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40
Shear strength
Shear design is basically empirical and
requires additional rules to define the
boundaries under which code values are
applicable. These vary from code to code
and can be interpreted differently by soft-
Column fixity
Some slab packages assume pins at column locations; this is normally acceptable for slab flexural design. However, if
bending moments are developed, they
will affect both punching shear design
and column design. If the column-pinned
assumption is made, a separate frame
analysis may be required to calculate column moments.
Boundary conditions
Owing to the inherent continuity of reinforced concrete construction, elemental
design packages often require restraint
conditions to be specified at the boundary
edges. The forces generated then need to
be transferred to the restraining member.
The element design package will not
check the validity of these boundary conditions and the engineer must do so. For
example, a beam framing into a thin wall
may be closer to pinned than fixed. Many
frame programs overestimate the moments transferred between flat slabs and
boundary columns. Inadequate consideration of these factors could lead to cracking in the wall, under-design of the beam
and, in the case of flat slabs, cracking and
additional deflection.
Torsion
When a structure is not dependent on torsional resistance for equilibrium, most
codes say that torsion can be ignored.
However, if torsional stiffness is present
in a computer model, the equilibrium
found will rely on torsion and the torsional stresses developed should be
designed for. Some packages deal with
torsions in the post-processing of results,
and some assume that the torsional resistance of all elements is zero. Others will
leave it to the engineer to take into
account. Again, the engineer must understand the assumption implicit in their
design and the computer package being
used.
May 2003 CONCRETE
Stiffness
In many packages, stiffness is simply the
elastic section properties of the concrete.
This is usually adequate for an ultimate
limit state design, but will tell the engineer little about the likely serviceability
performance. Stiffness is affected by the
elastic modulus of the concrete, which
varies because of creep. A simple shortterm/long-term modulus may not be relevant for the case considered. It should
also be noted that for a C40 concrete to
BS 8110-2: 1985 Structural use of concrete Code of practice for special circumstances(3) gives a range of elastic
modulus of 2234kN/mm2. This can be
refined if the aggregate type is known.
However, if an accurate prediction of
serviceability behaviour is required, relying on default values could be problematic.
Stiffness is also affected by the tensile
strength of the concrete that dictates the
extent of cracking. In practice, there are
large variations in tensile strength for any
given compressive strength, and this tensile strength varies with age. Normally, it
is the strength at the time of cracking that
is important. Once the concrete is
cracked, tension stiffening comes into
effect, and a number of methods can
model this. It is important to understand
the limitations of any model. In terms of
stiffness, reinforced concrete is far from
an elastic or even elasticplastic material,
and models for accurate prediction of
serviceability behaviour need to be thoroughly checked and the underlying
assumptions considered. It is certainly
not acceptable to predict the deflection of
members by assuming uncracked elastic
properties, particularly with slender
members where the cracked stiffness is
significantly reduced.
Redistribution
Codes generally allow redistribution
from the moments calculated using gross
concrete properties. Non-linear analysis
will automatically allow some redistribution, due to cracking. If further hand
redistribution of the moments is undertaken, greater overall redistribution than
that assumed by the code will be implied.
In any case, suitability of code rules dealing with detailing should be carefully
considered when non-linear analysis has
been used for the ultimate limit state.
Intrinsic movements
Unlike structural steel, concrete changes
in volume through shrinkage and heat of
hydration. The amount is often significant when compared with normal inservice temperature variations. If such
movements are restrained, significant
stresses can build up and may cause
CONCRETE
May 2003
Hand checks
The term hand check is perhaps wrong.
What is required is a progression from
simple analysis that can be easily verified
through to final analysis, with each step
being validated by the one before.
Consider the design of an irregular
flat slab. Initial sizing and reinforcement
quantities may be determined from spanto-depth ratios and the moment tables in
BS 8110: Part 1: 1997 Structural use of
concrete Code of practice for design
and construction(4) or yield-line analysis.
This may then progress to a two-dimensional frame of a more typical bay, and
finally to a grillage or finite element
analysis, if required. At the extreme, if
deflections are critical, the finite element
analysis may need to be non-linear. Each
layer builds on the previous, discrepancies can be considered and, if not readily
explainable, the models checked. It
should be noted that even for a regular
flat slab, there is a tendency to move to a
finite element analysis. With current software this may be quicker than a twodimensional frame, but any assumption
that the answers are any more accurate is
not necessarily correct. With experience,
it will soon be found that the hand methods give results that are reliable if not
better than the computer approach.
Other more straightforward checks
include:
checking that the sum of reactions
equals the applied load; this check is
not only valid for the model but also
for individual elements within it
checking that the support and midspan design moments in a continuous
Validation
The final issue to be considered is the
validation of software. Some practices
validate their own software formally,
41
Figure 1: Final
analysis of the
base to an offshore concrete
gravity structure. Initial
design was carried out by
hand using
standard tables and assumptions of uniform bearing
pressure. During the design process, soil structure
interaction and actual applied load distribution were
taken into account. The initial design was then
checked against this final analysis.
others relying on a network of users to highlight problems. What is clear is that there is little or no exchange
of validation information across the industry. This is
costly and could be perceived as wasteful. Possible
solutions are:
An independent organisation to verify software. This
would need careful planning in terms of liabilities if
a validated program is shown to have an error.
The development of a set of validation models for
checking software. These would need to be secret to
avoid tuning of the software and always run the risk
of being obsolete, as new developments require validation. It would, however, be possible to define the
extent of validation clearly.
The setting up of a voluntary network of users within
the industry so that problems can be circulated and
discussed.
All these have their difficulties, and further discussion is welcomed. A further plea is for software houses
to produce detailed documentation on the technical
assumptions made.
Conclusions
Computer packages greatly increase the speed of the
design of concrete structures. However, there is concern
that there is an over-reliance on the output and insufficient education on approximate methods of checking/designing. There is a need for users to understand the
assumptions behind the software they are using, and an
even greater need for engineers to learn simplified or
approximate methods. Similarly, software validation
needs to be co-ordinated. Comment on all these aspects
is welcomed, to enable better guidance to be produced
and perhaps show how the industry can move forward
with software validation.
42
NEWS from
Association of Concrete Industrial
Flooring Contractors
33 Oxford Street, Leamington Spa, CV32 4RA, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1926 833 633 Fax: +44 (0)1926 423 236
E-mail: acifc@hotmail.com Website: www.acifc.org.uk
Piled floors
The ACIFC working party is seeking assistance in the provision of published
references relating to design, construction and performance monitoring of
suspended ground floor slabs, thereby speeding preparation of a fundamental
guidance document.
To date, most information has been sourced from steel-fibre-reinforcement
specialists. It is hoped that those involved with steel bar and mesh alternatives
will make their views known. While the new TR34 covers broad design of this
construction type, much better knowledge is needed to help flooring and main
contractors understand the components of a good piled floor.
Web tendering
The method of tendering for large floor construction has developed electronically, with supermarket Tesco seeking bids for new floor construction over
the internet. While this process increases pressure for lower prices, the main
contractor has already identified the preferred bidders.
This has two effects: the bidder has no knowledge of competitors, but as
all pricing has to be received at a given moment, Tesco identifies the lowest
bid and gives a half-hour reflection time, during which any bidder can revise
the submission.
The second effect is to increase collaboration between the designer, specialist contractor and supply chain to enable partnership on floor detailing,
allowing submission of a revised bid.
Annual golf
The ACIFC Annual Golf event will take place on 5 June at Hawkstone Park,
near Shrewsbury.