Theodolite

The theodolite is the most precise instrument designed for the measurement of horizontal and
vertical angles and has wide application in surveying such as laying off, horizontal angle,
location of points, prolonging survey line, establishing grades, determining difference in
elevation, setting out curves etc.
Theodolite is classified into two types:
1. Transit theodolite
2. Non transit theodolite
1. Transit theodolite: it is the type of theodolite in which line of sight can be reversed by
revolving the telescope through 1800 in vertical plane about its horizontal axis.
2. Non transit theodolite: it is the type of theodolite in which telescope cannot be transited
through 1800 in vertical plane about its horizontal axis.
Definitions and terms:
1. Transit: it is also called plunging or reversing. This is the operation of revolving the
telescope through 1800 in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus making it
point exactly in the opposite direction.
2. Face right: when the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right of the observer, the
position is called face right.
3. Face left: when the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left of the observer, the
position is called face left.
4. Swinging the telescope: revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane, about its
vertical axis is called swinging.
5. Horizontal axis: it is also called the trunion axis or transverse axis. It is the axis about
which the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane.
6. Vertical axis: it is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a horizontal
plane.
7. Axis of telescope: it is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the
centre of the eyepiece.
8. Line of sight: it is an imaginary line joining the intersection of cross- hairs to the
optical centre of the objective and its continuation.

9. Axis of level tube: it is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at
its centre.

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS
Temporary adjustments or station adjustments are those which are made at every instrument
setting and preparatory to taking observations with the instrument. The temporary adjustments
are
(1) Setting over the station.
(2) Levelling up
(3) Elimination parallax.
(1) Setting up: The operation of setting up includes
(i) Centering of the instrument over the station mark by a plumb bob or by optical Plummet, and
(ii) approximate levelling with the help of tripod legs. Some instruments are provided with
shifting head with the help of which accurate centering can be done easily.
By moving the leg radially, the plumb bob is shifted in the direction of the leg while
by moving the leg circumferentially or sideways considerable change in the inclination
is effected without disturbing the plumb bob. The second movement is, therefore, effective
in the approximate levelling of the instrument. The approximate levelling is done either
with reference to a small circular bubble provided on tribrach or is done by eye judgment.

2) Levelling up: After having centred and approximately levelled the instrument
Accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws
and with reference to the plate levels.
The purpose of the levelling is to make the vertical
axis truly vertical. The levelling of the instrument by
plate levels depends upon whether there are three
levelling screws or four levelling screws.
Three Screw Head. (1) Turn the upper plate until the
longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly parallel
to a line joining any two (such as A and B) of the
levelling
screws
(Fig.
(2) Hold these two levelling screws between the thumb and first finger of each hand and turn
them uniformly so that the thumbs move either towards each other or away from each other until

the bubble is central. It should be noted that the bubble will move in the direction of movement
of the left thumb.
(3) Turn the upper plate through 900, i.e., until the axis of the level passes of the position of the
third levelling screw C (Fig.
(4) Turn this levelling screw until the bubble is central.
(5) Return the upper plate through 900 to its original position (Fig) repeat step (2) till the bubble
is central.
(6) Turn back again through 900 and repeat step (4).
(7) Repeat steps (2) and (4) till the bubble is central in both the positions.
(8) Now rotate the instrument through 1800. The bubble should remain in the centre of its run,
provided it is in correct adjustment. The vertical axis will then be truly vertical. If not, it needs
permanent adjustment.

3) Elimination of Parallax: Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the
objective is not in the plane of the cross-hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate sighting is
impossible. Parallax can be eliminated in two steps:
(i) By focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, and
(ii) By focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of crosshairs.
(i) Focusing the eye-piece: To focus the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, point the
telescope towards the sky (or hold a sheet of white paper in front of the objective) and move eyepiece in or out till the cross-hairs are seen sharp and distinct. In some telescopes, graduations are
provided at the eye-piece end so that one can always remember the particular graduation position
to suit his eyes. This may save much of time.
(ii) Focusing the objective: The telescope is now directed towards the object to be sighted and
the focusing screw is turned till the image appears clear and sharp. The image so formed is in the
plane of cross-hairs.

Method of Repetition:
To measure an angle by repetition, between two stations, means to measure it two or more times
allowing the vernier to remain clamped each time at the end of each measurement instead of setting
it back to 00 every time when sighting at the previous
station. Thus, an angle reading is mechanically
multiplied by the number of repetitions. The value of
the angle observed is obtained by dividing the
accumulated reading by the number of repetitions.
Generally six repetitions are done, three with the

telescope normal and three with the telescope

inverted.
l. To measure an angle, say ABC, by the method of repetition, set up the instrument at B and
level it. The telescope should be in normal position.
2. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the upper plate until the index (the arrow) of the vernier
A coincides with the zero (or 3600) of the horizontal circle. Clamp both the plates with the
upper clamp.
3. Turn the upper slow motion (tangent) screw so as to make the two zeros exactly

coincident.
4. Sight station A (Fig.). Tighten the lower clamp and bisect station A exactly by the lower

tangent screw. Read both the verniers.

5. Unclamp the upper plate and swing the telescope clockwise. Bisect station C by the upper

clamp and tangent screw.

6. Read both the verniers. Take the average to get angle ABC.

7. Unclamp the lower plate and swing the telescope clockwise and bisect station A
accurately by using the lower clamp and B lower tangent screw.
8. Read both the verniers. Check the vernier reading. It should be the same (unchanged)
as that obtained in step 6.
9. Release the upper plate by using the upper clamp and tangent screw and bisect station
C accurately (the telescope is turned clockwise). The vernier will read twice the angle
ABC.

10. Repeat the process for required number of times, say three times, and find out the
value of angle ABC.
11. Repeat the above procedure with the face changed and calculate the angle ABC.
12. The average of the two values of angle ABC thus obtained with face left and face
right gives a precise value of the horizontal angle.

Method of Reiteration:
This method of measuring a horizontal angle is preferred when
several angular measurements are to be made at a station. All the
angles are measured successively and finally the horizontal is
closed. The final reading on vernier A should be same as the initial
zero. If not, the discrepancy is equally distributed among all the
angles.
1. To measure angles AOB, BOC, COD and DOA, set up the
instrument at O and level it.
2. Set the vernier A to read zero using the upper clamp and
tangent screw.
3. Direct the telescope towards A and bisect it exactly using the
lower clamp and lower tangent screw. Read both the
verniers.
4. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bisect B accurately, using
the upper clamp and upper tangent screw. Read both verniers.
5. Similarly, bisect stations C, D and finally A and read both verniers in all the cases. The
last reading on vernier A should be 3600.
6. Transit the telescope, swing the instrument in anticlockwise direction with face right and
repeat the whole procedure.

Measurements of Vertical Angle:

A vertical angle may be defined as the angle subtended by the line of sight and a horizontal
line at a station in the vertical plane.

If the point to be sighted is above the horizontal plane, the

angle is called angle of elevation (+) and if the point is
below it, the angle is called the angle of depression (-).
1. Suppose angle AOB (), the vertical angle, is to be
measured. Set up the instrument at O and level it.
2. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent screw, set
the zero of the vertical vernier to the zero of the
vertical circle. Check the bubble of the altitude
level which should be central.
3. Loosen the vertical circle clamp and rotate the
telescope in a vertical plane and bring station A in
the field of view. Bisect it accurately with the
vertical clamping and tangent screws. Read both
the vernier C and D on the vertical circle.
4. Change the face and repeat the procedure.
5. The average of the two observations gives the value of the required angle.

Height and distance formula: Base of the object accessible:

Let it be assumed that the horizontal distance between the instrument and the object can be
measured accurately. Let,

P= instrument station

Fig 1 Base Accessible

Q= point to be observed
A= Centre of the instrument
Q= projection of Q on horizontal plane
through A
D= AQ= horizontal distance between P and Q
h= height of the instrument at P
h= QQ
S= reading of staff kept at B.M., with line of sight horizontal
= angle of elevation from A to Q.
From triangle AQQ; h= D tan
R.L of Q= R.L of instrument axis + D tan
If the R.L. of P is known,

R.L of Q= R.L of P +h + D tan

If the reading on the staff kept at the B.M is S with the line of sight horizontal,
R.L. of Q= R.L. of B.M. + S + D tan

Problem:
A theodolite was set up at P, and the angle of elevation to the top of a building at Q was 8 0 26.
The horizontal distance between the vertical axis of the theodolite and the projected position of
the top of the building is 200m. Determine the reduced level of the top of the building, if R.L of
the instrument axis was 1525.00m.
Sol:
= 80 26
h= D tan = 200 tan 80 26 = 29.65m
R.L of Q= R.L of instrument axis + D tan = 1525.00 + 29.65 = 1554.65m

Base of the object inaccessible: Instrument stations in the same vertical plane as the
elevated object:

If the horizontal distance between the instrument and the object can be measured due to obstacles
etc., two instrument stations are used to so that they are in the same vertical plane as the elevated
object.

Procedure:
1. Set up the theodolite at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude bubble.
2. Direct the telescope towards Q and bisect it accurately. Clamp both the plates. Read
vertical angle 1.
3. Transit the telescope so that the line of sight is reversed. Mark the second instrument
station R on the ground. Measure the distance RP accurately.
4. With the vertical vernier set to zero reading, and the altitude bubble in the centre of its
run, take the reading on the staff kept at the nearby B.M.
5. Shift the instrument to R and set up the theodolite there. Measure the vertical angle 2 to
Q with both face observations.
6. With the vertical vernier set to zero reading, and the altitude bubble in the centre of its
run, take the reading on the staff kept at the nearby B.M.

In order to calculate the R.L of Q, we will consider three cases:

a) When the instrument axes at A and B are at the same level.
b) When they are at different levels but the difference is small, and
c) When they are at very different levels.
a) Instrument axes at the same level:
Let,

h = QQ
1 = angle of elevation from A to Q

Fig 2 Instrument axes at the

same level

2 = angle of elevation from B to Q

S = staff reading on B.M., taken from
both A and B, the reading being the
same in both the cases.
b = horizontal distance between the
instrument stations
D = horizontal distance between P
and Q.

From triangle AQQ, h = D tan 1 . (1)

From triangle BQQ, h = (b+D) tan 2 (2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get

D tan 1 = (b+D) tan 2
Or
D (tan 1 tan 2) = b tan 2

D = (b tan 2) / (tan 1 tan 2)

h = D tan 2 = (b tan 1 tan 2) / (tan 1 tan 2) = (b sin 1 sin 2) / sin (1 - 2)

R.L. Of Q = R.L of B.M + S + h.

b) Instrument axes at different levels:

Fig 3 Instrument at Different levels

Fig 4 Instrument axes at different

levels

Fig 3 and 4 illustrate the cases, when the instrument axes are at different levels. If S1 and S2 are
the corresponding staff readings on the staff kept at B.M., the difference in levels of the
instrument axes will be either (S2 S1) if the axis at B is higher or (S1 S2) if the axis at A is
higher.
Let Q be the projection of Q on horizontal line through A and Q be the projection on horizontal
line through B. Let us derive the expression for fig 1 when S2 is greater than S1.

From triangle QAQ, h1 = D tan 1 .(1)

From triangle BQQ, h2 = (b+D) tan 2 .(2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), we get

(h1 h2) = D tan 1 (b+D) tan 2

But, h1 h2 = difference in level of instrument axes = S2 S1 = s

s = D tan 1 b tan 2 D tan 2

Or
D (tan 1 tan 2) = s + b tan 2
Or
D = (s + b tan 2) / (tan 1 tan 2) = {(b+s cot 2) tan 2} / (tan 1 tan 2)

Now

h1 = D tan 1

Therefore,

h1 = {(b + s cot 2) tan 1 tan 2} / (tan 1 tan 2) = {(b + s cot 2) sin 1 sin 2} / {sin (1 2)}

Proceeding on the same lines for the case fig 4, where the instrument axis at D is higher, it can be
proved that

D = {(b s cot 2) tan 2} / (tan 1 tan 2)

And
h1= {(b s cot 2) sin 1 sin 2} / {sin (1 sin 2)}

Thus, the general expressions for D and h1 can be written as,

D= {(b s cot 2) tan 2} / (tan 1 tan 2)

h1= {(b s cot 2) sin 1 sin 2} / {sin (1 2)}

Use + sign with s cot 2 when instrument axis at A is lower and sign when it is higher than at B.

R.L. Of Q = R.L of B.M + S1 + h1

Problem:
In order ascertain the elevation of the top (Q) of the signal on a hill, observations were made
from two instrument stations P and R at a horizontal distance 100m apart, the stations P and R
being in line with Q. The angles of elevation of Q at P and R were 280 42 and 180 6 respectively.
The staff readings upon the B.M of elevation 287.28 were respectively 2.870 and 3.750 when the
instrument was at P and at R, the telescope being horizontal. Determine the elevation of the foot
of the signal if the height of the signal above its base is 3m
Sol:
Elevation of instrument axis at P = R.L of B.M + staff reading
= 287.28 + 2.870 = 290.15 m
Elevation of instrument axis at R = R.L of B.M + staff reading
= 287.28 + 3.750 = 291.03 m
Difference in level of the instrument axis at the two stations
= s = 291.03 290.15 = 0.88m
1= 280 42 and 2= 180 6
s cot 2 = 0.88 cot 180 6 = 2.69m
from equation, we have,
D = {(b + s cot 2) tan 2} / (tan 1 tan 2)
= {(100 + 2.69) tan 180 6} / (tan 280 42 tan 180 6)
= 152.1 m
h1 = D tan 1 = 152.1 tan 280 42 = 83.264m
R.L at foot of signal= R.L of inst. Axis at P + h1 ht. of signal
= 290.15 + 83.264 3 = 370.414 m
Check, (b +D) = 100 + 152.1 = 252.1 m
h2 = (b+D) tan 2 = 252.1 tan 180 6 = 82.396m.
R.L at foot of signal= R.L of inst. Axis at R + h2 ht. of signal
= 291.03 + 82.396 3 = 370.426 m.

C). Instrument axes at a very different levels:

If S2 S1, or s is too great to be measured on a staff kept at the B.M., ale following Procedure is
adopted (Fig 5.):
Fig. 5 Instrument Axes at very different levels

(l) Set the instrument at p (Fig. 5), level

it accurately with to the altitude bubble
and measure the angle 1 to the point Q.
(2) Transit the telescope and establish a
point R at a distance b from p.
(3) Shift the instrument to R. Set the
instrument and level it with respect to
the altitude bubble, and measure the
angle 2 to Q.
(4) Keep a vane of height r at p (or a
staff) and measure the angle to the top of the vane
[or to the reading r if a staff is used, (Fig. 6)
Let s= difference in level between the two axes at A and B. With the same symbols as earlier, we
have
h1 = D tan 1 ..(1)

Fig 6

h2 = (b+D) tan 2 .(2)

Subtracting (1) and (2), we get
(h2- h1) = s = (b+D) tan 2 - D tan 1
Or
D (tan 1 tan 2) = b tan 2 s
Therefore,
D = (b tan 2 s) / (tan 1 tan 2 ) .. (3)

h1= D tan 1 = [(b tan 2 s) tan 1]/ (tan 1 tan 2) = [(b s cot 2) sin 1 sin 2 ]/(sin 1 sin 2 )
(4)
Fig 6 we have,
Height of station P above the axis at B = h-r = b tan r
Height of the axis at A above the axis at B = s = b tan r + h
Where h = height of the instrument at P

Substituting this value of s in equation (3) and equation (4), we get D and h1
R.L of Q = R.L of A + h1 = R L of B + s + h1
= (R.L of B.M + backsight taken from B) + s + h1
Where, s= b tan r h.

Base of the object inaccessible: instrument stations not in the same vertical plane as the
elevated object.
Fig 7 Instrument and the object not
in the same vertical plane

Let P and R be the two instrument stations not in the same vertical plane as that of Q. The
procedure as follows:

1. Set the instrument at P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude bubble. Measure
the angle of elevation 1 to Q.
2. Sight the point R with reading on horizontal circle as zero and measure the angle RPQ 1,
i.e, the horizontal angle 1 at P.
3. Take a back sight s on the staff kept at B.M.
4. Shift the instrument to R and measure 2 and 2 there.
In fig 7 AQ is the horizontal line through A, Q being the vertical projection of Q. Thus, AQQ' is
a vertical pla. Similarly, BQQ" is a vertical plane, Q" being the vertical Of Q on a horizontal
line through B. PRQI is a horizontal plane, Q being vertical projection of Q, and R vertical
projection Of B on a horizontal plane passing through p. and 02 are the horizontal angles, and aj
and are vertical angles measured at A and B respectively.
From triangle AQQ, QQ = h1 = D tan 1 . (1)
From triangle PRO1, angle PQ1R = 1800 (1 + 2) = (1 + 2)
From the sine rule,
PQ1 / sin 2 = RQ1/ sin 1 =RP / {sin [- (1 + 2)]} = b / [sin 1 + 2]
PQ1 = D = b sin 2 / sin (1 + 2) .. (2)
And,
RQ1 = b sin 1 / sin (1 + 2) (3)
Substituting the value of D in (1), we get,
h1 = D tan 1 = b sin 2 tan 1 / sin (1 + 2)
therefore,
R.L of Q = R.L of B.M + s + h1
As a check, h2 = RQ1 tan 2 = [b sin 1 tan 2] / sin (1 + 2)

Problem:
To find the elevation of the top (Q) of a hill, a flag- staff of 2m height was erected and
observations were made from two stations P and R, 60m apart. The horizontal angle measured at
P between R and the top of the flag-staff was 60 0 30 and that measured at R between the top of
the flag-staff and P was 680 18. The angle of elevation to the top of the flag-staff P was
measured to be 100 12 at P. The angle of elevation to the top of the flag-staff was measured to
100 48 at R. Staff readings on B.M when the instrument was at P= 1.965m and that with the

instrument at R = 2.055m. Calculate the elevation of the top of the hill if that of B.M was
435.065m.
Sol: (fig)
Given: b= 60m; 1= 600 30; 2= 680 18; 1 = 100 12; 2= 100 48
Therefore,
PQ1 = D= b sin 1 / sin (1 + 2)
h1 = D tan 1 = b sin 2 tan 1 / sin (1 + 2)
= [60 sin 680 18 tan 1 100 12] / sin (600 30 + 680 18)
= 12.87m
R.L of Q = (R.L of instrument axis at P) + h1 = (435.065+1.965) + 12.87 = 449.900m
Check, h2 = [b sin 1 tan 2] / sin (1 + 2)
= [60 sin 600 30 tan 100 48] / sin (600 30 + 680 18)
= 12.78m.
R.L of Q = (R.L of instrument axis at R) + h2 = (435.065+2.055) + 12.78 = 449.9 m

Electronic theodolite:

Electronic theodolites differ in detail from the older vernier models, although in general
principle they are much the same. However, these are becoming popular because of two
reasons. Firstly, the electronic theodolites are light and compact, and secondly, with a
distomat attachment, these become an automatic total survey system.

At the touch of a single key the angles and distances are measured and recorded directly
in a solid state memory device. The data once collected can be processed by a computer.

Electronic theodolite is similar to an optical theodolite design. However, it has

arrangements to automatically resolve angular values and display them in a digital form.
Display is achieved with the help of light emitting diodes (LEDs) or liquid crystal diodes
(LCDs), the latter requiring less power.

Electronic theodolite provides a digital read-out of those angles instead of a scale; it is

both more accurate and less prone to errors arising from interpolating between marks on
the scale or from mis- recording. The read-out is also continuous; so angles can be
checked at any time.

The circle measuring systems fitted into electronic theodolites still use a glass circle but
this is marked or coded in a special way. Within the theodolite, light is passed through the
encoded circle and the light pattern emerging through the circle is detected by
photodiodes.

Two measurement systems are used to scan this light pattern and these are known as
incremental and absolute. When the horizontal or vertical circle of an electronic
theodolite is rotated in an incremental reading system, the amount of incident light
passing through to the photodiodes varies in proportion to the angle through which the
theodolite has been rotated. This varying light intensity is converted into electrical signals
by the photodiodes and these in turn are passed to the microprocessor which converts the
signals into an angular output.