essay-writing tasks, one on the
importance of television and the other on violence in the media, which both conclude
with sample essays.
10
Essay-writing brochure
11
Essay-writing brochure
line of discussion
essay, you must master the structure of its building blocks, its
paragraphs. Paragraphs are expected to have certain characteristics
begins with an introduction, a paragraph which tells the reader what the
essay is about and how the information will be presented. Then,
paragraphs which support and develop the idea presented in the
introduction form the body of the essay, and finally, the concluding
paragraph brings all these parts together again.
First developmental
paragraph:
Topic sentence
Supporting ideas
(expalanation and
outline)
Idea linking to next
2nd developmental
Phrase linking to
step
previous paragraph
Topic sentence
Supporting ideas
(details of features)
Parallel as example
3rd developmental
paragraph:
Linking word
Topic sentence
Explanation
Concluding paragraph:
Linking word/signpost
Reminder of thesis
Reference to main
points
Bringing reader back
up to general level of
the topic and context
concluding remark
observations together. You remind your reader of your aims and your
main supporting arguments, synthesising them (not repeating them
verbatim) to make your final point. What seems obvious to you may no
longer be obvious to the reader, so it is part of the task to clarify your
overall purpose here and arrive at a final conclusion.
And when the paragraphs fulfil the requirement of supporting the thesis
as they should, you will find you have a readable, clear and well-rounded
essay.
12
Essay-writing brochure
TV Step 1: Preparing
Deciding on your thesis and approach
Simple example: We cant live without television
Very often the topic you will be writing on is already set, in which case the approach is
relatively clear. However, sometimes you most respond to a question or a statement.
This means you have to examine the question or statement carefully.
What are the key words?
What is the general topic area?
What issue/problem is it focusing on?
Is it formulated in a provocative way? Will I have to relativise it or put it into
perspective?
What is my view of the topic? Do I agree or disagree with the view
presented? To what extent?
For the sake of simplicity, let us imagine you have been asked to write in response to
the statement:
We cant live without television.
The key words are television and we and cant live without it. Television is the
general topic. We suggests it is a social phenomenon. And cant live without it
suggests a dependency. The last phrase is emotive and perhaps too categoric. What are
we really talking about? Perhaps whether television is really important in our lives. What
do you think? Is television important? Is it beneficial? Or is it rather a problem?
If you are not sure yet what you would like to focus on, it would be best to brainstorm
the topic and then decide. Brainstorming is a strategy that you can use during most
steps of your writing, especially if you find your ideas running low.
If you already have an idea of where you stand, you can loosely formulate a preliminary
thesis statement, which will be your guiding thought throughout the essay. This need
not be your final thesis statement but it clarifies what you intend to show in your essay.
This is important so that you maintain a consistent line in your discussion and because it
needs to be made clear in the introduction what you intend to do in your essay. Once you
have formulated an initial thesis statement, your next step will be focused on
brainstorming the aspects of this.
We will proceed as if you were not entirely sure of your view.
13
Essay-writing brochure
TV Step 2: Brainstorming
Collecting ideas and formulating / refining a thesis
Simple example: We cant live without television
If you are not sure yet what you would like to focus on, it is best to brainstorm the
topic to get some ideas and then decide. Brainstorming is a strategy that you can use
during most steps of your writing, especially if you find your ideas running low.
When you brainstorm an idea, you collect ALL the ideas you can think of which relate to
the topic, directly or indirectly. Let the ideas flow as rapidly and spontaneously as
possible, and do not worry about the order or the value of the ideas. Our example will
remain with the subject of television:
TV guide
Education
News
Advertisements
Entertainment
Instruction
Documentaries
Up-to-date
Information
Cartoons
Sports
Technology
Weather
Films
Violence
Sound
Everywhere
Small world
Colour
Picture
There are two main groupings we can identify: types of programmes (sports, news,
films...) and what TV can offer (entertainment, education...). A focus you could choose
based on the latter grouping would be:
How big a role television plays in our daily lives.
Now it is time to formulate a preliminary thesis statement, that is, a statement
outlining what you want to show in your essay. This statement clarifies what you intend
to show in your essay. For this topic your preliminary thesis statement could be
something like the following:
Television is important for our society today.
Once you have settled on your focus, you can use the ideas you have already collected,
or brainstorm further with the focus in mind. The next step is to sort out and select
the ideas you will be using.
14
Essay-writing brochure
In order to avoid rewriting at this point, you can use symbols or highlighter to group the
ideas:
TV guide
Entertainment
Information
Weather
Everywhere
Knowledge of the
world
Education
News
Advertisements
Instruction
Documentaries
Up-to-date
Sports
Technology
Cartoons
Films
Violence
Small world
School
programmes
Colour
Picture
Vivid images
Realism
15
Sound
Essay-writing brochure
16
Essay-writing brochure
2) Informative content
Up-to-date
Realism
Accessible (Everywhere)
3) TV offers us other benefits
Entertainment
Information
Education
Instruction
Knowledge of the world
Conclusion
Value of range and form of TV content, many purposes
Types of programmes, character of content, what TV offers
TV is an integral and vital medium today
TV can contribute positively to society in education and awareness
Now you can begin writing the essay following your outline. Look at the comments on
readership before you begin. If you like, you can look at another, more complex example
first in the sections following Sample Essay 1, focusing on the topic Violence in the
Media.
17
Essay-writing brochure
Opening
Introduce topic as if the title doesn't exist (who, what, how, when, where, why).
Try to arouse the readers' interest (e.g. question, anecdote).
Save formal introductions for long and complex reports or investigations
Main Body
Deal with each point systematically
Avoid unnecessary explanations and indirect approaches as these destroy the impact.
Be simple and direct.
Do not over-generalise. You will only undermine your own credibility.
Provide examples, descriptions, explanations, personal experiences (if appropriate).
If necessary, make footnotes or endnotes. Indicate sources (see MLA citation style
at http://www.liunet.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citmla.htm ).
Conclusion
Recap all the main points and draw them together to support the point you wish to
make
If necessary, point out what direction your conclusions may lead for future
discussion.
18
Essay-writing brochure
Simple Essay
The Importance of Television
To show how the outline fits with the essay itself, I have placed each paragraph next to
a basic general outline. The points follow in the same order.
Outline
Essay
Introduction
19
Essay-writing brochure
idea: how does TV meet peoples needs) form of films or cartoons. People want
education, information and instruction
2. Supporting ideas (peoples needs)
because they are inquisitive and like to
3. Details (specific functions)
learn. TV gives us these in documentaries
or educational programmes, in reports or
cultural magazines. People enjoy
creativity, and TV gives us that in the
work of all the people involved in creating
clever film scripts, effective scenery,
witty dialogues or magnificent camera
shots. TV gives us the world, other
cultures, other people, languages and
ideas. It introduces us to knowledge.
Conclusion
1. Restate thesis (controlling idea of
essay: valuable programmes, content,
purposes)
2. Restate each topic sentence from
developmental paragraphs (programme
types, character of content, what TV
offers)
3. State your opinion/ preference; give
solution; make prediction... (TV vital
and integral)
4. Final statement (summing thought:
education, awareness )
20
Essay-writing brochure
Task: Violence in the media has been blamed for the rising incidence of
21
Essay-writing brochure
Who
What
How
When
Now
Where
Europe, America
Why
This will help us think of concrete examples and reasons when we are developing our
essay, and provide a basis for more encompassing comments.
In addition in this case, as the question already indicates three major areas, it will help
if we collect the ideas under each area:
22
Essay-writing brochure
Censorship
Accent on violence in
news
Social pressures
Children copy
Arbitrary release of
aggressive feelings
Violent cartoons
TV educational
Heroes violent
Individualism and
materialism
Heroes outsiders
Ideas for crime
Lack of positive example
Lower threshold
Sensationalism
Critical viewing
Education of viewers
Unemployment
TV entertaining
Include all the ideas you think of even if they seem far-fetched to begin with. You may
be able to use these ideas later to give your essay an unusual perspective. Note any
examples or anecdotes which may occur to you, or even diagrams or sketches. Current
events may also provide illustration for your topic, for example, the spate of school
children running amok with weapons in the United States is a topical illustration for this
essay.
If you run out of ideas and feel what you have is not sufficient, focus on one of the
sub-points and work on from there. You can also try simple word association to set you
on track again.
Once you have gathered enough ideas, move on to step 3: organising and adapting.
23
Essay-writing brochure
I have gathered a number of ideas in table form since a general grouping was apparent
from the start. Now organise and select the ideas to be used for the essay.
Society to blame
Arbitrary release of
aggressive feelings
C Censorship
Who should decide?
What will be
censored?
TV educational
Individualism and
materialism
Broadcasting controls
24
Essay-writing brochure
Heroes outsiders
Ideas for crime
Lack of positive
example
Change channels
Critical viewing
Education of viewers
Lower threshold
Unemployment
Sensationalism
Violence is normal
Violence is entertainment
Negative example only
Children particularly susceptible
Problems
Alternatives
Individual behaviour
Additional considerations
This is merely one approach to grouping the ideas that can be used for this material.
You may prefer a different method or include other ideas, but once you have reached
this stage, the next step is to plan the outline.
25
Essay-writing brochure
Question: Violence in the media has been blamed for the rising incidence
26
Essay-writing brochure
27
Essay-writing brochure
28
Essay-writing brochure
Complex Essay
Violence in the Media
In recent years we have witnessed an alarming increase in the crime rate, especially
among young people. We have been left shocked and at a loss to find explanations for
why teenagers rob and blackmail, why young people commit physical violence, why
children become murderers. Some people place the blame on the way violence is
represented in the media and, as a consequence, demand that there should be stricter
controls, or even censorship, put in place. However, this way of dealing with the problem
is not undisputed. It is necessary to take a closer look at whether or not violence in the
media really is responsible for this development and then to examine what censorship
may entail before taking such a far-reaching decision, as it may, in fact lead to more
problems rather than providing solutions.
Many concerned people, ranging from worried parents through to reputable
psychologists, deplore the ever-present nature of violence in the media, claiming that
this is the reason why people are increasingly prepared to commit violent acts. They
argue that violence is being propagated as normal or even entertaining. Violence is in the
newspapers, on the news, in film plots and in cartoons. Violence is a source of laughter in
children's programmes; films present it as staple fare; it is served as pseudoinformation in sensation-hungry newspapers and on reality TV; and it is even glorified by
some musicians in their lyrics and performances. In fact in the public domain, it is
difficult to find material that is not linked to violence in some form.
Those who are worried by this development also point out that the negative examples
provided by the media are not balanced by a positive view. Criminals are often seen as
daredevil and debonair or are presented so as to arouse sympathy. The so-called
'heroes' in TV series and films, be they Dirty Harry, the Power Rangers, Butch Cassidy
or the Mighty Ducks, are frequently violent and tend to take the law into their own
hands. Not only this, the situations are often so contrived that the hero apparently has
no other choice but to turn to violence to solve his problem. Thus, success in media
terms means achieving a goal by means of violence and crime, so people naturally see
this means as an acceptable alternative for achieving what they want too.
Since the media depicts violence as a normal state of affairs and an acceptable
problem-solving option, this is seen as inevitably leading to a lowering of the threshold
to committing violence and crime. It does not stop here, for film, television and the
popular press even offer ideas for ways to commit crime and violent acts. Indeed, the
detail given and emotional involvement evoked in film in particular even provide ideas as
to how to carry out certain crimes. A prime example is the recent report of the high
school massacre in Littleton in the United States, where the teenage killers wore
trench coats and mowed down their victims in a manner reminiscent of scenes from a
popular film. The teenagers and children of today are immersed in the media, and
children above all are particularly susceptible to its influence, as they are not yet in a
position to be able to distinguish adequately between reality and fantasy. They grow up
experiencing violent acts being committed daily in cartoons, in films and on the news, so
it is not surprising if they believe that violent behaviour is normal behaviour. They copy
29
Essay-writing brochure
this dangerous and unacceptable behaviour and assimilate dangerous and unacceptable
values.
Nevertheless, there are voices which challenge the assumption that violence in the
media is the cause of increased violence in society. They would say that society itself
was to blame as a result of the social pressure and social change people must face.
Modern society subjects individuals to an array of pressures such as the lack of
perspective for young people, the threat of unemployment or homelessness, as well as
the necessity to succeed in economic terms and terms of status. Furthermore, there is
a lacking sense of responsibility and a tendency to pass the blame. Individualism and
materialism leave little room for the fulfilment of emotional needs.
This situation is coupled with the inability of the individuals themselves to cope with
new social and economic situations such as divorce or the changing demands of the
workplace. Once caught up in a cycle of strife, people frequently find themselves unable
to seek or find help. They are trapped in an anonymous and seemingly uncaring world. As
a result, feelings of frustration, despair or aggression build up until they can no longer
be contained and are then suddenly, horrifically and vicariously released.
There is also the suggestion that the society 'outside' is not the only source of
concern, that in fact a great deal of blame lies at the feet of thoughtless or
irresponsible parents. Parental guidance is said to be lacking because parents do not
supervise their children enough to guide their emotional and moral development. Very
often the much-berated media is employed as a babysitter: TV and video games keep
the children and teenagers occupied and out of the way. What is missing is the shared
experience, the guidance in viewing habits and taste in entertainment, and the critical
discussion and explanation of what the children have encountered in the media. Parents
must teach their children to question what they see and hear and be there for them.
So in all of this, is there a need for censorship in the media? The question of
censorship raises a number of problems. Decisions would need to be made as to just who
would be responsible for carrying out the task and in what form. Would it be the task
of one person or a committee? Who would have the right - or the privilege - to be
represented on a committee of this nature? The range of groups who would wish for a
say extends from parents through church groups to the media representatives
themselves, and this would clearly present a tug-o-war on many levels of interest: moral,
educational, economic, aesthetic, and exploitative, to name a few. In addition, there is
no guarantee that the criteria for determining the suitability of content nominated by
this committee would better protect viewers than the arbitrarily functioning dynamics
currently operating. In fact, there may be a need to set up controls to regulate what
will happen if censors overstep their responsibilities and interpret their task too
strictly or even irrationally. Indeed, this raises a further question: who would be the
one to censor the censors?
There are certain alternatives to the extreme of censorship. Rather than rigidly
setting up regulations to be strictly enforced, media groups could be encouraged to
establish a code of practice. In addition to this, programmers need to define the
30
Essay-writing brochure
content appropriate for particular broadcasting times, which would, for example, ease
the difficulties that parents may have in supervising their children's viewing habits.
This is already in practice to some degree in many places, but the difficulty is to ensure
that the guidelines are followed. Further to this, script-writers need to be encouraged
to offer more balanced content. There is a belief, whether well-founded or not, that
violence sells and this can only be overcome if producers and programmers are prepared
to move in other directions, accepting more variety in content, and viewers are prepared
to show that the belief has little basis.
Viewers, readers and listeners need to become more aware of their power and learn
to be selective and critical of what the media offers for consumption. The TV viewer's
programming desires can be demonstrated by switching off the television or changing
channels if the programmes meet his disapproval. The reader can take active steps by
not purchasing papers or magazines that glorify or sensationalise violent content. The
listener can also switch stations or call in on that talk-back programme to state his
opinion. Audiences can boycott products that are advertised during films or other
programmes that show inappropriate content or are shown at inappropriate times. Thus,
individuals must be aware that they are to some extent also responsible for the
content, since the signals they give to filmmakers and advertisers suggest that violence
is indeed what they want.
This brings us back to the point of what role violence in the media has to play in
influencing society's behaviour. The discussion has shown that while violence appears
almost ubiquitously in the media, providing a lopsided view of acceptable behaviour and
how to deal with problems, thus certainly having at least the potential to influence
those exposed to it, it need not be the sole cause of the rising incidence of violence in
the community. There are enough examples of the difficulties and complexities of
society that people must face today to show that violence may stem from failure to
cope with these pressures and lack of outlet for emotional problems. In other words, it
may be that the media reflects life, rather than life reflecting the media. Whatever
the case, the role of parents and guardians in supervising and guiding the media
consumption of those in their care cannot be underestimated. Censorship would only
remove the responsibility out of the control of the people who are most directly
affected by programming content, and is thus not a desirable alternative to the present
situation. Measures such as responsible programming, incentives for more creative and
well-balanced scripting and production, and encouragement of reflection on the part of
broadcasters and the press to the point of even establishing a code of practice would
be preferable steps to take. But above all, people need to be taught to be selective and
responsible in dealing with not only the media, but all aspects of everyday life, and to
recognise that they as individuals must make decisions and take action themselves in
order to influence not just the media, but the fabric of the whole of our community.
31
Essay-writing brochure
http://www.englishgrammar.org/
Style Manuals
http://www.mla.org/
http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtml
http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/chicagogd.html
Bibliography
styles
http://www.aresearchguide.com/12biblio.html
Writers
Workshops
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/table_of_contents.htm
MLA Citation
Style
http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#mla
Elements of
grammar and
style
http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.html
British Council
UK
http://www.britishcouncil.org/
IELTS
http://www.ielts.org/
TOEFL test
http://www.toefl.org/
1999 Catherine Schwerin
Second revision October 2007
32