Chapter # 6 Traditional Training Methods

PREPARED BY: SAJJAD HUSSAIN

SAJJADHUSSAIN1985@GMAIL.COM
SAJJAD_FUUAST@YAHOO.COM
(0321-5100942)

M.B.A -4
EVENING SECTION B
(FUUAST) ISLAMABAD
PRESENTED TO:
MR. IMRAN
imran.urdu2006@yahoo.com

Table of Contents
CHAPTER # 6 TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS.................................................4
Introduction:....................................................................................................................4
Lectures and demonstrations...............................................................................................4
Straight lecture:................................................................................................................4
Lecture/ discussion method:............................................................................................5
Questioning:.................................................................................................................5
Demonstrations:...............................................................................................................6
Strengths and weaknesses of lectures and demonstration:..............................................6
Costs:...........................................................................................................................6
Controls of materials and process:...............................................................................6
Learning objectives: (KSAs):......................................................................................7
Learning process:.........................................................................................................7
Trainee group characteristics:......................................................................................7
Games and simulations........................................................................................................7
Equipment simulations:...................................................................................................7
Business games:...............................................................................................................7
In-basket technique:.........................................................................................................8
Case studies:....................................................................................................................8
Role play:.......................................................................................................................8
Behavior modeling:.........................................................................................................9
Strengths and weakness of games and simulations:......................................................10
Costs:.........................................................................................................................10
Control of content and process:................................................................................10
Learning objectives: (KSAs):....................................................................................10
Learning process:.......................................................................................................10
Training group characteristics:..................................................................................10
On the job training........................................................................................................11
Job instruction technique: (JIT):....................................................................................11
1. Prepare:..................................................................................................................11
2. Present:..................................................................................................................11
3. Try out;...................................................................................................................11
4. Follow up:..............................................................................................................11
Apprenticeship training:................................................................................................12
Coaching:.......................................................................................................................12
Mentoring:.....................................................................................................................12
Strengths and weakness of OJT:....................................................................................13
Costs:.........................................................................................................................13
Control of content and process:.................................................................................13
Learning objectives :( KSAs):...................................................................................13
Learning process:.......................................................................................................13

Audiovisual enhancements to training...............................................................................14

Static media:..............................................................................................................14
Dynamic media:.........................................................................................................14
Static media:..................................................................................................................14
Newsprint, charts, and posters:..................................................................................14
Projected text and images:.........................................................................................14
Dynamic audiovisual aids:.............................................................................................14
Audiotapes:................................................................................................................15
Videos:.......................................................................................................................15
Computer generated dynamic presentations:.............................................................15
Strengths and limitations of audiovisual aids:...............................................................15
Cost:...........................................................................................................................15
Static audiovisuals:....................................................................................................15
Dynamic audiovisuals:...............................................................................................15
Control of material and process:................................................................................15
Static audiovisuals:....................................................................................................15
Dynamic audiovisuals:...............................................................................................16
Learning objectives (KSA):.......................................................................................16
Knowledge:................................................................................................................16
Skills:.........................................................................................................................16
Attitudes:....................................................................................................................16
Learning process:.......................................................................................................16
Trainee characte.........................................................................................................17

CHAPTER # 6 TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS

Introduction:
The various methods can be divided into cognitive and behavioral approaches:
Cognitive methods:

Cognitive methods focus on knowledge and attitude development by providing

information that demonstrates relationships among concepts providing rules on how to do
something. These methods stimulate learning through their effect on the trainees
cognitive processes, though these methods can influence skill development, it is not their
focus.
Behavioral methods:

Behavioral methods focus on the trainees behavior in real or stimulated fashion; they are
best used for skill development and attitude change.

Lectures and demonstrations

The lecture is one of the most frequently used and oldest forms of training. The lecture
can be in print or oral form. The oral lecture can be live or presented on video. It is used
to present information to create understanding of the topic and influence attitudes related
to the topic. It is difficult to imagine training that does not use the lecture format to some
extent.
Straight lecture:
The straight lecture is presentation of information by the trainer. The trainees role is to
try to absorb information. The only differences between a straight lecture and the same
material in print are the lectures control of the speed at which material is presented,
voice infections, body language used to emphasize points and , of course, the visual
image of the lecturer.
A good lecture is well organized and begins with an introduction that lay outs the purpose
of the lecture and the order in which the topics will be covered. The introduction should
cover any rules about interrupting the lecture for questions and any opportunity for
clarification. Lectures require trainees to be fairly inactive, which, after 20 minutes or so,
begin to reduce the amount being learned. A shorter version of the lecture, the lecturrete
is often used to reduce this problem.
During the oral lecture or lecturrete, the trainee listens, observes, and take notes. Even
when well done, it is not an especially effective technique for training.
Lecture/ discussion method:
This method uses a lecturrete to provide trainee, with information that is supported,
reinforced, and expanded on through interactions among trainees and between the

trainees and the trainer. The lecture/ discussion method provides two way
communications.
Verbal and non- verbal feedback from trainees enable the trainer to determine whether the
material is understood. Furthermore, discussions allow the trainee to activity engaged in
the content of the lecture, an activity that improves recall and future use.
Questioning:

Questioning is a powerful tool for starting discussions. Trainer should be familiar with a
number of question types.
The close-ended question:

The close-ended question is asked for a specified answer to review previous material.
These are useful to regain the control of discussion.
The open-ended question:

The open ended-questions require no specific answer as for asking opinions. These are
useful for obtaining trainee involvement and generating discussions.
Overhead questions:

Overhead questions are either close-ended or open-ended, and are directed at the whole
group rather than at one person particularly. They are not threatening as they do not
require any particular person to respond. If no one answers, tension can mount which is
helpful for involvement.
The direct questions:

The direct questions are asked of a particular trainee. It is used to draw-out non
participators and to obtaining different point of views. If the same few trainees prevail
over and over, many other trainees will tire hearing from them and will withdraw.
The relay question:

The relay question is a question asked again in different modes to get interesting
participation, involvement and opinions.
The reverse question:

The reverse question is similar technique expect the question is stated back to the person
who asked it. Use this approach when you believe that questioner really wants to provide
an answer but is hesitant. If overused, it can inhibit trainees to ask questions.
Demonstrations:
A demonstration is a visual display to how to do something or how something works. To
be most effective, a demonstration should be integrated with the lecture/ discussion
method. The most effective demonstrations provide trainee with the resources
(equipments, materials etc.) needed to actually do what is being demonstrated. While one
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trainee is performing the demonstration, fellow trainees can recall the steps in the
sequence and provide feedback.
To conduct an effective demonstration, first prepare the lesson plan by breaking down the
task to be performed into smaller, easily learned parts. Then sequentially organize the
parts of the tasks and prepare an explanation for why each action is required.
Strengths and weaknesses of lectures and demonstration:
Costs:

In terms of development and delivery, printed lectures are most time-efficient. The
financial costs typically associated with developing and implementing lectures/
demonstration include:
Development costs related to creating the contents and organization of the
training.
Costs of ancillary materials to facilitate learning.
Costs of training facility for the program
Compensation of trainer and trainee time spent in learning
Travel, lodging, and food for the trainees and the trainer.
Controls of materials and process:

Lectures, discussions, and demonstrations provide a high degree of control over the
training process and content. The material covered is predetermined by the trainer, as the
processes used to present material. The trainees have the little, if any, influence other than
whatever involvement was allowed in the TNA and program design process. However, as
the training becomes more INTERACTIVE, trainees are able exert more control.
Learning objectives: (KSAs):

The lecture/ discussion method is more effective than the straight lecture for learning
higher level of knowledge such as concepts and principles. The lecture/ discussion
method is also more effective than straight lecture at producing attitude changes. Lectures
and discussion do not provide opportunities for behavioral reproduction, so they should
not be used for skill development objectives, except to provide the knowledge base for
the skill. If the training objective is skill development, the demonstration might be
appropriate.
Learning process:

Lectures, lectures/discussions, and demonstration can be capturing trainee attention, at

least in short term, they show some strength in the area of retention, especially discussion
and demonstrations. Even though only demonstration are good at facilitating behavioral
reproduction, lectures and discussions can develop attitude changes that are supportive of
the desired behavior.

Trainee group characteristics:

The trainee:

The trainee should be at same general level of intellectual ability and posses about the
same level of related content knowledge.
Size of training group:

Class size should be small enough to allow trainees ample opportunity to participate in
discussion and questions.

Games and simulations

Training games and simulations are designed to reproduce or stimulate processes, events,
and circumstances that occur in the trainees job.
Equipment simulations:
Equipment simulations are mechanical devices that require trainees to use the same
procedures, movements and decisions process they would use will equipment back on the
job. It is important that the simulations be designed to replicate, as closely as possible, the
physical aspects of the equipments and operating environment trainees will find at their
job site. The resemblance is referred to as PHYSICAL FIDELITY of simulations.
Psychological conditions under which the equipment is operated must also be closely
matched to which trainees experience on the job. This is called PSYCHOLOGICAL
FIDELITY.
Business games:
Trainees have moved to computer-based simulations that are interactive multimedia and
virtual reality. Business games are simulations that represent the way industry, company,
or a unit of a company functions. Typically, they are based on a set of relationships, rules
and principles derived from theory or research. Trainees are provided with information
describing situations and are asked to make decisions about what to do. The system then
provides the feedback about the effect of their decisions, after which the trainees are
asked to make another decision. This process will continue until some predefined state of
the organization is reached.
Business games should not be used as a standalone training method. Briefings will help
keep training focused on the key learning points. Discussions regarding how and why
decisions were made, and their consequences, are very important part of the training.

In-basket technique:
The in- basket technique provide techniques with a packet of written information and
requests, such as memos, messages, and reports, that typically would be handled in a
given positions. The trainees decisions are simply written down rather than carried out.
Thus, the technique is good at teaching trainees what decisions to make but not at
developing the skills needed to carry out the decisions.
Trainees are given the packet of materials that make up the in-basket and asked to
respond to the materials within the certain time- period. After all the trainees complete
the in-basket, a group discussion follow in the trainees describe the rationale for their
decisions.
Case studies:
Case studies attempt to stimulate decision making situations that trainees might find on
the job. The trainee is usually presented within a written (or a videotaped) history, key
elements, and the issue faced by a real or imaginary organization or organizational unit.
The trainer should convey that no single solution is right or wrong and that many
solutions are possible. The learning objective is to get trainees to apply known concepts
and principles, and discover new ones.
A variation of the case study is the incident process, in which trainees are given only a
brief description of the problem and must gather additional information from the trainer
by asking questions. Because managers gather most of the information from questioning
and interacting with others, this activity is meant to stimulate a managers work more
closely.
Role play:
Role-play is an enactment (or simulation) of a scenario in which each participant is given
a part to act out. Trainees are provided with a description of contact- usually a topic area,
a general description of the topic area, a description of roles, and the problems they each
face. The degree to which scenario is structured will depend on what the learning
objectives are.
Structured role-plays:

Structured role-plays provide trainees with more detail about the situation and more detail
about descriptions of each characters attitudes, needs, opinions, and so on.
Spontaneous role-plays;

Spontaneous role-plays are loosely constructed interactions in which one of the

participants plays he while the others play people with whom first trainee interacted in
the past, or will in the future. This type of role-play focuses on attitudes.

Single role-play;

In single role-play one group of trainees role-plays for the rest, providing a visual
demonstration of some learning point.
Multiple role-play:

A multiple role-play is the same as single role-play except that all trainees are in groups,
with each group acting out the role-play simultaneously.
The role rotation:

The role rotation method begins with the same as single role-play. After the characters
interact for a period of time, the trainer will stop the role-play and interact what happened
so far, and what can be learned from it. Then roles will be changed in different trainees.
Feedback is an important component in role-play.
Behavior modeling:
Behavioral modeling uses the internal tendency of participants observes others to learn
how to do something new. The behavior modeling process can be summarized as follows:
1. Define the key skill deficiencies.
2. Provide a brief overview of the relevant theory.
3. Specify the key learning points and critical behaviors to observe.
4. Use an expert to model the appropriate behaviors.
5. Encourage the trainees to practice the appropriate behaviors in the structured roleplay.
6. Provide opportunities for the trainer and other trainees to give reinforcement for
appropriate imitation of the models behavior.
7. Ensure that the trainees supervisors reinforce appropriate demonstration of
behavior on the job.
Although a live model can be used, a video is better for two reasons. First, it will be an
accurate, standardized depiction of the required behavior. Secondly, scripted learning
points and steps being followed can be inserted into video.
Strengths and weakness of games and simulations:
Costs:

The development costs of the games and simulations vary from format to format. In
general, the equipment simulators are most expensive to develop, but cost will depend on
the nature of equipment that is simulated. At the low end of development costs are roleplays. Business games are somewhat more complicated and thus usually more expensive
than role-plays. Multimedia or computer-based games or simulations will be more
expensive but can be used again and again.

Control of content and process:

Both trainees and trainer influence the content of what is learned and processes used in
learning. The games and simulations provide a set of information that focuses on the
particular content area. Games and simulations also provide instructions and guidelines
that strongly influence the learning processes.
Learning objectives: (KSAs):

Games and simulations provide opportunities to learn through concrete experiences that
require both theory and applications. Games and simulations generally require some
background knowledge and provide a context in which this knowledge is applied. It
allows them to apply their knowledge and see consequences of that strategy. So, games
and simulations do a good job of developing skills.
Learning process:
Attention:

The active learning used by these training methods are more compelling to trainees then
just sitting through a lecture or reading a text.
Retention:

This approach assumes that the knowledge needed to play the game or use simulation
was already learned. This information exists as symbolic codes in the trainees cognitive
structure. They focus on cognitive organization and symbolic rehearsal process.
Behavioral reproduction:

Of course, the real strength of games and simulations is their focus on the learning by
doing.
Training group characteristics:

Only one person at a time can use an equipment simulator so, to some extent difference in
trainee readiness are addressed. Trainees must posses the prerequisite knowledge and
skill from three to eight trainees. Groups are relatively same knowledge and experiences
are made.

On the job training

The most frequently used method, especially in small business and among manufacturers,
is on the-job training (OJT). OJT uses more experienced and skilled employees, whether
co-workers or supervisors, to train less skilled or less experienced employees. Learning is
usually achieved through following steps:
1. The trainee observes more experienced and more skilled worker performing the
job related tasks.
2. The procedures and techniques used are discussed before, during and after the
trainer has demonstrated how the job tasks are performed.
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3. The trainee begins performing the job tasks when the trainer determines that the
trainee is ready.
4. The trainer provides continuing guidance and feedback.
5. The trainee is given gradually more and more of the job to perform until he can
adequately perform the entire job on his own.
Job instruction technique: (JIT):
JIT uses a behavioral strategy with a focus on skill development. JIT consists of the four
steps- prepare, present, try out and follow up:
1. Prepare:

1. Break down the job.

2. Prepare an instructional plan.
3. Put the learner at ease.
2. Present:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Tell the pits and falls.

Show how to do it.
Demonstrate the whole process, job.
Explain the procedure.

3. Try out;

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Have the trainee talk through the job.

Have the trainee instruct the supervisor on how the job is done.
Let the trainee do the job.
Provide feedback, both positive and negative.
Let the trainee practice.

4. Follow up:

1. Check the progress frequently first.

2. Tell the learner whom to go for help.
3. Gradually taper off the progress checks.
No step should be ignored thinking this as useless as all the steps are very important and
necessary for the successful accomplishment of the JIT.
Apprenticeship training:
Apprenticeship programs are partnerships among labor unions, employer, schools, and
government. Generally, an apprenticeship program requires about two years of on the
job experience and 180 hours of class room instruction, though requirements vary from
program to program. An apprentice must be able to demonstrate the mastery of all
required skills and knowledge before being allowed to graduate. These programs are
regulated by the government agencies, which also set standards and provide services.

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Find and examine a comparable job with the apprenticeship program and use it as a
model.
Coaching:
Coaching as used here is the process of one-to-one guidance and instruction, to improve
knowledge, skill and work performance. Coaching is usually directed at employees with
KSAs deficiencies, but it can also be used as motivational tool for those performing
adequately. Although co-workers can be coaches, especially team based organizations,
more typically the supervisors act as coach. The main difference between coaching and
traditional OJT is that in coaching, the supervisor continues to analyze subordinates
performance, plan mutually acceptable actions, creates a supportive, and motivates the
subordinates to improve. Good questioning techniques, active listening skills, and good
job feedback skills are all essential when coaching.
Mentoring:
Mentoring provides a mere junior employee with guidance and a clear understanding of
how organizations go about business and how person being mentored can be effective.
Whereas coaching focuses on the technical aspects of the job, mentoring focuses more on
improving the employees fit within the organization. Coaching emphasizes on the skill
development and mentoring focuses on the attitude development. Generally mentoring is
considered only for management level employees, though in some cases it is applied as
lower level employees. The mentor provides insight and guidance, but the person being
mentored must accept personal responsibility for setting objectives, developing strategies
for learning, and evaluating outcomes.
Several factors characterize successful mentoring programs, all of which should be
considered if mentoring is to be effective. These include:
Top management support
Integration to the career development process
Voluntary involvement
Assignment of mentees to mentors
Relatively short phases to the programs
An established orientation
Monitoring the process
Strengths and weakness of OJT:
Trainees learn their KSAs in the actual job situations; this transfer of training occurs
naturally. An additional benefit is the OJT process will provide new employees with a
rapid orientation to how company operates.

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Costs:

OJT offers some clear cost advantages if it is done effectively. Trainee and the trainer
both are on the job site performing job objectives. Nothing required training the trainees.
No delay separates training from its application to the work situation. No cost occurs for
training of trainers as trainers are experienced worker on site.
Control of content and process:

The trainer primarily controls the content and the process of learning in OJT during
prepare and present stages of training. During the steps of try out and follow up,
trainer and trainee jointly control the content and the process.
Learning objectives :( KSAs):

The primary focus of OJT is skill development, but OJT can also enhance the knowledge
base of the trainees and influence their attitudes. OJT provides a great opportunity to get
employees off on the right foot by clarifying the norms, expectations and cultures of the
work units. If knowledge acquisition is required to perform the job, OJT techniques
should be supplemented with other techniques such as apprenticeship training.
Learning process:
Attention:

Trainees are likely to be more attentive and more motivated during OJT. Verbal and
visual stimuli direct attention to the key learning points.
Symbolic coding:

The visual, auditory and tactile cues in OJT assist in the symbolic coding process,
providing a relationship among objects and actions in the work environment.
Symbolic rehearsal:

By asking the trainee to describe the steps in the operation (before letting the trainee to
perform the operation), the trainer is facilitating the symbolic rehearsal process.
Behavioral reproduction:

Behavioral reproduction, of course, is strong point to this method. The trainees practice
small portions of the operations until they are mastered.

Audiovisual enhancements to training

Audiovisual aids consist of any physical, mechanical, or electronic media used to provide
or assist instruction. They can be grouped into headings of static or dynamic media.
Static media:

Static media are presentations of fixed/stationery text, images such as printed matters,
overhead transparencies pictures/slides, and computer generated projections.

13

Dynamic media:

Dynamic media creates sequentially motivating stimuli, whether the information is

presented in continuously moving progressions from beginning to end, as with audiotapes
and videotapes, computer generated presentations, and moving films.
Static media:
Static media are generally not suitable for training as a standalone method.
Newsprint, charts, and posters:

Newsprints, charts, and posters display information through words or images. An

advantage of these presentations is that they can be posted on the walls or other vertical
surfaces so that the information is visible to trainees while other training methods are in
use.
Projected text and images:

Today, digital projectors and computer generated projections are commonly used.
Overheads are created through a computer system and possibly image scanner. Computer
generated projections are pretty much the standard form for the business presentations.
Once the projections are created and placed in proper order, they can be downloaded onto
a floppy disk or stored on the hard drive. During the training, the trainer will require a
computer and high intensity digital projector.
Present one idea or concept
Print in large letters
Limit to six or seven lines to eight words per line
Use color for effect
Turn off the projector when not in use
Face the trainees, not the visual aid, when speaking. Turn to the visual aid to
identify a point, and then turn back to the trainees to speak.
Dynamic audiovisual aids:
Unlike the static audiovisuals, these are frequently used as sole methods of training.
Audiotapes:

Audiotapes are exactly the same as the straight lecture. The only difference is that the
audiotapes are exactly the same each time it is used and provides no accompanying visual
stimulus. They are effective when the context of training is primarily auditory recognition
or auditory response. Advantages of audiotapes over lecture are its portability and its
ability to be reused both for training additional people and for easy review and
clarification by the trainee.

14

Videos:

Videos can be conceptually factually presenting the information and integrating

narrations with visual illustrations, graphics, and animated depictions. This medium is
relatively portable and generally can be made available to trainees at their convenience.
Videos are used as standalone training technique. A video, like a lecture, is a one way
communication system, with the disadvantages of not allowing discussions/ questions
opportunities.
Computer generated dynamic presentations:

Multimedia software allows computer to store, modify, and reconfigure sound, images,
and text to create nearly any combination of audio and video presentations. The
development process is similar to all of producing a video but also includes converting all
components into digital media.
Strengths and limitations of audiovisual aids:
Cost:
Static audiovisuals:

An advantage of the static audiovisual is their lower development costs. Implementation

costs range from low (flip charts and overhead transparencies) to high (computer
generated projections). Static visuals are reusable, so can be used again and again.
Dynamic audiovisuals:

Although the up-front cost is high, the per-person cost of producing a video can be low if
the trainee population is large enough. Videos, film, and CGDP are portable and reusable.
One way to cut the price of video training is to rent or buy a video from commercial
producers.
Control of material and process:
Static audiovisuals:

Generally, computer generated projections are more easily controlled by the trainer than
the other static audiovisuals. The sequence of the projections can be structured so that
material is presented only when the trainer want to discuss it.
Dynamic audiovisuals:

The disadvantage can be that material acquired might not be specific and may not be
appealing to many trainees. You can control the content and the process of learning by
selecting the appropriate video and creating the supplement materials yourself.

15

Learning objectives (KSA):

Knowledge:

Both static and dynamic audiovisuals facilitate the trainees knowledge development
through their ability to activate or enhance learning processes.
Skills:

Static presentation of information is not especially useful for skill building because it
does not lend itself to facilitating development or practice of skills. Dynamic
presentations, however, can be useful in skill development and practice, and foreign
languages audiotapes use this approach. Dynamic audiovisuals can also make it easier to
stimulate the work environment.
Attitudes:

Static and dynamic audiovisuals used in conjunction with other techniques, can facilitate
attitude change by visually clarifying the relationship among objects and events that are
the basis of trainee opinions and evaluations.
Learning process:
Attention:

The saying a picture is worth a thousands words reflects the importance of visual
representation in the learning process. The periodic presentation of new visual stimuli
activates the attention process.
Retention:

The Symbolic Coding process enhanced when pictures or graphic images provide visual
cues that supplement or complement auditory or written cues. Combining cues from
different senses result in more accurate symbolic coding and thus better retention.
Cognitive Organization can be facilitated by graphic images that demonstrate how the
training relates to familiar concepts. Integration is likely to be easier and faster if the
trainer is able to represent visually both the old cognitive organization and the new,
showing the changes required
Behavioral reproduction:

Audiovisual can be used to enhance the learning of a new behavior. Audiovisuals can be
used to provide the appropriate cues for when to perform. To allow opportunities for
reproduction outside the training environment, the visual images must be easily portable.
The principles limitations of static visuals are that they are typically not standalone
learning tools. They are best used to as enhancements to other methods.
Trainee characte

16