ELECTTRICAL MOTORS

Electric motors are so much a part of everyday life that we seldom give them a second
thought. When we switch on an electric drill, for example, we confidently expect it to run
rapidly up to the correct speed, and we do not question how it knows what speed to run at, or
how it is that once enough energy has been drawn from the supply to bring it up to speed, the
power drawn falls to a very low level. When we put the drill to work it draws more power,
and when we finish the power drawn from the mains reduces automatically, without
intervention on our part.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Before the widespread industrial use of electricity, the individual machines in a
manufactory for example were powered by flat leather belts from a roof -mounted network of
rotating shafts and pulleys, driven in turn by a centralized power source - perhaps a
waterwheel or a steam engine. The whole power distribution system was mechanical. Napier
& Sons engineering works shown in this photograph circa 1910 was typical in resembling a
forest of belts which were inefficient, unreliable, dangerous and limited in the power which
could be transferred to a single machine.
We take it for granted nowadays that we can power a machine by its own dedicated
electric motor, often energized from the AC mains. Indeed it is difficult to imagine how
modern industrial plant - say an extensive conveyor system - could operate satisfactorily if
powered throughout by mechanical energy from a centralized engine.

Figures 4.1
4.2. ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRICAL MOTORS
Electric motors are the common choice as prime movers for many machines because
of their ease of operation and convenience, lack of harmful exhaust fumes in comparison to
many combustion engines at the location of use and, for machines of under approximately
1kW, small size in comparison to other prime movers. They have many advantages:
1. Economical Operation: can work continuously and take the place of 2 or more laborers

2. Dependable: always ready to work

3. Efficient: efficiency ranges from 65 to 95 percent
4. Long Life: 20 to 30 years with proper care
5. Ease of Operation: special skills not required
6. Safe: if properly used
7. Low Service Requirement: minimum amount of attention required
8. Quiet Operation: when properly applied and installed
9. Automation: can be automatically and remotely controlled
10. Adaptable: light, compact, easily moved
11. Available: throughout the country; standard bases, sizes, wiring equipment, etc.
The two major classifications of electric motors are alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC), although some machines can operate on either supply.
4.3. TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MOTORS
DC Motors
1. Shunt motor
2. Separately Excited motor
3. Series Motor
4. Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC)
5. Compounded motor
AC Motors
6. Induction motor
7. Synchronous motor
Other Motors
8. Stepper motor
9. Brushless DC motor
10. Hysteresis motor 11. Reluctance motor
12. Universal motor
4.4. DC MOTORS
1. Shunt DC motor: The rotor and stator windings are connected in parallel.
2. Separately Excited motor: The rotor and stator are each connected from a different power
supply; this gives another degree of freedom for controlling the motor over the shunt.
3. Series motor: the stator and rotor windings are connected in series. Thus the torque is
proportional to I2 so it gives the highest torque per current ratio over all other dc motors.
It is therefore used in starter motors of cars and elevator motors.
4. Permanent Magnet (PMDC) motors: The stator is a permanent magnet, so the motor is
smaller in size. Dis adv.: only used for low torque applications.
5. Compounded motor: the stator is connected to the rotor through a compound of shunt and
series windings, if the shunt and series windings add up together, the motor is called
cumulatively compounded. If they subtract from each other, then a differentially compounded
motor results, which is unsuitable for any application.
Disadvantages of DC motors
1. Brush wear: Since they need brushes to connect the rotor winding. Brush wear occurs, and
it increases dramatically in lowpressure environment. So they cannot be used in artificial
hearts. If used on aircraft, the brushes would need replacement after one hour of operation.
2. Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment contains explosive
materials.

3. RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby t.v. sets, or electronic devices, etc.
4.5. AC MOTORS
Induction Motor: So called because voltage is induced in the rotor (thus no need for
brushes), but for this to happen, the rotor must rotate at a lower speed than the magnetic field
to allow for the existence of an induced voltage. Therefore a new term is needed to describe
the induction motor: the slip.
Synchronous Motor: So called because rotor tries to line up with the rotating magnetic
field in the stator. It has the stator of an induction motor, and the rotor of a dc motor.
Synchronous motors are specifically designed to maintain constant speed, with the rotor
synchronous to the rotating field. Synchronous motors require modification (such as squirrelcage windings) to be self-starting.
4.6. OTHER MOTORS
1. Reluctance motor: A synchronousinduction motor. The rotor has salient poles and a cage
so that it starts like an induction motor, and Brushless DC (actually a
l d C, runs like a synchronous motor.
2. Hysteresis motor: hysteresis produces the torque, can be very tiny, used as the driver for
electric clocks
3. Stepper motor: a special type of synchronous motors. Rotates a number of degrees with
each electric pulse.
4. Brushless DC motor: a close cousin of a permanent magnet stepper motor with electronic
controllers
5. Universal motor: If a series dc motor has a laminated stator frame, it can run effectively
from an ac supply as well as dc, this is the universal motor.
Electric motors are commonly classified by their power, either as a horsepower
rating or in W or kW. The conversion equation that can be used is:
A rough classification of motors by size is used to group motors of similar design:
Sub fractional horsepower: 1-40 milli-horse power (mhp) (0.75 to 30 W)
Fractional horsepower: 1/20 to 1.0 hp (37 to 746 W)
Integral horsepower: 1.0 hp (0.75 kW) and larger
Alternating current power is produced by electric utilities and distributed in a variety of
forms. In Europe, AC power has a frequency of 50 Hz, while in the USA the power is
distributed with a frequency of 60 Hz. AC power is distributed as single-phase or three-phase
(Figures 4.2 and 4.3).
In the case of single-phase AC the voltage varies as a continuous sine wave at the frequency
of the distributed power supply and can be carried by two conductors plus a ground lead.

Figures 4.2 Single-phase AC power

Triple phase or three-phase power comprises three distinct waves of the same
frequency and amplitude, but with each offset from the next by 120. Although extra cables
are necessary, smaller motors are possible with three-phase power and it tends to have
economic advantages for larger installations.

Figures 4.3 Three-phase AC power

AC motors have an even number of poles, typically from two to 12. An AC motor
under no load would tend to operate at or near to its synchronous speed, which is related to
the number of poles and the frequency of the power supply and is given by

However, induction motors operate at a speed lower than the synchronous speed with the
difference being called slip. An approximate generalization for slip is to assume that an
induction motor will operate at 95 per cent of the synchronous speed. Typical operating
speeds for induction motors are listed in Table 4.1. Synchronous motors are designed to
operate at their synchronous speed without slip.
Table 4.1 Induction motor synchronous speeds

4.7. IMPORTANT FACTORS IN MOTOR SELECTION

The selection process often highlights difficulties in three areas. There is a good deal
of overlap between the major types of motor and drive. This makes it impossible to lay down
a set of hard and fast rules to guide the user straight to the best solution for a particular
application. Secondly, users tend to underestimate the importance of starting with a
comprehensive specification of what they really want, and they seldom realize how much
weight attaches to such things as the steady-state torquespeed curve, the inertia of the load,
the pattern of operation (continuous or intermittent) and the question of whether or not the
drive needs to be capable of regeneration. And thirdly, they may be unaware of the existence
of standards and legislation, and hence can be baffled by questions from any potential
supplier.
Important parameters in the selection of an electric motor include
Motor power supply: DC, single-phase AC, three-phase AC, etc.
Operating voltage and frequency
Current limitations
Power rating
Rotational speed
Starting torque
Load variations expected
Shaft loading
Shaft coupling
Frame size
Mounting details
Duty cycle: how often the machine will be started and stopped
Environmental considerations
Operating costs
Initial and service costs
Special requirements may be communicated to the vendor:
Operating torque, operating speed, and power rating
Starting torque
Load variations expected
Current limitations
Duty cycle

 Environmental factors
Voltage variations expected
Shaft loading (side loads and thrust loads)
4.8. LOAD REQUIREMENTS TORQUESPEED CHARACTERISTICS
Although loads can vary enormously, it is customary to classify them into two major
categories, referred to as constant-torque or fan or pump types. We will use the example of
a constant-torque load to illustrate in detail what needs to be done to arrive at a specification
for the torquespeed curve.
The torquespeed curve of electric motors can be displayed as a graph of torque
against speed (Figure 4.4).The torque at the bottom of the graph is the starting torque and is
the torque initially available to initially get the load moving and accelerate the machine.
.If the torque from the load is greater than this quantity then the motor will not spin.
In such applications a clutch or gearbox may be necessary.

Figures 4.4 Typical torque speed characteristic for a three-phase AC motor.

The knee of the curve, called the breakdown torque, is the maximum torque
developed by the motor during acceleration. The slope of the speed/torque curve in the
vicinity of the full-load operating point is an indication of speed regulation. A flat curve (a
low slope) indicates good speed regulation with little variation in speed as load varies.
Conversely, a steep curve (a high slope) indicates poor speed regulation, and the motor will
exhibit wide swings in speed as load varies.
PROBLEM
Calculate the power of motor for a drum hoist as shown in figure to lift a maximum load
(including the cable) of 1000 kg. The heaviest load is to reach full speed of 0.5 m/s from
rest in 1 s, at constant acceleration. Take a gear ratio of 80:1 and assume power loss due to
friction in the gearbox is equivalent to 20% of the full-load torque.

Motor-driven hoist a constant-torque load

(i) Drum speed
Hoisting speed = 0.5 m/s (given in the problem)
Maximum motor speed = 1520 rev/min
Angular velocity of motor, = = 159.2 rad/s
Angular acceleration of motor, = = 160 rad/s2
Assume a suitable gear ratio = 80:1
Drum speed = = 1520/80 = 19 rev/min
(ii) Steady-state torque provided by the motor during uniform motion phase
When the load is not accelerating up the torque provided by the motor is steady-torque.
(a) Torque applied by the load on the drum
The tension in the cable (mg) = 1000 9.81 = 9810 N
Torque applied by the load @ drum = force radius = 9810 0.25 = 2452.5 Nm
(b) Torque provided by the motor
When the load is not accelerating up,
Torque provided by the motor = Torque applied by the load / 80 = 2452.5/ 80 = 31 Nm
Taking into account power loss in the gearbox due to friction (which is equivalent to 20% of
the full-load torque), the maximum motor torque = 31 1.2 = 37 Nm
This steady state torque must be available at all speeds up to the maximum of 1520 rev/min.
(iii) Dynamic torque provided by the motor during Acceleration phase
The motor must produce a torque greater than the load torque, or else the load will descend as
soon as the brake is lifted. The greater the difference between the motor torque and the load
torque, the higher the acceleration.
Effective total inertia as seen at the motor shaft
The effective load inertia at the drum = 1000 kg 0.25 = 62.5 kgm2
The effective inertia of the load as seen by the motor = 62.5/ (80)2 = 0.01 kgm2
The referred inertia of the drum and gearbox = 0.02 kg m2
The total effective inertia, I = 0.03 kg m2
Accelerating torque (or) Dynamic torque, T = I = 0.03 160 = 8 Nm
(iv) Draw the torquespeed curve of the load as seen by the motor

Power of motor
(a) By considering the work done per second at the load
The force (F) on the load = 9810 N; The velocity (v) = 0.5 m/s
The power (Fv) = F v = 9810 0.5 = 4.91 kW
(b) Maximum continuous motor power
Maximum continuous motor power, Pmax = = 5.9 kW
This is 20% more than we obtained above in (a) because here we have included the power
lost in the gearbox.
(b) Motor power for dynamic torque requirement
Maximum continuous motor power, Pmax = = 7.2 kW
Hence in order to meet the steady-state and dynamic torque requirements, a drive capable
of delivering a torque of 45 Nm at all speeds up to 1520 rev/min is required

A drum hoist as shown in figure is used to lift a maximum load of 2000 kg. The load has to
reach full speed of 1 m/s from rest in 2 s, at constant acceleration. Take a gear ratio of 75:1
and assume power loss due to friction in the gearbox is equivalent to 20% of the full-load
torque.

Calculate
(a) Steady-state torque
marks)

(2

(b) Dynamic torque

(2
marks)
(c) Draw the torquespeed curve
(1
mark)
(I) DRUM SPEED
Hoisting speed = 1 m/s
Maximum motor speed = 1520 rev/min; Ang. vel of motor, = = 159.2 rad/s
Angular acceleration of motor, = / = 79.6 rad/s2
Drum speed = Motor speed/75= 1520/75 = 20.267 rev/min (since Gear ratio is 75:1)
(II) STEADY-STATE TORQUE
When the load is not accelerating up the torque provided by the motor is steady-torque.
(a) Torque applied by the load on the drum
The tension in the cable = mg = 2000 9.81 = 19620N
Torque applied by the load @ drum = Cable tension radius = 19620 0.25 = 4905 Nm
(b) Torque provided by the motor
Torque provided by the motor = Torque applied by the load / 75 = 4905/ 75 = 65.4 Nm
Taking into account power loss in the gearbox due to friction (which is equivalent to 20% of
the full-load torque), the maximum motor torque = 65.4 1.2 = 78.48 Nm
This steady state torque must be available at all speeds up to the maximum of 1520 rev/min.
(III) DYNAMIC TORQUE
Effective total inertia as seen at the motor shaft
The effective load inertia at the drum = 2000 kg 0.252 = 125 kgm2
The effective inertia of the load as seen by the motor = 125/ (75)2 = 0.022 kgm2
The referred inertia of the drum and gearbox = 0.02 kg m2
The total effective inertia, I = 0.042 kg m2
Accelerating torque (or) Dynamic torque, T = I = 0.042 79.6 = 3.34 Nm
Hence in order to meet the steady-state and dynamic torque requirements, a drive capable of
delivering a torque of 81.82 Nm at all speeds up to 1520 rev/min is required
(III) DRAW THE TORQUESPEED CURVE OF THE LOAD AS SEEN BY THE MOTOR

4.9. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

Common types of single-phase AC motors include the split-case, capacitor start,
permanent split capacitor and shaded pole. Each has a unique torque speed characteristic, as
illustrated in Figure 4.5, and the choice depends on the selection criteria for a particular
application. For example, capacitor start motors have the highest starting torque, but the
inclusion of a large enough capacitor results in a bulky overall package in comparison to
other motor types.

Figures 4.5. Performance characteristics for types of single-phase AC motor

4.10. STEPPED MOTORS
Stepper motors consist of specially wound armatures, which allow the precise angular
positioning of the rotor. Several step angles are commercially available such as 1.8, 3.6,
7.5, 15, 45 and 90, although they can be mounted with a gearbox in which case the angles
available will be a function of both pole configuration and the gear ratio. Stepper motors need
to be powered and controlled by special circuits which deliver the power in pulses. When the
pulses stop, the motor will stop and hold its position with a particular holding torque. It is
important that the holding torque is sufficient for the application to ensure that the application
is held in an appropriate position.
4.11. POLYPHASE MOTORS, 1-200 HP
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has designated several specific types
of motors, each type having unique speed/torque relationships. These designs are described
below along with some typical applications for each. Following these descriptions is a
summary of performance characteristics.
Types of AC electric motors include motors designated as design B, C and D by the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), round rotor motors, synchronous motors and
universal motors that are also capable of operating on a DC supply.
NEMA
APPLICATIONS
TYPE
uses with low starting torque Broad applications including fans, blowers, pumps,
A
requirements and essentially machined tools.
constant load
B
constant load
Normal starting torque for fans, blowers, rotary

pumps, unloaded compressors, some conveyors,

metal cutting machine tools, misc. machinery.
Constant load speed.
Hard-to-start loads
Large centrifugal blowers, fly wheels and crusher
drums. Loaded starts such as piston pumps,
compressors and conveyors. Constant load speed.
The combination of high starting 1) Punch presses, shears and forming machine tools
torque and high slip make ideal 2) Cranes, hoists, elevators and oil well pumping
for very high inertia loads and/or jacks
for considerable variations in
load;