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Electric motors are so much a part of everyday life that we seldom give them a second
thought. When we switch on an electric drill, for example, we confidently expect it to run
rapidly up to the correct speed, and we do not question how it knows what speed to run at, or
how it is that once enough energy has been drawn from the supply to bring it up to speed, the
power drawn falls to a very low level. When we put the drill to work it draws more power,
and when we finish the power drawn from the mains reduces automatically, without
intervention on our part.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Before the widespread industrial use of electricity, the individual machines in a
manufactory for example were powered by flat leather belts from a roof -mounted network of
rotating shafts and pulleys, driven in turn by a centralized power source - perhaps a
waterwheel or a steam engine. The whole power distribution system was mechanical. Napier
& Sons engineering works shown in this photograph circa 1910 was typical in resembling a
forest of belts which were inefficient, unreliable, dangerous and limited in the power which
could be transferred to a single machine.
We take it for granted nowadays that we can power a machine by its own dedicated
electric motor, often energized from the AC mains. Indeed it is difficult to imagine how
modern industrial plant - say an extensive conveyor system - could operate satisfactorily if
powered throughout by mechanical energy from a centralized engine.
Figures 4.1
4.2. ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRICAL MOTORS
Electric motors are the common choice as prime movers for many machines because
of their ease of operation and convenience, lack of harmful exhaust fumes in comparison to
many combustion engines at the location of use and, for machines of under approximately
1kW, small size in comparison to other prime movers. They have many advantages:
1. Economical Operation: can work continuously and take the place of 2 or more laborers
3. RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby t.v. sets, or electronic devices, etc.
4.5. AC MOTORS
Induction Motor: So called because voltage is induced in the rotor (thus no need for
brushes), but for this to happen, the rotor must rotate at a lower speed than the magnetic field
to allow for the existence of an induced voltage. Therefore a new term is needed to describe
the induction motor: the slip.
Synchronous Motor: So called because rotor tries to line up with the rotating magnetic
field in the stator. It has the stator of an induction motor, and the rotor of a dc motor.
Synchronous motors are specifically designed to maintain constant speed, with the rotor
synchronous to the rotating field. Synchronous motors require modification (such as squirrelcage windings) to be self-starting.
4.6. OTHER MOTORS
1. Reluctance motor: A synchronousinduction motor. The rotor has salient poles and a cage
so that it starts like an induction motor, and Brushless DC (actually a
l d C, runs like a synchronous motor.
2. Hysteresis motor: hysteresis produces the torque, can be very tiny, used as the driver for
electric clocks
3. Stepper motor: a special type of synchronous motors. Rotates a number of degrees with
each electric pulse.
4. Brushless DC motor: a close cousin of a permanent magnet stepper motor with electronic
controllers
5. Universal motor: If a series dc motor has a laminated stator frame, it can run effectively
from an ac supply as well as dc, this is the universal motor.
Electric motors are commonly classified by their power, either as a horsepower
rating or in W or kW. The conversion equation that can be used is:
A rough classification of motors by size is used to group motors of similar design:
Sub fractional horsepower: 1-40 milli-horse power (mhp) (0.75 to 30 W)
Fractional horsepower: 1/20 to 1.0 hp (37 to 746 W)
Integral horsepower: 1.0 hp (0.75 kW) and larger
Alternating current power is produced by electric utilities and distributed in a variety of
forms. In Europe, AC power has a frequency of 50 Hz, while in the USA the power is
distributed with a frequency of 60 Hz. AC power is distributed as single-phase or three-phase
(Figures 4.2 and 4.3).
In the case of single-phase AC the voltage varies as a continuous sine wave at the frequency
of the distributed power supply and can be carried by two conductors plus a ground lead.
However, induction motors operate at a speed lower than the synchronous speed with the
difference being called slip. An approximate generalization for slip is to assume that an
induction motor will operate at 95 per cent of the synchronous speed. Typical operating
speeds for induction motors are listed in Table 4.1. Synchronous motors are designed to
operate at their synchronous speed without slip.
Table 4.1 Induction motor synchronous speeds
Environmental factors
Voltage variations expected
Shaft loading (side loads and thrust loads)
4.8. LOAD REQUIREMENTS TORQUESPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Although loads can vary enormously, it is customary to classify them into two major
categories, referred to as constant-torque or fan or pump types. We will use the example of
a constant-torque load to illustrate in detail what needs to be done to arrive at a specification
for the torquespeed curve.
The torquespeed curve of electric motors can be displayed as a graph of torque
against speed (Figure 4.4).The torque at the bottom of the graph is the starting torque and is
the torque initially available to initially get the load moving and accelerate the machine.
.If the torque from the load is greater than this quantity then the motor will not spin.
In such applications a clutch or gearbox may be necessary.
Power of motor
(a) By considering the work done per second at the load
The force (F) on the load = 9810 N; The velocity (v) = 0.5 m/s
The power (Fv) = F v = 9810 0.5 = 4.91 kW
(b) Maximum continuous motor power
Maximum continuous motor power, Pmax = = 5.9 kW
This is 20% more than we obtained above in (a) because here we have included the power
lost in the gearbox.
(b) Motor power for dynamic torque requirement
Maximum continuous motor power, Pmax = = 7.2 kW
Hence in order to meet the steady-state and dynamic torque requirements, a drive capable
of delivering a torque of 45 Nm at all speeds up to 1520 rev/min is required
A drum hoist as shown in figure is used to lift a maximum load of 2000 kg. The load has to
reach full speed of 1 m/s from rest in 2 s, at constant acceleration. Take a gear ratio of 75:1
and assume power loss due to friction in the gearbox is equivalent to 20% of the full-load
torque.
Calculate
(a) Steady-state torque
marks)
(2