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PART4
STAFFING

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Chapter13
StaffingConceptsandPrinciples
JohnW.Aldrich
JohnW.AldrichisfounderandPresidentofAldrichAssociates,aShelton,Connecticut,organizationandmanagementeffectivenessconsultingfirm.Withtwentyfiveyearsin
thefieldoftraininganddevelopment,heaidsorganizationsfromtheneedsassessmenttotheevaluationstages.Hisfirmfocusesonconsultingandtraininginteambuilding,
culturaldiversity,managementandsupervisorytraining,andeducationforalllevelsofemployeesinallindustries.HeisapastPresidentoftheNewYorkMetropolitanchapterof
theAmericanSocietyforTrainingandDevelopmentandapastmemberNationalBoardofDirectors.HeisamemberoftheNationalAwardsCommitteeforASTD,amemberofthe
NewYorkOrganizationDevelopmentNetwork,andanassociatememberoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.

Staffingreferstotheadministrationormanagementofemployeesinorganizations.Specifically,staffingincludesalloftheactivitiespertainingtothescreening,
selection,hiring,orientation,training,development,compensation,anddeploymentofemployees.Italsoincludescounselingemployeeswhomayhavepersonal
problemsrelatingtodrugdependency,flextime,anddaycareconcerns.Althoughstaffingnormallyreferstoemployeerelationsortheemployment/humanresources
function,staffingresponsibilitiesarealsoamajorpartofeverymanager'sjob.Therefore,andfromapracticalorganizationalpointofview,staffingcanbedefinedas
thoseactivitiesconductedbyhumanresourcesprofessionalsandmanagersthatassurethatorganizationsobtainandmaintaintherightpeopleintherightjobs.
ObjectivesofStaffing
Theprimaryobjectiveofstaffingistoprovidetheorganizationwithpeoplewhohavethenecessaryskills,knowledge,andattitudestoperformspecifictasksthatwill
enabletheorganizationtoachieveitsgoalsandobjectivessuccessfully.Otherobjectivesinclude:
Educatingandworkingwithmanagerstoassurethattheappropriateemployeesareperformingtheirjobseffectively
Emphasizingtomanagersthattheyplaykeyrolesandmustassumemajorresponsibilitiesintheplacementanddevelopmentofpeople
Respondingtotheneedsoftheorganizationfortheeffectiveutilizationofpersonnelsothatboththeemployeeandthe

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organizationcanachievetheirrespectivepersonalandbusinessrelatedgoals

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StaffingPrinciples
Thestaffingfunctionisanintegralpartoforganizations.Itissupportedbymanagementandisperformedbyhighlyeducatedprofessionalswhoareexperiencedand
resultsoriented.Everyoneinvolvedinthestaffingfunctionmustrealizethatdecisionsmadeaboutpeoplehaveadirectimpactontheorganization.Staffing
professionalsmustalso:
Possessleadershipandcommunicationskillsthatconnotecredibilitytotheorganization
Bededicated,perceptive,andsensitivetotheneedsoftheorganizationanditspeople
Beabletocommunicateeffectivelywithalllevelsofmanagementandstaff
Believeinwhattheyaredoing
Showandusegoodjudgmentandarriveatconclusionsthatarebasedonfactualinformationwhendealingwithpeopleinorganizations
Beknowledgeableandpossesstechnicalexpertiseabouthowtheorganizationworksandhowpeoplebehaveinorganizations
Becostconsciousandfunctionintermsofoperatingormanagingabusinessorprofitcenter
Keepinformedaboutthedecisionsanddirectionstheorganizationistaking(suchasmergers,acquisitions,ordownsizing)andparticipateinthosedecisionsthat
affectpeopleandthebusinessobjective
Beknowledgeableaboutlaws,regulations,policies,practices,andproceduresthataffectemployees'productivityandwellbeing
StaffingProcedures
Staffingrequiresaknowledgeofwhotheorganization'speopleare,wheretheyarelocated,andwhattheyaredoingwithintheirrespectiveworkunits.Aneffective
staffingprofessionalwillknoweverythingpossibleaboutallemployeeswithintheorganization.
InventoryofPersonnel
Thekeystatisticstobefiledinadatabasesystemareage,sex,race,nationalorigin,religion,maritalstatus,andhandicappedstatus.Thesestatisticsareimportantin
followingtheguidelinesoftheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)andAffirmativeAction(AA).(Note:Questionsrelatingtoage(iftheapplicantis
overforty),race,nationalorigin,religion,maritalstatus,dependents,arrestrecords,healthstatus,disability,andsooncannotbeaskedonapplicationformsnorin
interviewsduringtheselectionprocess.Somequestionscanbeaskedafterhiringifthecompanycanshowthattheyarejobrelatedandconsistentwithbusiness
necessity.Anyinformationobtainedfromsuchinquiriesmustbekeptconfidential,maintainedinseparatefiles,andusedexclusivelyforremedial,voluntary,or
affirmativeactionefforts.Mostoftheinformationisbestaccumulatedinnumericalform(numbers,percentages,averages,andranges)sothatitcannotbeassociated
withindividualemployees.)Otherimportantinformationincludeseducation,jobtitleorspecialty,departmentorlocation,annualsalary,salaryprogressionorhistory,
lengthofservice,performanceevaluations,andspecialtrainingorskillsacquired.
ProjectionofVacancies
Onewaytoprojectvacanciesistoanalyzetheageoftheworkforce,particularlytheageofmiddleandseniormanagement.Whentheaverageageapproaches50to
55,plansshouldbeinplacetohire,train,develop,andpromoteyoungeremployeestopositionsofgreaterresponsibilitysotheywillbereadytoassumefuture
leadershiproles.
Anotherwaytopredictvacanciesisthroughprojectedexpansionofcurrentoperations.Whenexpansionisplanned,thepersonnelrequirementsareaddressedwithin
atimeframethatallowsasearchforpeopletobemadeinasystematicway.Thesameholdstruewhenthereisdownsizingorcontractionofbusinessoperations.If
layoffsareplanned,appropriateoutplacementopportunitiesmustbeavailabletothoseemployeeswhoareaffected.Theseopportunitiesincludeindividualized
coachingandcareercounselinginrsumwriting,jobsearch,andinterviewingtechniques.

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PreparationofJobDescriptions
Jobdescriptionsdefinethespecificrequirementsandqualificationsneededtoperformthedutiesandresponsibilitiesofaparticularjobsuccessfully.Thejob
descriptionshouldincludethepositiontitle,basicjobfunctions,whothepositionreportsto,titlesofdirectreports,knowledgeandskillrequirements,limitsofauthority
suchasdollaraccountability,specificjobfunctions,andperformancestandards.
Foranewjob,thedepartmentmanagermustassumetheresponsibilityforpreparingthejobdescription.However,theappropriatepersontopreparethejob
descriptionforanexistingpositionistheincumbent.Thispersonknowswhatactivitiesmustbecompletedinorderforthejobtobeaccomplishedsuccessfully.Heor
sheknowswhatskilllevelsarerequiredandthelengthoftimeneededtodothejob.
Theincumbent'smanagershould,ofcourse,approvethejobdescription.Thisisappropriatebecausethemanagerhasmoreknowledgeofdepartmentaland
organizationalgoalsandwhatisneededtoaccomplishthem.Informationregardingthegoalsandplansofthedepartmentandtheorganizationshouldnaturallybe
passedontoemployeesonanongoingbasis.Whentheyknowwhatisgoingonintheirdepartmentsandinthecompanyandwhentheycanhaveopportunitiestoget
involvedindepartmentalplanning,motivationtendstoincreasesubstantially.
Periodically(perhapsonceortwiceayear)theemployeeshouldrewritethejobdescriptiontoreflectchanges.Again,thereshouldbecommunicationbetweenthe
employeeandhisorhermanageraboutthesechanges.
Alljobdescriptionsshouldbekeptbytheemployee'smanager.Acopyshouldbegiventotheincumbentandanothercopyshouldbefiledinthehumanresources
department.Itisalsoappropriateforthestaffinganddepartmentmanagerstoreviewthejobdescriptionsatleastonceayear.Thesedescriptionshelpthestaffing
professionalandthemanagerstokeepabreastofchangesinthejobandserveasasourceofinformationforrecruitmentandplacementpurposes.
PreparationofApplicantSpecifications
Applicantspecificationsareusedtointerviewjobapplicantsforopeningswithintheorganization.Akeytooltouseduringtheinterviewisthejobdescription.Amore
importanttoolforinterviewingistheapplicantpositionrequisition.Coupledwiththejobdescription,theapplicantpositionrequisitioncanprovidedetailed
specificationsofthepositionandskillrequirements,anditcanofferamoreaccurateanalysisofthespecifictasksofthejob.Theitemsontheapplicantrequisitionform
arenotnormallyfoundonthejobdescription.
Withthisinformation,theinterviewwiththeapplicantcanbemoreinformativeandproductive.Inaddition,thereisagreaterlikelihoodofbettertwoway
communicationbetweentheapplicantandtheinterviewerbecausetheapplicantwillhaveadequateinformationtoaskdetailedquestionsandassumeamoreactive
roleduringtheinterview.
Theapplicantpositionrequisitionshouldbeonastandardformandbecompletedbythedepartmentmanagerandthensubmittedtothestaffingfunction.Thisshould
bedonewellinadvanceoftheactualjobinterviews.Itshouldbenotedthattheultimateresponsibilityforsubmittingtherequisitionforanewhirelieswiththe
departmentmanager.
Recruitment
Recruitmentreferstotheidentificationofqualifiedpeopletobehiredbytheorganizationtoperformspecificjobs.Itisoneofthemostdifficult,timeconsuming,and
costlyprocessesofthestaffingfunction.
Therearetwotypesofrecruitment:internalandexternal.Internalrecruitmentreferstosurveyingtheorganizationforexistingemployeeswhocanbetransferred,
promoted,ortemporarilyassignedtoadifferentpositionwithintheorganization.Intermsoftimeandmoney,thisformofrecruitmentisrelativelyinexpensive
comparedwithexternalrecruitment.Theinformationsuggestedearlierforinventoryingpersonnelcanbehelpfulinidentifyingappropriatecandidates.Cautionis
advisedwhenreviewingthisinformationbecauseofthepossibilityofusingitinadiscriminatoryway.

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Recommendationsfromdepartmentmanagerscanserveasanothersourceforcandidates.Again,cautionisadvisedbecauseofwhatarecalledcandidatepreferences.
Oftenmanagerswillprefertochoosesomeonewhomayhaveabackgroundandinterestssimilartotheirsbecauseitmakeslifeeasiertoworkwithsomeonewhois
similar.Keepinmindthatwhenrecruitmentisdoneonthisbasis,theremaybequalifiedemployeeswithintheorganizationwhowillnotbeconsidered.Forbest
results,internalrecruitmentshouldbedonewithaffirmativeaction,culturaldifferences,and,moreimportantly,candidatequalificationsinmind,topromotediversityin
theworkforce.
Externalrecruitmentreferstotheutilizationofoutsideresourcestoobtainjobapplicants.Thisformofrecruitmentiscostlybecauseoftherelianceuponrecruiting
agencies,searchfirms,newspapers,collegesanduniversities,jobfairs,andsoon.Othercostsincludeexpensessuchastravel,food,andlodgingforthecandidates
andrecruiters.Forexample,thecostofrecruitinganengineeratasalaryof$55,000maybeequaltooneyearofthatperson'ssalarywhenexpensesforinterviewing,
relocation,benefits,andsofortharetotaled.
Whetherinternalorexternalrecruitingisused,thestaffingfunctionmustcoordinatetheactivitiesbecauseoftheneedforprofessionalexpertise.Managersshouldbe
involvedbecausetheyhaveknowledgeoftherequirementsoftheposition.
ScreeningandSelection
Thescreeningofapplicantstobehiredisanotherimportantstaffingfunction.Thescreeningactuallystartswithareviewofthersumorapplication,followedbythe
traditionalinterview.Ithasbeenshownthatthemostcriticaldeterminantformakingahiringdecisionisthejobinterviewprocess.
Becausetheinterviewissocritical,itisextremelyimportantthattheinterviewerbetrained.Staffingprofessionalsaretrainedinterviewersmostmanagersarenot.
Managersplayanimportantroleintheinterviewprocess,butunlesstheyareproperlytrainedinhowtogatherandgiverelevantinformation,goodapplicantsmaynot
behired.
Thecriticalareasforanyinterviewerorrecruitertobefamiliarwithare:
Thejobrequirements
Questioningandprobingtechniques
Listeningskills
EEO/AAguidelines
RegardingEEO/AAguidelines,interviewersandrecruitersmustunderstandcompletelythatitisunlawfultodiscriminateinemploymentonthebasisofage,sex,race,
color,nationalorigin,religion,mentalandphysicalabilities,maritalstatus,orVietnamveteranstatus.Itiscriticalthatinterviewersandrecruitersbeknowledgeable
about:
NewminimumwageeffectiveApril1,1990
EmployeePolygraphProtectionActof1988
FairLaborStandardsAct
AgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967
WilliamSteigerOccupationalSafetyActof1970
TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964
ItisalsoimportanttonotethatasofJuly26,1992,theEEOCenforcesallofthenewlawsregardingtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesActof1990.
CivilrightslawsandlawspertainingtoAmericanswithdisabilities,employment,employmentpractices,labormanagementrelations,familyleave,medicalandhealth
insurances,occupationalsafety,privacy,sexualharassment,substanceabuse,wages,hours,organizationalpolicies,practices,andproceduresarealsoenforceableby
thefederalgovernment.Forexample,apersoncouldfeeldiscriminatedagainstonthebasisofsexifheorshewereaskedaboutmaritalstatusorsmallchildren.
Itisalsodiscriminatorytoaskwhetherapersonhaseverbeenarrested.Ontheotherhand,itisappropriatetoaskwhetherapersonhaseverbeenconvictedofa
crime,providedthattheincidenthasjobrelevance.Inessence,aquestionofthisnaturecanonlybeaskedifitrelatesdirectlytojobperformance.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatthequestionsusedoraskedintheinterviewmustbeconsistentlyaskedofallapplicants.Forexample,all

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applicantsmustbeaskedwhethertheywouldbewillingtoworkoccasionalovertimeifitisrequiredonthejoborwhethertheyhaveavaliddrivers'licenseifthejob
requiresthatavehiclebeusedinthenormalperformanceofthejob.

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OrientationandInduction
Thefirstfewdaysoftheemployee'slifeinthecompanyarethemostcriticalfortheformationofpositiveornegativeimpressionsabouttheworkunitandthe
company.Itisduringthistimethattheemployeeseestherealworkworldandhowpeoplebehaveinit.
Toorientandintroduceanewemployeeproperlytohisorhernewworkenvironmentrequiresthestaffingprofessionalandthemanagertoseriouslyaskthisquestion:
WhatwouldIliketoknowifIwereanewemployeeinthiscompany?Thefollowingaresomeideastoconsiderinansweringthisquestion:
Organizationchartandstructureofthecompany
Organizationchartandstructureofthedepartment
Philosophies,goals,andobjectivesofthecompanyanddepartment
Currentplanstoachievethegoalsandobjectivesforthecompanyanddepartment
Personalintroductionstoalldepartmentheadsandotherkeypeopleinthecompany
Behavioralnormssuchasdress,officehours,communicationchains,complaintsandgrievances,andotheruniquecharacteristicsthathelptodefinethecompany's
culture
Benefitsastheyrelatetoinsurance,medicalandhealthcoverages,vacationandsickleave,holidays,educationandtraining,compensation,recreation,andsocial
events(companyparties,picnics,andsoforth)
Companyanddepartmentfacilities(photocopymachine,companystore,library,healthfacilities,parking,andsoforth)
Anyotherinformationthatwillhelpcreateapositivefeelingaboutthecompanyandthedepartment
Whenthiskindoforientationisconductedfornewemployees,thetransitionintotheworkenvironmentisgreatlyenhancedintermsofpreparingtheemployeetodo
whatheorshewillbepaidtodo.
TrainingandDevelopment
Allorganizationsmustbeconcernedaboutandcommittedtotheiremployee'sgrowthanddevelopmentsothatorganizationalandpersonalgoalsandobjectivescan
beachieved.
Trainingfocusesonactivitiesdesignedtochangethebehavioroftheemployee.Itprovidestheknowledge,skills,andattitudesneededforanemployeetofulfillthe
requirementsofthejob.Examplesoftrainingactivitiesincludelearning(1)howtooperateacomputer,(2)howtoconductaperformanceappraisalinterview,and(3)
howtomakeoralpresentationsorconductmeetingsformanagement.
Developmentfocusesonactivitiesdesignedtoenhanceorimprovetheemployee'scurrentskills.Itencompassesallactivitiesonthejobcoachingaswellastraining
providedwithinandoutsidetheorganizationthatarespecificallyplannedtoimprovetheoverallperformanceoftheemployee.Examplesofdevelopmentactivities
are(1)assumingandperforminggreaterassignedresponsibilitiesand(2)trainingandmanagingothers.
Theresponsibilityfortraininganddevelopmentliesultimatelywiththeemployeewhoseeksneworbroadenedknowledgeandskills.However,staffingprofessionals,
managers,andthetraininganddevelopmentprofessionalmustworkcollaborativelytoassurethattheemployee'straininganddevelopmentneedsaresatisfied.These
needscanbedeterminedthroughperiodicassessmentsorauditsofemployees.Theassessmentshelptouncovertrainingconcernsandissuesthatemployeesmay
have.Uponcarefulexaminationofassessmentresults,trainingmayormaynotprovetobethesolution.Itshouldberememberedthatnotallemployeeproblemscan
besolvedwithtraininganddevelopmentactivities.Oftenamanualoranexplanationofapolicy,procedure,orpracticecouldverywellprovidetheappropriate
solutiontoanemployee'sconcerns.
Traininganddevelopmentactivitiesmust

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beconsideredasongoingresourcestohelpimproveemployeeproductivity.Theyshouldnotberegardedasbenefits,astheywereinthepast.Organizationsmust
nowlookatemployeesdifferently.Thatis,employeesmustbeviewedasessentialresourcesfortheattainmentoforganizationalgoals.

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ManagementofPerformance
Thepurposeoftheperformanceappraisalistoprovidefeedbacktotheemployeeonhowwellheorsheisdoingonthejob.Theappraisaldiscussionorinterview,
however,hasoftenbeenusedforotherreasons.Forexample,manymanagersusetheappraisalinterviewtofocusonsalaryconsiderations.Whenthisisdone,many
employeesareforcedtoviewtheappraisalprocessintermsofhowmuchmoneytheycanexpectratherthanasatooltoeithermaintainorimprovecurrentjob
performance.
Itisextremelyimportantthatemployeesobtaindevelopmentalandconstructivefeedbacktohelpthemgrowanddevelop.Thestaffingprofessional'sresponsibility,in
concertwiththetraininganddevelopmentprofessional,istoensurethattheperformanceappraisalsystemisdesignedtodojustthat.
Theprocessofmanagingperformanceshouldcoverareaswherethemanagerandemployeehavemutuallyagreedthatthelatterwillworkonspecifictasksthatwillbe
quantitativelymeasuredoveraspecifiedtimeperiod.Thetasks,ofcourse,shouldbechallenging,achievable,realistic,andmeasurable.Theprocessshouldalsobean
ongoingactivitythatisinformallyconductedonamonthly,weekly,and,ifnecessary,adailybasis.
Tohavetheemployeewaittwelvetoeighteenmonthsforanappraisalofsomethingdonemonthsearlierisbothnonproductiveandnondevelopmental.Instead,
performanceproblemsshouldbeaddressedastheyoccur.Whenthisisdone,theemployeelearnswhatnottodo,thusminimizingtheprobabilityofrepeatingthe
ineffectivebehavior.Likewise,themanagershouldrewardgoodperformanceassoonaspossible.Apatonthebackorafewwordsofencouragementcanbe
fantasticmotivatorsforincreasedproductivity.Managersshouldalsokeepinmindthatemployeesshouldberewardedperiodicallyforgoodonthejobperformance.
Anothervaluabletoolintheperformancemanagementprocess,andonethatshouldbepartofeveryperformanceappraisal,istheperformanceimprovementorthe
developmentdiscussionorinterview.Duringthisinterview,whichfollowstheappraisalinterview,themanagerandemployeediscussspecificareasforperformance
improvement.Goalsandobjectivesarewrittenforspecifiedtimes,andfollowupactivitiesareplannedandagreeduponbythemanagerandemployee.Boththe
appraisalanddevelopmentinterviewsareessentialforenhancedemployeeproductivityandmotivation.
Thesalarydiscussionorinterviewshouldfollowtheappraisalanddevelopmentdiscussions.Areasonableamountoftime(afewdaysoraweekorso)should
separatethisdiscussionfromtheearliertwodiscussions.Theobjectiveofthesalarydiscussionistoprovidethemanagerwiththeopportunitytorewardtheemployee
withasalaryincreaseforajobwelldone.Itisimportanttorememberthatthesalarydiscussionshouldbespecial,private,andsincere.Thediscussionshouldmake
theemployeefeelvalued,anditshouldnotberushedordoneonthefly.Theemployee'sgoodworkshouldbereinforcedsothathisorhermotivationlevelscan
remainhigh.
PromotionandTransfer
Inanyorganization,peoplearethemostimportantassetbecausewithoutthem,nothingcangetaccomplished.Therefore,promotionandtransferpoliciesshouldfocus
onplacingpeopleinpositionsthatcanenhancetheirskills,abilities,andinterests.Itiscriticalthattherightpeopleareplacedintherightjobs.However,some
organizationsfocusmoreonthejobthanonpeople.Whenthishappens,poorresultsoftenarise.Forexample,atrainingspecialistassignedtothetrainingdepartment
ofamajorcorporationwaspromotedtothehumanresourcesplanningfunctioninadifferentdepartmentbecausehehadbeendoinganoutstandingjob.The
promotionmeantmoremoney,butthetrainingspecialistfeltthatthatwasnotwhathewantedtodo.Instead,hewantedtoimprovehisskillsasatraineranddecided
toresign

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fromthecompany.Hadthecompanyfocusedmoreontheinterestoftheindividualthanonhisskillsandabilities,hemightstillbeemployedbythatcompanytoday.
Staffingprofessionalsandmanagershaveamajorresponsibilityfortrackingandidentifyingpromotableandtransferableemployeestoprovideopportunitiesforgrowth
anddevelopment.Thismeansthatcommunicationchannelsmustalwaysbeopenforemployeestoexpresstheirneedsforgreaterresponsibilityandchallenge.Thisis
notaneasytaskbecausethereareemployeeswhoprefertostaywheretheyare.Ontheotherhand,attentionmustbegiventothosewhodemonstrateadesireto
moveahead.Tobringthisabout,thestaffingprofessionalmustencouragemanagerstohavefrequentconversationswiththeiremployeesaboutadvancement.In
addition,analysesofpastperformanceshouldbeconductedbymanagerstohelpidentifythosewithhighpotential.Finally,employeesshouldbeaskedwhattheywant
todo.Thisgivesemployeesasenseofrecognitionandafeelingthatmanagementwantstohelpthemachievetheirprofessionalgoalsandobjectives.Whenthereisa
matchbetweentheemployees'andtheorganization'sgoals,bothwillbenefit.
Promotingandtransferringemployeesfromwithintheorganizationarehighlydesirableforthefollowingreasons:
Employeeshaveopportunitiestoadvanceandlearnnewskills.Moreover,employeesaremoremotivated,knowingthatthereareopportunitiesforgrowthand
advancementintheirorganization.
Itcanbecosteffective.Asageneralrule,employeespromotedfromwithinarepaidlessthanemployeesbroughtinfromexternalsources.
Internalcandidateshaveknowledgeoftheorganizationandperhapsofthejobitself.Thishelpstoshortenthebreakinperiod.Italsomeansthatsuchemployees
knowwhatskillstousetogetthingsaccomplished.
Planningforthefuturesuccessionplanningiseasierwhenemployeeperformancehistoriesareknown.
Ontheotherhand,problemsdoarisewhenfillingpositionsfromwithin.Someofthecommonproblemsencounteredincludethefollowing:
Managersmaybereluctanttogiveuptheirstarperformers.
Timeforproperorientationandtrainingmaynotbegivenbecausethenewdepartmentwantssomeonewhocan''hitthegroundrunning."
Thereisthepossibilityoftoomuchinbreeding.Freshideasmostoftencomefromtheoutside.
OrganizationalDownsizing
Anotherimportantfunctionofthestaffingprofessionalistoadvisemanagersonhowtohandleemployeeswhoarebeingdemotedorterminated.
Whenanemployeeisdemoted,oneoftwothingsnormallyhasoccurred.First,theemployeemaynothavemetperformancestandards.Inthiscase,theemployeeis
placedintoapositionoflesserresponsibilityandmayearnalessersalary.Thismayhappeniftheemployeeisperceivedasasolidcontributorbutjustnotsuitedfor
thecurrentposition.Second,throughmergers,acquisitions,orcutbacks,certainpositionsmaybeeliminated.Asaresult,theemployee'scurrentpositioniseliminated
andheorshemaybeplacedinapositionoflesserresponsibilitywithalessersalaryorbeterminated.
Ineithersituation,theresponsibilityofthestaffingprofessionalistoadviseandcounselmanagersonhowto(1)enabletheemployeetomakethetransitiontothe
lesserpositionwithminimallossofselfesteemor(2)enabletheemployeetoseekemploymentopportunitieswithotherorganizations.Thelatterisdonethrougha
seriesofworkshopsandindividualconsultationwithcareeroroutplacementprofessionals.
Inbothsituations,itiscriticalthattheemployeebetoldoftheexactreasonforthedemotionorterminationandtheeffectivedate.Itisimportanttonotethat
employeeswillrespondtothebadnewsinavarietyofways.Someemployeesmaybedevastatedsomemayhaveexpectedit.Whatevertheresponse,thestaffing
professionalandthemanagermustbesensitivetohowtheemployeereacts.Inaddition,itshouldbeunderstoodthattheemployeemaynotbeinthemoodtowork

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afterhearingthenews,somanagersshouldnotbesurprisedifproductivitydecreases.

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Toseparateorterminateanemployeeisalwaysdifficult.Therefore,staffingprofessionalsshouldcounselmanagersonhowtofindappropriateandcredibleanswersto
thefollowingtwoquestions:
1.WhatamItryingtoachievebydemotingorterminatingthisperson?
2.WhatcanIdotohelpthispersonmakethetransition?
OrganizationaldownsizingisarealityinAmericanbusinesses.Companiesareexperiencinggreatercompetitiononaglobalbasis,andthecostofdoingbusinessis
increasing.Toremaincompetitive,organizationsareconstantlyrealigningtheiroperationstomaximizeprofitsandminimizecosts.Unfortunately,employeessuffer.
However,employeesshouldbeencouragedtoseeknewopportunitiesforpersonalgrowthanddevelopment.Employeesshouldalsobehelpedtounderstandthat
throughselfunderstandingandperseverance,theycanmoveforwardtowardpersonalandprofessionalgrowthanddevelopment.
CompensationandBenefits
Receivingmoneyforperformingataskcanbeaprimaryreasonwhypeoplework.Isayaprimaryreasonbecauseitisnotalwaystheprimaryreason.Peopleare
different.Fromamotivationalpointofview,moneymaynotbeamotivatoriftheemployeehassatisfiedhisorherneedsforsecurityandlivesafairlycomfortablelife.
Furthermore,ifanemployeeisearning$75,000ayearandreceivesa10percentincrease,Idoubtthatthisamountwouldbemotivational.However,ifanemployeeis
earning$25,000ayear,a10percentincreasecouldbetheprimaryreasonforworking.
Compensationshouldbeviewedbystaffingprofessionalsandmanagersasavehicletorewardemployeeswhohavedemonstratedoutstandingachievementsinthe
performanceoftheirjobs.Itshouldalsobeviewedasanincentivetohelppeoplebecomemoreproductive.Forthistooccur,itisimportantthatemployeesbe
rewardedonthebasisofmerit.Forexample,torewardanaverageemployeewitha4percentincreasewhileanoutstandingemployeereceivesa6percentincrease
doesnotmakesense.Theremustbealargerdifferentialbetweenthetwoemployees.A9percentincreasefortheoutstandingperformerwouldbemoreappropriate.
Whendevelopingandadministeringacompensationsystem,somecriticalfactorstoconsiderarethefollowing:
Employeesmustknowwhatisexpectedofthemandwhattherewardwillbe.
Employeesneedtoknowtheperformancestandardsandhowtheywillbemeasured.
Thejobgoalsmustbechallenging,realistic,achievable,andmeasurable.
Therewardsmustbeperceivedasworthwhilebytheemployee.
Thecompensationsystemmustrelatedirectlytothejobrequirements.
Employeesmustbeevaluatedontheirmeritsandnotincomparisontootheremployeeswhodosimilarjobs.
Compensationsystemsaredifficulttoimplementbecauseofthevariedneedsofemployees.Aswehavealreadysuggested,moneyisnotalwaysthepanaceawhenit
comestoprovidinganincentiveforhigherproductivity,althoughitcanbeifthesituationisright.Acloserexaminationofthejobitselfandotherformsofrecognition
canidentifyworthwhileincentives.Forexample,employeescanbecomehighlymotivatedwhentheyperceiveorhaveasensethatthereareopportunitiesfor
advancementandgrowth.
Inessence,thepurposeofanycompensationsystemistopayemployeesafairandequitablewage.
Employeebenefitscomplementtheorganization'scompensationsystem.Theyaredesignedtoprovideemployeeswiththemeanstopayformedicalexpenses,take
vacations,havelifeinsurance,receivepersonalandfamilycounseling,obtainadditionaleducation,saveforretirement,andsoon.
Thebenefitsofferedbyorganizationsmustbecompetitivewiththoseofferedbyotherorganizations.Staffingprofessionalsknowthatwhilebenefitsandmoneyare
necessary,theyalonedonotmotivateemployees.Itisthejobcontent,asenseofrecognitionandachievement,andopportunitiesforadvance

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mentthattrulymotivateemployees.Compensationandbenefits,whenproperlyadministered,canpreventemployeesfrombeingdissatisfied.

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Summary
Thestaffingprofessionalisahighlyrespectedandvisiblepersonwhoiscriticaltoanorganization.Hisorherprofessionalismandexpertisecrossallorganizationallines
andshouldbeutilizedbymanagerstohelptheirdepartmentsachievetheirgoalsandobjectives.
Thestaffingprofessionalhastheexpertisetoguideorganizationsinthemanagementofhumanresources.Heorsheismosteffectivewhenlineandstaffmanagerswork
inconcertwithhimorhertoassurethattheorganization'speopleitsmostcriticalresourceareeffectivelyutilized.

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Chapter14
Recruitment,Screening,andSelection
WilliamC.Byham
WilliamC.Byham,Ph.D.,isPresidentandcofounderofDevelopmentDimensionsInternational(DDI),aleadinghumanresourcestraininganddevelopmentcompany.An
internationallyknowneducator,consultant,andtrainer,heistheauthorofmorethansixtyarticles,papers,andbooksonassessmenttechnology.Hehasreceivednumerous
awardsforhisinnovativetrainingtechnologiesandhiscommitmenttoresearchontheeffectivenessofDDItrainingprograms.Dr.ByhamandhiscolleaguesatDDIhave
pioneeredprogramstohelpmorethan7,000clientsincluding400oftheFortune500companies.Hisprogramsassess,train,anddevelopemployeesatalllevels.Withprograms
ineighteenlanguages,DDIhelpsestablishenvironmentsinwhichemployeesaremotivatedtoachievethehighestdegreeofsuccess.

TheGoalsofaGoodSelectionSystem
Turnoverisdecreased,sincepeoplearesuccessfulandsatisfiedonthejob.
Initialtraininganddevelopmentexpendituresaredecreased.
Managementcandevotetimetomakinggoodemployeesbetterratherthanfocusingthemajorityoftimeonafewemployeeswhoarebelowpar.
Theorganizationhasalargerproportionofhighproducingemployees.
Thealternativetogoodselectionistraininganddevelopment,butfeworganizationshavesuchfaithintheirtraininganddevelopmentcompetenciesthattheycanafford
tominimizetheirselectionefforts.Evenifanorganizationhasultimatefaithinitstraininganddevelopmentprograms,itisstillbettertostartoutwithgoodpeople.
Traininganddevelopmentaremoresuccessfulatmakinggoodemployeesbetterthanatmakingpooremployeesadequate.
Yetmanagementoftendoesnotrealizetheimportanceofemployeeselection.Organizationsseldomhaveorganized,thoughtoutselectionsystemstofillpositions.
Theyoftenusemethodsorinstrumentsthatareinappropriate,misleading,orineffective.Managersdonotspendenoughtimemakingselectiondecisions,yettheyoften
spendagreatdealoftimewithproblememployees,correctingmistakesorworkingoutproblems.Ifasmallamountofthattimehadbeenspentinbetterselection,the
problemsmightwellhavebeenavoided,andthemanagerscouldspendtheirtimeintheareasthatwouldhaveahigherimpactontheorganization.
Inadditiontotheobviousfinancialrewardsfromimprovedemployeeselection,thereisanothercompellingreasonwhymanagersshouldbeconcernedtheEqual
Employ

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Page191

mentOpportunityCommission(EEOC).Thefederalgovernment,andmanystateandlocalgovernments,havefocusedonselectiondecisionsastheprimaryculpritin
creatingraceandgenderdifferencesinjoblevelandpay.Penaltiesinthetensofmillionsofdollarshavebeenleviedagainstorganizationsthathavenotcompliedwith
EEOCregulations.Evenorganizationsthathavewoncaseshavefoundthevictoryexpensive.Inadditiontolegalfees,organizationschargedwithviolationsofEEOC
regulationshavespentlargesumsofmoneyputtingtogetherdocumentationsrequiredincourtcases.Clearly,compliancewithEEOCregulationsproducesan
economicaswellasasocialgood.
Thischaptertakesthereaderthroughastepbystepapproachtodevisingaselectionsystemforanyposition.Variousalternativeselectionproceduresthatmight
compriseasystemaredescribed,andtheirvaluesandlimitationsdiscussed.Finally,methodsforintegratingdataobtainedaboutapplicantsaredescribed.Throughout
thechapter,theEEOimplicationsofeachsteporprocedurearehighlighted.Thechapterendswithabriefdescriptionofselectiontrendsthatamanagermight
experienceinthenearfuture.
WhatIsaSelectionSystem?
Hiringdecisionsarebasedonanevaluationofapplicantinformationaccumulatedfromavarietyofsources.Thesesourcesmayincludeinterviews,referencechecks,
psychologicaltests,medicalexaminations,assessmentcenters,andsoon.Thecombinationandorderofthesesourcesofinformation,alongwiththemethodof
integratingthedataobtained,comprisetheselectionsystemforaparticularposition.Inthischapter,thetermsystemreferstoauniformlyapplied,stepbystep
procedureforcollectingapplicantinformationandmakinghiringdecisions.
Therearemanyadvantagestohavingaformalselectionsystem:
Selectionsystemsarestandardized.Everyindividualwhogoesthroughtheselectionsystemisexposedtothesamenumberandtypeofinterviewsandother
selectionelements.
Selectionsystemspresentelementsinanefficientsequence.Themoreexpensiveselectionelements,suchasmedicalchecksorinterviewsbyseniormanagers,
occurattheendofaneffectivesystemandarethususedonlywiththemostpromisingapplicants.
Selectionsystemsprovideclearlydefineddecisionpoints.Managershavecommonstandardsregardingapplicantqualificationsneededtopassthedecisionpoints
andmoveoninthesystem.Decisionpointsplacedearlyintheselectionsystemallowfortherejectionoflessqualifiedapplicants.Asaresult,moretimecanbespent
oncandidateswhohaveabetterchanceofgettingthejob.
Selectionsystemsensurefullcoverageofapplicantinformationrequiredforjobsuccess.Agoodselectionsystemmakessurethatnoneofthejobdimensions
definedforthepositiontobefilledareoverlooked.Italsoensuresthatsufficientinformationiscollectedfromeachapplicantonallrelevantdimensions.
Selectionsystemspreventunplannedoverlapincoverageofanapplicant'sbackground.Inaneffectiveselectionsystem,eachparticipatingmanagerknowshis
orherresponsibilityforcollectinginformation.Thispreventstwointerviewersfromunknowinglycoveringthesamedimensioninseparateinterviews,perhaps
completelyskippingotherdimensionsthatareimportant.
Selectionsystemsallowmoreemphasisontheimportantdimensionsofaperson'sbackground.Aneffectiveselectionsystemisdesignedsothatimportant
dimensionsarecoveredasmanytimesasnecessary.Particularlyimportantdimensionsmaybedoubleoreventriplechecked.
Selectionsystemseliminateneedlessoverlapinprovidinginformationaboutthejobandorganization.Agoodselectionsystemidentifieseachperson's
responsibilityforgivinginformationabouttheorganizationandtheposition.Overlappingofeffortiseliminatedwhenmanagersknowtheirresponsibilities.
Inmostorganizations,theresponsibilityforestablishinganappropriateselectionsystemforanypositionrestswiththehumanresources(HR)department.TheHR
departmentmaynotberesponsibleformaking

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thehiringdecision,butlogicallyitshouldplaythekeyroleinmakingsurethehiringmanagersconsideralltheinformationnecessarytomakeanappropriatedecision
andhavealltheresourcesnecessarytoaidtheminmakingthebestdecision.

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DimensionsTheKeytoanEffectiveSelectionSystem
Theprimaryresponsibilityofaselectionsystemistocollectinformationaboutanapplicant'spastexperiences.However,amanagershouldcollectonlyinformation
thatisrelevanttothepositiontheapplicantisseeking.Forexample,anefficientinterviewerwillaskonlyquestionsthatencouragetheapplicanttodiscussjobrelated
topicsandwilldirecttheapplicantbacktojobrelatedareaswhentheconversationstraystoirrelevanttopics.Inaneffectiveselectionsystem,backgroundinterviews
andallpartsofthesystemarebuiltarounddimensions.Adimensionisalabelthatrepresentsagroupofbehaviorsexhibitedbypeoplewhohavebeensuccessfulina
particularposition.Twocommondimensionsaredefinedbelow.
Visionaryleadershipcanbedefinedascreatingadesiredfuturestatethroughhelpingotherssee,andemotionallyfeel,howthingscanbedifferent(andbetter).This
definitiondealswiththeleadershipcomponentofvision.Atrulyvisionaryleaderhasaclearideaofwhereanorganizationshouldgoandisabletoconveythatideato
theorganization.Visionaryleadersareabletomaketheirideastangible(oftenthroughcreativemeans)andfocuspeople'sattention.
Establishingavisionmeanshavingabroadviewofasituationoralongtermviewofopportunitiesandsituations.Thisissometimescalledhelicoptervisioninthata
managerisabletodetermineproblemsandopportunitiesbyrisingabovethedaytodayactivities,thestandardorusualwayofoperating,conflictingpersonaland
organizationalgoals,andpersonalrelationshipsandloyalties.
Judgmentcanbedefinedascommittingtoanactionafterdevelopingalternativecoursesofactionthatarebasedonlogicalassumptionsandfactualinformationand
thattakeintoconsiderationresources,constraints,andorganizationalvalues.Judgmentreflectsthedegreetowhichpeopleusetheinformationtheyaregivenorhave
obtained,developalternativecoursesofaction,understandtheprosandconsofeachalternative,andchoosethemostappropriatealternative.Judgmentreferstothe
qualityofthedecision.
Ofcourse,theresponsibilitiesandskillsneededtoperformwelldifferwidelyfromjobtojob.Thedifferentrequirementscanbeseenintheuniquelistsofdimensions
fordifferenttargetpositions.Usingdimensionsfocusesselectionelementsonthemostrelevantandimportantareasforeachspecifictargetposition.
Tables141and142showhowselectionsystemsfacilitategatheringinformationondimensionsidentifiedasimportantintwotargetpositions.AnXindicatesthat
informationonthedimensionisobtainedbythatselectionelement.First,applicantsmeetingthegeneralrequirementsofdesiredemployeesareidentifiedthrough
screeningapplicationformsandthroughonetoonescreeninginterviews.Moreinformationisthenobtainedaslatersystemelementsareused.
ElementsofaSelectionSystem
Themostcommonelementsofselectionsystemsarereviewedbelow.Theyarepresentedroughlyintheorderinwhichtheyarenormallyfoundinselectionsystems.
However,therearemanypossiblevariationsdependingonorganizationalneeds,dimensionssought,andotherconsiderations.
RecruitingActivities
Strictlyspeaking,recruitingisnotoneoftheelementsofaselectionsystem.Yetitisincludedherebecausethequalityofindividualshiredusinganyselectionsystemis
determinedbythequalityoftheapplicantsattractedtoapplyfortheposition.Itisalwaystotheorganization'sadvantagetohavealargenumberofapplicantsfrom
whichtochoose.Recruitingisexpensiveandtimeconsuming,butitisimportant.Mostorganizationsmustcompetevigorouslyfortalentedapplicants.
ScreeningApplicationFormsorRsums
Applicantswilloftensendarsumorfilloutanapplicationformatanoffice.Inthiswaytheorganizationobtainsa"paperpor

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Table141.Systemfortheselectionofmaintenancemechanics.

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ApplicationForm

Technical
proficiency

Personnel
Department
Interview

HiringManager
Interview

ReferenceCheck

MedicalCheck

Troubleshooting

Workplanning

Jobmotivation

Initiative

Tolerancefor
stress

Workstandards

Worksafety

Medicalcondition

Table142.Systemfortheselectionofathirdlevelmanager.
Phone
Screen

Decisionmaking

PersonnelV.P. Marketing
Interview
V.P.Interview

Manufacturing
V.P.Interview

HiringV.P.
Interview

Reference
Check

Organizational
awareness

Organizational
sensitivity

Developmentof
subordinates

Leadership

Adaptability

Independence

Tolerancefor
stress

Jobmotivation

Energy

Oral
presentation

Written
communication

X
X

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trait"oftheapplicant.Theinitialreviewandevaluationoftheseapplicationformsandrsumsisanimportantpartofaselectionsystem.Thepurposeofthisreviewis
toselectpromisingapplicantsonwhomtogathermoredetailduringtheremainingselectionelements.Thisprocessiscalledscreening.Goodscreeningofapplicants
fortheremainingstepsintheselectionsystemhelpsthesystemoperatemoreefficientlybyquicklyeliminatingobviouslyunqualifiedpeoplefromtheapplicantpool.
Screeningapplicationformsisalwaysdifficultandcanbesomewhatunreliablebecauseofvariationsintheamountandtypeofinformationprovided.Thisisparticularly
truewithrsumsvoluntarilysubmittedbyapplicants.Evenwhenallapplicantsareaskedtocompleteacompanydesignedapplicationform,someindividualsprovide
agreatdealofinformation,whereasothersuseonlyoneortwowordstoansweraquestion.
Dimensionstobeconsideredinscreeningapplicationformsorrsumsshouldbechosenonthebasisoftheirimportanceandhowwelltheycanbeevaluated.Itis
fairlyeasytodeterminewhetherapplicantsmeetcertainrequirements,suchasholdingaprofessionallicenseorcertificate.Also,generaltechnicalskillscanoftenbe
accuratelyevaluated.Forexample,itisusuallypossibletodeterminethekindofweldingaworkerhasdonearc,acetylene,orelectricorthekindsofdutiesa
nursehasperformedemergencyroom,operatingroom,orobstetrics.Theapplicationformcanalsobeusedtodeterminewhethersalesapplicantshaveexperience
inaparticularproductline.
Organizationsshouldcheckthereliabilityoftheirrsumscreeningprocessbyensuringthatallstaffinvolvedareusingthesamestandardsandarelookingforthesame
screeningindicatorswhenmakingdimensionalevaluations.
TargetedSelectionInterviews
Theobjectiveofatargetedselectioninterviewistoprovidespecificbehavioralinformationondimensionsdefinedasimportanttoaspecificjoborfamilyofjobs.
Manyselectionsystemshavetwotargetedselectioninterviewssomehavethreeormore.Thenumberofinterviewsdependsonthenumberofpeopleresponsiblefor
evaluatingapplicantsforaposition,theimportanceofthejobbeingfilled,andthedifficultyinobtainingaccurateevaluationsofapplicants.Atypicalselectionsystem
involvesarepresentativeofthehumanresourcesdepartmentandthehiringmanager.Forexample,infieldsituations,aselectionsystemmayinvolveahiringdistrict
managerandhisorherregionalmanager.Inretailsituations,thesystemmayinvolveadepartmentmanagerandastoremanager.
Akeycomponentofatargetedselectioninterviewistheuseofpastbehaviortopredictfuturebehavior.Findingoutwhatanapplicanthasdoneinthepastistheheart
ofaneffectiveinterview.Oncetheinterviewerknowswhatanapplicanthasdoneoraccomplished,heorshecanpredictthebehaviors,skills,anddecisionsthe
applicantwillprobablyrepeatinthefuture.Withthisinformation,theapplicantwiththebestchanceofbeingsuccessfulcanbeofferedtheposition.Aperson'sactions
andreactionsduringtheinterviewarealsoimportantsourcesofinformationandshouldbenotedbytheinterviewer.
Manyinterviewerstrytobeamateurpsychologistswhentheyinterpretnonjobrelatedinformationaboutapplicants.Sometimestheyareright,butmanytimestheir
interpretationsarewrong.Aninterviewerwhospendshalftheinterviewdiscussinganapplicant'searlychildhoodtogetsomeclueastohisorhermotivationisplaying
psychologist.Soistheinterviewerwhoasksanapplicanttogivethreewordsthatdescribehimselforherselfortonamethreestrengthsandweaknesses.Interviewers
mustbetrainedtousewhattheycanunderstandbestaboutapplicantstheirbehaviors,actions,accomplishments,andpastexperiences.Asaresult,predictingwhat
anapplicantwilldoonthejobbecomesmoreaccurate.
Usingbehaviortopredictbehavioralsoreducesapplicant"faking."Allapplicantstrytoputtheirbestfootforwardandmakeagoodimpressionontheinterviewer.
Theyallhopetolandthejobbytalkingaboutwhattheywoulddoifhired,theproblemstheycouldsolve,ortheskillstheywoulddevelop.Applicantsmighteven
describetheknowledge,skills,orabilitiestheywouldputtouseonthejob.Thispositivesoundinginformationmayleadtheinterviewertobelievethe

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applicantismoreskilledthanheorshereallyis.Suchapplicant"faking"isgreatlyreducedinatargetedinterview.Becausetargetedselectioninterviewsare
discussionsofbehavior,anapplicantquicklylearnsheorshewillbeaskedtogivespecificexamplesofpastactions.Thismakesapplicantsreluctanttomakeupor
shadeinformation,becausetheyfearbeingdiscoveredastheinterviewerprobesandquestionstopindownexactlywhattheydid,notwhattheyknowabout,would
liketodo,orsaytheywoulddointhefuture.Anapplicantmusttalkfacts!
BehavioralSimulations
Abehavioralsimulationisacontrolledexerciseinwhichapplicantsdisplaybehaviorrelativetotargetdimensions.Forexample,ifsalesbehaviorissought,anapplicant
mightbegivenanassignmenttosellaproduct.Informationabouttheproductandthecustomerwouldbeprovided.Theapplicant'sbehaviorwouldbedirectly
observedbyanorganizationrepresentativeplayingtheroleofthecustomerorbyathirdparty.Behaviorintheexercisewouldthenbeevaluatedfortheappropriate
targetdimensions.
Behavioralsimulationsareparticularlyappropriateforevaluatinganapplicantwhohashadlittleornoopportunitytodemonstratebehaviorwithinthetarget
dimensions.Forexample,itisoftendifficulttoevaluatetheplanningskillsofanindividualwhohasneverhadajobthatrequiredplanning.Similarly,itisoftendifficult
toevaluatethecustomerserviceskillsofapersonwhohasneverhadasalesorservicejob.Whileinformationaboutthesedimensionsmaybesoughtinaninterview,
additionalinformationisoftendesired.Thebestsourceisusuallysomeformofbehavioralsimulation.
Severalkindsofbehavioralsimulationscommonlyusedassupplementstointerviewsfollow,alongwiththedimensionstheyelicit.
Inbasketexercises.
Theparticipantisaskedtohandletheaccumulatedletters,notes,requests,andsoonfoundinaninbasket.Theparticipantmustmakedecisions,askforcooperation,
writelettersandreports,plan,organize,andschedule.Inbasketexercisesareparticularlywellsuitedformeasuringsuchdimensionsassensitivity,initiative,
independence,planningandorganizing,control,analysis,judgment,anddecisiveness.
Analysisexercises.
Theabilitytosiftthroughdata,cometoaconclusion,andpresentalogicalargumenttobackuptheconclusionmaybeobservedinanalysisexercises.Participantsare
givendataonasituationandaskedtorecommendappropriatecoursesofaction.Analysisexercisesareparticularlywellsuitedformeasuringsuchdimensionsas
writtencommunicationskill,analysis,andjudgment.
Interactionsimulations(salesperson/customer,boss/subordinate,serviceworker/client).
Manyjobsrequireapersontodealeffectivelyindifficultsituationswithcustomers,peers,orsubordinates.Thesesituationscanbesimulatedbyhavinganinterviewer
roleplayasimilarconfrontationwiththeapplicant,whoassumestheroleheorshewouldhaveifhired.Thedimensionsofleadership,salesability,oralcommunication
skill,andcontrolcanbeevaluatedasarepresentativeoftheorganizationobserveshowaparticipanthandlesthesimulatedinteraction.
Schedulingexercises.
Manyjobsrequirescheduling.Thismayincludemakingworkassignments,planningworkflow,arrangingforresources,andlayingoutworkprojectsforsubordinates.
Jobreplicatests.
Jobreplicatestsareacommonformofbehavioralsimulation.Theytestforskillsinthetasksthatmustbeperformedinthetargetposition.Atypingtestfora
secretary,afilingtestforafileclerk,andanarithmetictestforacashierarealljobreplicatests.Mostsuchtestscanbeobjectivelyevaluated,whilemostother
behavioralsimulationsaremoresubjectivelyevaluatedbytrainedobserverswithinstrictguidelines.Likeallbehavioralsimulations,jobreplicatestsarebuiltaroundthe
specificrequirementsofthetargetposition.Theyarecarefullyconstructedtomirrorthecontentofthejob.Generalaptitude,personality,interest,andintelligencetests
donotqualifyasjobreplicatests.
Notallselectionsituationsrequiretheuseofbehavioralsimulations.Theirusedependsonhowwellindepthinterviewsbringoutpastbehaviorandhowmuchtime
canbegiventotheparticularselectionprocess.Behavioralsimulationsareagoodinvestment

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intimeandmoneywhentheinterviewisnotthebestselectionelementforgatheringsometypesofapplicantinformation.Theyarealsoeffectivewhentheorganization
wantstodoublecheckinterviewdata.
Behavioralsimulationsmustbeverycarefullydevelopedorselectedbyaprofessionalwhocanassurethattheyhavethenecessarycontentvalidity.Aprofessionalis
requirednotonlytodocumentthejobrelatednessoftheinstrumentbutalsototrainthemanagersinvolvedinitsuse.Oftenvideotapemodelsareusedtoteach
managershowtoplayarequiredrole(forexample,acustomeroremployee).Othervideotapesareusedtotrainmanagerstoevaluatethebehaviorelicitedbythe
simulationreliably.Trainingmaylastfromtwohourstoafulldayforacomplicatedsimulation.
OntheJobTryouts
Formanyyears,onthejobevaluationsofapplicantswereverycommon.Askilledtradespersonorbusinesspersonwouldgivetheapplicantachancebyputtinghim
orhertoworkinordertoevaluatetheapplicant'sabilitiesandlearningspeed.Suchtryoutsaremuchlesscommontodaybecauseofthelegalandinsurance
complicationsofputtingpeopleonthepayroll.
Tobeeffective,anonthejobtryoutmustbestructuredsothattheapplicantcanbeobserveddoingavarietyofcommonjobtasks.Theobservershouldbegivena
speciallydevelopedformlistingthetargetdimensionsandbetrainedintheobservationofbehavior.
Thetryoutshouldincludeacompleteorientationtothejob.Thismayrequirethatthepersonbemovedfromonedepartmenttoanothertoensurewideexposure.The
orientationfeatureofonthejobtryoutsissoimportantthatmanyorganizationsusethetryoutasanorientationonlyanddonotattempttoevaluatethepersonduring
thatperiod.
PaperandPencilTests
TheEEOCadvocatesabroaddefinitionoftests,whichincludesallquantifiableelementsoftheselectionprocess,including"personalhistoryorbackground
requirements,scoredinterviews,biographicalinformationblanks,interviewers'ratingscales,andscoredapplicationforms."1 Thus,anypaperandpencilinstrument
administeredtoanapplicantandthenscoredisconsideredatest.Specifically,theEEOCnotesasexamplesoftestsany"measuresofgeneralintelligence,mental
abilityandlearningabilityspecificintellectualabilities,mechanical,clerical,andotheraptitudesdexterityandcoordinationknowledgeandproficiencyofoccupational
andotherinterestsandattitudes,personality,ortemperament."2 Includedarethecommonpaperandpenciltestsusedbygovernmentandindustry,suchasthe
WonderlicPersonnelTestandtheBennettTestofMechanicalAbility.
Noselectiondevicehascomeunderclosergovernmentscrutinythanthepaperandpencilpsychologicaltest.Thishighdegreeofattentionstemsfromthemany
misusesoftests,whichhavebroughtaboutintendedorunintendeddiscrimination,andfromthefactthattestsareeasilyquantifiable,thusmakingthemanobvious
portionoftheselectionsystemtoattack.Thevulnerabilityoftheselectiontestaquantitativescoreisalsoitsstrengthandthesourceofitsgreatappeal.
Organizationshavelongsoughtaneasysolutiontoselectionproblems,andmanybelievethatthesolutionisapaperandpenciltest.Mostofthetestsusedinindustry
arerelativelyeasytoadministerandcanbescoredbyaclerk.Theyproduceinformationwithverylittleexpenditureofmanagementtimeorenergy.Iftheycanpredict
successonthejobaccurately,theyareacheapsolutiontomanyproblems.
DifferentialResults.
Amajordifficulty,however,isthatmostpaperandpenciltestsusedinemployeeselectionproducedifferentdistributionsofscoresforblackandwhiteapplicants.
Theaveragewhitepersondoesbetterthantheaverageblackperson.However,thereareblackswhodofarbetterthantheaveragewhite,andwhiteswhodofar
worsethantheaverageblack.Thepointisthatusingmosttests(nomatterhowvalid)producesadisproportionatelylownumberofblacksintheworkforce.
Tostatethesituationanotherway,ifanorganizationweretoadministerapaperandpenciltestthathadabsolutelynorelationshiptothetargetjobforwhichpeople
werebeingconsideredandusedafixedcutoffonthattesttomakeselectiondecisions,theresultwould,

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ingeneral,bediscriminatoryagainstblacks.Becausethedistributionofscoresisdifferent,anyarbitrarycutofftestscorewouldtendtoselectagreaterpercentageof
whites.Obviously,averyhighcutoffscorewouldproduceamoredisproportionateeffectthanalowcutoffscore.
Thereasonforblacks'poorshowingonmostpaperandpenciltestscanbetracedtomanyfactors,includingearlyculturaldeprivation,unfamiliaritywithtesttaking
techniques,andpossibleunintendedculturalbiasesbuiltintocertaintestsbythewhitemiddleclasspsychologistswhodevelopedthem.Whateverthereasons,the
problemexists,andasaresultthetestshavebeenheavilycriticized.
Ifanorganizationisconsideringanewtest,itmustvalidatethetest,usingthehigheststandardsdictatedbylawandpracticalityforthesituation.Thisshouldbedone
byarecognizedtestexpertwhocanguidetheorganizationineverystepoftheprocess,fromtheinitialselectionofthetest,throughvalidation,toimplementation.The
moneyspentonhiringatestexpertisasmallpricetopayrelativetothepotentialhundredsofthousandsormillionsofdollarsworthofdamagesthatanorganization
mayhavetopayifitisfoundtobeusinginvalidselectiontechniques.
MisconceptionsaboutTests.
TheEEOCtestingguidelinesreferto''psychological"tests,andsomemanagersmistakenlyfeelthattheirintelligenceormechanicalaptitudetestsarenotpsychological
testsandarethereforeexcludedfromtheguidelines.Thisassumptioniswrong.Thetermpsychologicalisfrequentlyusedtodefineanytestandiscertainlynot
restrictedtothosetestsfallinginthecategoryofpersonalitytests.
Somemanagersfeelthatscoredapplicationformsareawayaroundtestvalidityrequirements.This,too,iswrong.Scoredapplicationformsarespecificallymentioned
intheEEOCguidelinesandrequirethesamedegreeandtypeofvalidationasanyotherkindoftest.
Managersoftenthinktheycanpurchaseanalreadyvalidatedtest,butthisisnotpossible.Testsmustbevalidatedinaparticularsituationinaparticularorganization.
WhentoTest.
Theappropriateuseofatestinaselectionsystemdependsonthepurposeofthetestandhowthedatawillbeintegratedintotheselectionsystem.Theclassic
screeningtestisusuallyadministeredearlyintheselectionprocess.Inthatapplication,afixedcutoffscoreisusedtocutdownthenumberofapplicantswhowill
proceedtotheinterviewportionoftheselectionsystem.Examplesofscreeningtestsarebasictestsofneededskills,suchastyping,arithmetic,reading,and
mechanicalability.Suchtestsareusedbymanylargeorganizations.
Whenmoresophisticatedtestsaretobeused,theyareusuallypositionedlaterintheselectionprocess.Examplesofmoresophisticatedtestsaremeasuresof
creativity,evaluationofbusinessjudgment,andthewholerangeoftestsgenerallyknownaspersonalitytests.
UseofPsychologists
Manyorganizationsuseprofessional,licensedpsychologiststoevaluateprospectiveemployees.Thepsychologistusuallyadministersabatteryoftestsandconducts
oneormoreindepthinterviewswiththeapplicant.Awrittenprofileoftheapplicant'sstrengthsandweaknessesresults.
Indepth,clinicalevaluationsofapplicantscanbeavaluablecontributiontoaselectionprocess.Thepsychologistcanaddexcellentinsightsintothemotivationandthe
lifegoalsoftheindividual.However,oneshouldalwaysrememberwhendealingwithpsychologicalevaluationsthattheyareclinicaljudgmentsbasedonthe
psychologist'sexperienceingivingtestsandininterviewingmanyapplicantsforjobs.Theyarenotfacts.Forthisreason,anorganizationshouldbeespecially
concernedwithpossibleoverrelianceontheevaluationresults.Clinicalevaluationsshouldbegivennomoreweightthanamanager'sinterviewresults.Psychological
evaluationfindingsshouldbecomparedandcontrastedwithotherdataonanapplicantandweighedappropriately.Negativedatashouldbecheckedoutin
subsequentinterviews,notjustaccepted.
ReferenceChecking
Thischapterhasemphasizedtheneedtoobtainexamplesofpastbehaviorthatcanbeusedtopredictfuturebehavior.Duringtheselectionprocess,muchtimeisspent
ongettinginformationaboutbehaviorfrominterviews,butthisinformationisreallyaself

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reportofbehaviorthatneedstobeconfirmed.Referencechecksareaneffectivemeansofvalidation.Theyprovideawayofobtainingadditionalinformationaboutan
applicantthatisunavailablefromotherelementsofaselectionsystem.
Referencechecksareavitalcomponentofallselectionsystems.Onlywhendealingwithapplicantswithnopreviousworkhistorycantheybebypassed.Eventhen,
onewouldusuallyexpecttocheckeducationalbackground.
Therearetwopurposesofreferencechecks:checkingfactsandobtainingdata.Thefirstistheeasiestandthemostcommon.Informationaboutcriticaldates(length
ofemploymentwithanorganization),criticalaccomplishments(achievementofacollegedegreeorsalarylevel),andcriticalexperiences(typeofproductshandled)
obtainedininterviewsorfromtheapplicationformischeckedforaccuracy.Validationoffactualinformationcanusuallybeobtainedfromthepersonneldepartmentof
anorganizationorfromaschoolregistrar.Suchinformationisreadilygiven.ThistypeofreferencecheckingcanbeassignedtoanHRdepartmentspecialist.
Obtainingnewdataandconfirmingimpressions,thesecondgoalofreferencechecking,ismuchmoreimportantandmoredifficulttoaccomplish.However,the
potentialpayoffintermsoftheaccuracyoftheselectionprocessisenormous.Thisisthekindofreferencecheckingthatisconsideredinthissection.Youshouldstill
checkfacts,butbecausethisisaneasytaskitisnotemphasizedhere.Moreover,checkingfactsandobtainingnewdatacanusuallybeaccomplishedwiththesame
referencecheck.
WhattoCheck.
Inadditiontoconfirmingfactsobtainedintheinterviewandfromtheapplicationform,areferencecheckcanaccomplishmanyothergoals:
Followingupleadsfrominterviewsorotherelementsoftheselectionsystem
Testinggutfeelingsregardingtheapplicant
Seekingexamplesoftheapplicant'sbehaviorintasksrequiredinanewjob
Checkingforcommonfailings(forexample,drinkingandabsenteeism)
Probablythemostimportantfunctionofreferencechecksistofollowupleadsorhunches.Forthisreason,referencechecksareusuallyscheduledneartheendofthe
selectionprocess.Whenreviewinginformationobtainedininterviewsorfromothersources,theinterviewermayoftenfindcertainareasthatwerenotfullyexplored,
orheorshemaynotbesatisfiedwiththeanswersobtained.Areferencecheckistheplacetoinvestigatesuchareas.
Forinstance,aninterviewermighthavehadafeelingthatanapplicanthadtroubledealingwithtimepressurebutwasnotabletopindownaspecificexampleduringan
interview.Suchexamplescouldbesoughtinareferencecheck.Confirmationofleadsorhunchesisextremelyimportant,becauseitisnotfairtodepriveapersonof
employmentwithoutfacts.Anorganizationgivesthepersonthebenefitofthedoubtbycheckingfurther.
WhichReferencestoCheck.
Howmanyandwhichreferencesareappropriatetocheckdependontheparticularapplicant,hisorherbackground,theimportanceofthejob,andothersimilar
considerations.Currentbehaviorismorepredictiveofthefuturethanpastbehavior.Thus,areferencefromapersonwhohasobservedtheapplicantinrecentjobsis
morevaluablethanoneobtainedfromsomeoneintheapplicant'smoreremotepast.Also,areferencefromapersonwhohasobservedtheapplicantinsituations
similartothejobinquestionismorevaluablethanonefromapersonwhohasobservedtheapplicantinmarkedlydifferentsituations.Forthesereasons,such
referencesashighschoolcoachesareseldomuseful.Theirexposuretotheapplicantwastypicallyatsometimeintheperson'smoreremotepast,andcertainlythey
sawthepersoninasituationconsiderablydifferentfromtheoneinwhichheorshewillbeoperatinginmostorganizations.ItisbesttoavoidtheHRdepartmentif
possiblebecauseitwillusuallygiveonlythebarestfactualinformationaboutanapplicant.
Formersupervisorsarelikelycandidatesformostreferencechecks.Theyhavebeeninapositiontoobserveandevaluatetheapplicant'swork.Ifaformersupervisor
hasmovedontoanotherpositionororganization,donotletthisinhibityourreferencechecking.Ob

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taintheperson'snewphonenumberandaddressandfollowup.Heorshemayfeelevenmorefreetotalkunderthesecircumstances.

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WhoShouldCheck.
ItispossibletotrainsubordinatesortousespecialistsfromtheHRdepartmenttotakecareoflessimportantreferencechecksandtoauthenticatefactsobtainedin
interviewsandfromtheapplicationform.Ifreferencecheckingistobedelegated,thenaformshouldbedevelopedtoguidethepersonwhohasbeengiventhis
responsibility.Themajorityofreferencechecks,however,shouldbedonebythemanagerwhowillsupervisethepersonifhiredorbyakeymanagerintheselection
process.
Mostmanagersacceptthefactthattheyshouldperformthisfunction.Thetimerequiredistheonlyfactorthatkeepsthemfromtakingontheassignment.Yet,likeall
elementsoftheselectionsystem,itiscritical.Becausereferencecheckingusuallycomesneartheendoftheselectionsystem,amanagerneedstobeconcernedwith
onlythefinalapplicantsthiscutsdownconsiderablythetimerequiredforthiselement.
WhentoCheck.
Ordinarily,referencechecksshouldbemadeneartheendoftheselectionsystem,butanopportunityshouldalwaysbeopenforschedulinganadditionalinterview
withtheapplicanttocheckoutinformationfromthereferencecheckshouldapoorrecommendationbeobtained.Mostorganizationsscheduletheirreferencechecks
immediatelyafterthefinalselectiondecision(butbeforethejoboffer).Theconcernedmanagersmakeuptheirmindscontingentongoodreferences.Ifgood
referencesareinfactobtained,thedecisionholdsandanofferismade.Ifthereferencesarepoororindicateanareaofconcern,anadditionalinterviewisscheduled
andthedecisiondelayed.
MedicalExaminationsandHealthRelatedQuestions
Aforgottenpartofmostselectionsystemsisthemedicalexamination.Itisviewedbymostmanagersasalasthurdleforcedontheorganizationbyitsinsurance
carriers.Itissomethingforacandidatetopass,notasourceofinformationaboutthecandidate.But,asinmostareasrelatedtoselection,thisattitudeisrapidly
changing,principallybecauseofgrowinggovernmentconcernandlegislation.Thefederalgovernmentisincreasinglyforcingorganizationstoobtaincertainmedical
information,whileatthesametimepromulgatingnewrestrictionsastowhatcanandcannotbeaskedofanapplicant.
Theprincipallegalrequirementforpreemploymentphysicalscomesfromtheneedtoestablishpreexistingconditions(forexample,hernia,hearingloss,backinjury,
spotonlung,foottrouble,orpooreyesight)that,ifnotidentifieduponemployment,canbecometheresponsibilityoftheemployerlater.Suchmonitoringofaperson's
physicalconditionatthetimeofemploymenthasalwaysbeenimportantrelativetoavoidingcompensationclaims.Ithasbecomemoreimportantasrulingsand
guidelinesstemmingfromtheOccupationalSafetyandHealthActhaveextendedthelistofpotentiallyharmfulphysicalworkingconditionsfromwhichanemploying
organizationisresponsibleforprotectingitsemployees.
Atonetime,worker'scompensationclaimswerestrictlytheprerogativeofnonmanagementemployees.Thisisnolongerthecase.Increasingly,executivesandthe
widowsorwidowersofexecutivesarebeingcompensatedforheartandotherconditionsbroughtonbystress,frequenttraveling,andlonghours.Thus,foralllevelsin
anorganization,aphysicalexaminationmaybeagoodinvestment.
WhatMedicalInformationtoObtain.
Organizationsarenolongerfreetocollectwhatevermedicalinformationtheywantinwhatevermannertheychoose.NewU.S.lawsandregulationsspecificallylimit
whatcanbeaskedandbywhom.
ThemostdirectlegislationdealingwithmedicalrequirementsisSection503oftheVocationalRehabilitationActof1973andtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct
(effectiveJuly1992).Theyestablishthevocationallydisabledasa"protectedclass"thatanemployermusthireunlessbonafidemedicalreasonsfornothiringcanbe
established.Furthermore,thelawrequiresorganizationstomakereasonableaccommodationsfordisabledapplicants.
HowtoObtainMedicalInformation.
Medicalinformationmustbeobtainedbytheorga

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nization'sownmedicaldepartmentorbydesignatedphysicians.Questionsregardinghealthandmedicalstatusshouldnotbeaskedintheselectionintervieworonan
applicationform.UnderU.S.law,peoplewhohavediabetesoraterminalillnesscannotbeturneddownunlessaprofessionalmedicalexaminationshowstheyare
incapableofperformingthetargetposition.
Itisimportantthatthespecificgoalsofthemedicalexaminationbeknowntotheexaminersothattheexaminationcanbeappropriateforthespecificpositionin
question.Forexample,someorganizationsgivethemedicaldepartmenttheresponsibilityforspottingalcoholordrugaddictionproblemsinapplicants.Ifsucha
responsibilityisdesignated,themedicalexaminermustknowexactlywhatinformationisdesired.Infartoomanyinstances,medicalexaminationslookforinformation
aboutareasthatarenotrelatedtothejobandfailtoobtaininformationrelativetoimportantjobrequirements.
WhentoObtainMedicalInformation.
Becauseoftheexpenseofsendinganapplicantforamedicalcheck,thisactionisusuallythelaststepinaselectionsystem.Mostorganizationsmakeajoboffer
contingentontheapplicant'spassingthephysical.Ifthisisdone,theorganizationshouldhavetheapplicantsignaformindicatingthatheorsheunderstandsthe
requirement.
ExplainingtheJobandSellingtheOrganization
Effectiveselectioninterviewersfullyexplainboththepositivesandthenegativesofthejob,usingasmanyspecificexamplesaspossible.Problemssuchashigh
turnovercanbeeliminatedbyacompleteandtruthfuldescriptionofjobresponsibilities.However,thisisdifficultforinterviewerswhoareveryanxioustohirean
employee.Theymaytendtooverlooksomeofthenegativesofthejob,whileemphasizingthepositives.Theinterviewershouldneversellthejobtotheapplicant.
However,itisdefinitelyappropriatetopointouttoanapplicantallthebenefitsofworkingfortheorganization,includinginformationonsalaryandbenefitsplans,
specialorganizationfeatures,andlesstangibleadvantages.Forexample,theinterviewercouldtelltheapplicantaboutimportantclientsandtheorganization'spublic
image.
Thetaskoftellingtheapplicantaboutthejobandtheorganizationisbestdividedamongtheinterviewersjustastheinformationseekingfunctionis.Usuallyaselection
systemissetupsothatapplicantsreceivefundamentalinformationaboutthejobandtheorganizationearlyintheprocess.Thisinformationisexpandedastheprocess
continues.Inthelaterstages,interviewersoftennotonlygiveinformationbutalsocheckanapplicant'sunderstandingoftheinformationprovidedbyprevious
interviewers.Theyalsoansweranyremainingquestionsabouttheorganization.Thesequestionsareoftenaboutworkingconditions,vacation,pay,benefits,necessary
personaltoolsandequipment,dresscodes,andworkschedules.Thetaskofexplainingthejobandsellingtheorganizationgenerallydoesnotshowupasaseparate
elementinanorganization'sselectionsystem.Itispartofeachinterviewsituation.
MakingaHiringDecision
Obviouslyoneofthelastelementsofanemployeeselectionsystemisthefinalgoornogodecisiononanapplicant.Thisdecisionismadebythekeyorganization
membersinvolvedintheselectionprocess.
Coveringonedimensionatatime,participantsdiscussdatawithinthatdimensionanddevelopaconsensusratingforthedimension.Afterthisisdoneforeverytarget
dimension,theparticipantsconsidertheapplicant'sprofileofstrengthsandweaknessesacrossallthetargetdimensionsandmakethefinalhiringdecision.
Theexchangeofinformationinaneffectivedataintegrationsessionisinmanywaysverymuchlikegivingevidenceincourt.Nothingistakenatfacevalue.All
statementsmustbesupportedbyevidence,usuallyexamplesofbehavior.Thedataintegrationsessionisalsosimilartocourtproceedingsinthatbothrelyonthe
judgmentsofmorethanonepersoninmakingdecisions.Ajurysystemhelpsensureafairtrialandverdictbyprovidingvariousperspectivesontheevidence.Inthe
sameway,thedataintegrationsessionisconductedsothebestjudgmentsofseveralmanagersarecombinedtoproducefairandaccuratedecisions.

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Duringthedataintegrationsession,thediscussionamongparticipantscentersaroundadimensionratinggrid.Thisisachartwithdimensionslistedverticallyontheleft
sideandeachparticipant'snameheadingaseparatecolumn.Thesquaresonthegridareusedforrecordingdimensionratings.Aseparategridiscompletedforeach
applicant.AmodeldimensionratinggridcoveringdimensionsforasecretarialpositionisshowninTable143.
Itisapparentfromthegridthatthetwointerviewersarrivedatverydifferentratingsforsomedimensions.Thisiscommon.Ithappenedbecause,eventhoughboth
interviewerswereassignedtocoverthesefourdimensionsattentiontodetail,initiative,independence,andtoleranceforstresstheyaskeddifferentquestions,
whichbroughtoutdifferentbehavioralexamples.Thedifferenceinratingsfortypingskillsistheresultofhowthedimensionwastappedthetypingsimulationyieldsa
directobservationofskill,whereasthesupervisorinterviewdealsonlywithselfreports.
Consensusonaparticularratingisnotcommonatthestartofadataintegrationsession.Itcomesaboutthroughmutualsharingofinformationduringthemeeting.Itis
importanttonotethataconsensusratingismuchmorethanjustanaverageofindividualratings.AsseeninTable143,consensusratingsoftendifferconsiderably
fromthenumbersonewouldarriveatbymerelyaveragingindividualratings.Thepersonnelinterviewerratedtheapplicant"4"ontoleranceforstress,whilethe
supervisorratedtheapplicant"2"onthesamedimension.Thefinalconsensusratingof"2''inthiscaseindicatesthatthesupervisor'sexamplesofbehaviorweremore
significantandpersuasive.
Thecompletedgridmakestheapplicant'sstrengthsandlimitationsapparent.Theapplicant'sstrengthsareintheareaoftechnicalskills.Theapplicanttypeswell
(typingskills)andsetshighpersonalgoalsintheareasofquantityandqualityofwork(workstandards).However,theapplicant'sbehaviorinattentiontodetail,
initiative,independence,andtoleranceforstresswasevaluatedaslessthanadequate.
Onceaconsensusratingisreachedforalltargetdimensions,theinterviewersreviewthisdimensionprofileandmakeanoverallsummaryratingoftheapplicant.The
formatsusedtomaketheratingsdifferfromoneorganizationtoanother.Forsomeorganizations,thesummaryratingissimplyexpressedinahireornohiredecision.
Othersratetheapplicantusingafivepointscalesimilartotheoneusedinratingbehaviorwithinadimension.Stillothersdevisedifferentscales.Somekind
Table143.Completeddimensionratinggridforasecretarialjobapplicant.

TypingSimulation

PersonnelInterview

SupervisorInterview

ConsensusRating

Typingskills

Attentiontodetail

2+

Initiative

2+

Planning

Administrativerecall

Independence

Workstandards

Toleranceforstress

5=Muchmorethanacceptable(significantlyabovecriteriarequiredforsuccessfuljobperformance).
4=Morethanacceptable(generallyexceedscriteriarelativetoqualityandquantityofbehaviorrequired).
3=Acceptable(meetscriteriarelativetoqualityandquantityofbehaviorrequired).
2=Lessthanacceptable(generallydoesnotmeetcriteriarelativetoqualityandquantityofbehaviorrequired).
1=Muchlessthanacceptable(significantlybelowcriteriarequiredforsuccessfuljobperformance).
0=Noopportunityexistedforthedimensiontobeshown.

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ofmultiplestepratingsystemismoreadvantageouswhencomparingseveralcandidatesforaposition.

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CharacteristicsofaLegalSelectionProgram
FromguidelinesproducedbytheEEOCandotherfederalenforcementagenciesandfromvariouscourtrulings,includingseveralSupremeCourtdecisions,the
requirementsforaselectionsystemtomeetlegalstandardsarenowclear.
JobRelatedTargets.
ToquoteformerSupremeCourtChiefJusticeBurger,"WhatCongresshascommandedisthatanytestsusedmustmeasurethepersonforthejobandnottheperson
intheabstract."3 Thismeansthatthesystemmustmeasuredimensions(characteristicsorskills)neededforsuccessfulperformanceofajob.Thisdoesnotinclude
dimensionsroutinelyenhancedthroughtraining.Onlyentryleveldimensionscanberequired.
JobRelatedComponentsoftheSelectionSystem.
Justastargetsofaselectionsystemmustbejobrelated,somusteachcomponentoftheselectionsystem.Unlessacomponentisshowntobringoutjobrelated
dimensionsinareliablemanner,itcannotbeused.Thisiswhymanyselectiontestshavebeendeclaredillegal.Theyweremeasuringdimensionsthatwerenotjob
related.Ifanonjobrelatedcomponentisincludedinaselectionsystem,itopensuptheorganizationtoapossiblelawsuitandmayinvalidatetheentireselection
system.
ConsistencyinHandlingApplicants.
Aselectionsystemmustbeapplieduniformlytoallapplicantswithinajobcategory.Ifacomponentisusedwithsomeapplicantsbutnotothers,anorganizationwill
haveaverydifficulttimeexplainingwhythatcomponentisnecessary.However,anapplicantneednotbetakenthroughallstepsinaselectionsystemifsufficient
groundsforrejectionareobtainedatanearlystage.Thus,itislegalnottoputeveryonethroughahealthexaminationifthatisalaterstepintheprocess.However,itis
illegalforsomeapplicantstobeaskedtosubmitwritingsamplespriortothefirstinterview,whileotherapplicantsarenot.Therequirementforconsistencyinhandling
applicantsmandatesthedesignationofaspecificselectionsystem,witheachstepclearlydefined.
StateandCityLaws.
Everyemployershouldcheckwithstateagenciesinvolvedwithemploymentdiscriminationconcerninglocalrulesaboutprehireinquiries.Manycitylawsalsoapply.
Theyshouldbechecked,too.
ProtectedClasses.
ThenumberofclassesintheUnitedStatesthatarespecificallyprotectedbyvariouscity,state,andfederalcivilrightslawsisexpandingrapidly.Attheminimum,
protectedclassesinclude:
Membersofminoritygroups(blacks,Hispanics,Asians,NativeAmericans)
Women
Peopleovertheageof40
Disabledpeople
QuestionsnottoAskinanInterview.
Variouslawsonthenational,state,andlocallevelsprohibitcertainquestionsaspartoftheselectionprocessunlessbonafideoccupationalrequirementscanbe
proved.Prohibitedareasinclude:
Ageiftheapplicantisovertheageof40
Race
Nationalorigin(NewJerseylawprohibitsaskingquestionsregardingcitizenship)
Religion
Maritalstatus
Dependents
Childcareproblems
Housing(ownhome,rent,orlivewithparents)
Arrestrecords
Healthstatus
Typeofdischargefrommilitary
WillingnesstoworkonSaturdayorSunday,unlessinabilitytoassignthepersontosuchworkwouldcausechaoticpersonnelproblems
Anyinformationfromminority,female,ordisabledapplicantsnotroutinelyrequestedofnondisabledwhiteormaleapplicants

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Federallawprohibitsnotonlydirectquestionsbutalsoquestionsthatmightimplytheaboveinformation.Forexample,"AreyouamemberoftheGoldenAgers?"or
"IsSt.Helen'saparochialschool?"wouldbeconsideredinappropriate.

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NewTechnology
Asinmostaspectsofbusiness,itappearsthattherearecomputersinthefutureofassessmentmethodology.Sofar,computershavebeenusedmainlytohelpprocess
assessmentdata.IntheAcceleRATEprogram,interviewerandassessorratingsandobservationsareenteredintoacomputer,whichdisplaysthedatafordecision
makingconvenienceitevenmakestentativedimensionalratingdecisionsforevaluatorstoreview.Moreimportantly,thecomputeraidstheadministratorincompleting
summaryreportsthatwillbeprovidedformanagementand,ifappropriate,theparticipants.
Otherinnovativecomputerapplicationsarebeingtested.Oneorganizationevaluatesinteractiveskillsbyusingcomputerslinkedtovideodisks.Thepersonbeing
assessedplaystheroleofamanagerwhomustdiscussaperformanceproblemwithasubordinate.Considerablebackgrounddataabouttheindividualandthe
performanceproblemareprovidedinwrittenform.Asthepersonbeingassessedsitsatavideomonitorlinkedtoavideodiskandcomputer,the"subordinate"
appearsonscreenandstartstheconversation.Atintervalsthepersonbeingassessedisaskedquestionswithmultiplechoiceanswersrelativetowhatheorshewould
sayinthesituationpresented.Usingthecomputer'sandthevideodisk'sbranchingcapability,the"subordinate"respondsdifferentlyaccordingtothestatementchosen
bythepersonbeingassessed.Atthecompletionoftheinteraction,thecomputerpresentstheassessorwithavisualdisplayoftheinteractivebehaviorstheperson
beingassessedused.Thecomputerthencompareshisorherbehaviorstoeffectiveandineffectivebehaviorspreviouslydeterminedbyamanagementteam.
Amajortaskinestablishingaselectionsystemisthejobanalysis.Theprocessusuallyinvolvesconductingmultipleinterviews,developinganddistributing
questionnaires,andgeneratingconsiderabledataanalysisandreports.Thesetasksarenowbeingeliminatedordecreasedsubstantiallybytheuseofacomputer
"expert"systemcalledIdentifyingCriteriaforSuccess(ICS)thatactsasajobanalyst.Jobcontentexperts(usuallyincumbentsortheirbosses)answerquestionsthe
computerposestoobtaintheinformationnecessaryforthejobanalysis.
AssessmentintheFuture
Asorganizationsflattenand/orempowermentbecomesthenorm,selectionandassessmentwillbecomeincreasinglyimportant.Aflattenedorganizationisonein
whichtherearelargergapsbetweenorganizationallayersandfewerpeopleateachlevel.Thus,eachselectiondecisionismorecriticalandmoredifficultbecause
organizationscannolongertrypeopleoutin"assistantto"positions.
Empowermentmeansdifferentskillsattheemployeeandsupervisorylevels.Employeestakeonmanyoftheresponsibilitiesformerlyheldbythesupervisors,and
supervisorsassumeresponsibilitiesformerlyheldbymanagers.Multiskillingandteamsalsomakejobsmorecomplicated.Newjobdimensionsarerequired,andnew
andmuchmoreextensiveselectionmustbeputintoplace.
Fortunately,allthetechnologyexiststomeetthesechanges.Thechallengeistouseit.
Notes
1.QuestionsandAnswersontheUniformGuidelinesonEmployeeSelectionProcedures.FederalRegister,March2,1979.
2.UniformGuidelinesonEmployeeSelectionProcedures.FederalRegister,August25,1978.
3.W.C.ByhamandM.E.Spitzer,TheLawandPersonnelTesting(NewYork:AmericanManagementAssociation,1971).

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Chapter15
AssessingPotential
CabotL.Jafee
FredericD.Frank
ChristopherP.Mulligan
CabotL.Jaffee,Ph.D.,ChiefExecutiveOfficerofElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.,beganhiscareerwithAmericanTelephone&Telegraph(AT&T)asaPersonnelResearch
AnalystresponsiblefortheBellSystemAssessmentCenters.AfterleavingAT&T,Dr.JaffeetaughtattheUniversityofTennesseeandtheUniversityofCentralFlorida.Hethen
cofoundedAssessmentDesigns,Inc.,whichwassubsequentlyacquiredbyWilsonLearning.Hispresentcompany,whichhealsocofounded,focusesonblendingassessment
center,video,andcomputertechnologies,andelectronicselectionanddevelopmentsystems.
FredericD.Frank,Ph.D.,PresidentofElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.,hasservedonthefacultiesofBowlingGreenStateUniversityandtheUniversityofCentralFlorida.He
wascofounderandformerlyExecutiveVicePresidentofAssessmentDesigns,Inc.HeisalsocofounderofElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.andhasbeeninstrumentalin
conceptualizingandimplementinghundredsofapplicationsofassessmentcentertechnology,mostrecentlyutilizingvideoandcomputertechnologies.
ChristopherP.Mulligan,DirectorofSalesofElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.,hasconsultedintheassessmentareawithawiderangeoforganizations,includingmanyin
industry,education,andgovernment.Mr.Mulligan'sresponsibilitiesforhispresentcompanyincludeextensivetechnical,managerial,andclientactivities.

Assessingthepotentialofindividualstoperformspecifictasksisoneofthemostimportantandchallengingfunctionsofhumanresourcesprofessionals.Current
assessmentoptionsincludemotivationalinventories,personalitytests,interviews,projectivetests,biographicalinformation,intelligencetests,andspecialaptitudetests
justtonamesomeofthemajortypesofassessmenttechniques.
Oneassessmenttechniquethathasbeenusedwithgreatsuccessisjobsimulation.Assessmentthroughjobsimulationinvolvesaskingindividualstoparticipateintasks
thatsimulatethedemandsofagivenjob.Inindustry,themostrecognizedformofassessmentthroughsimulationistheassessmentcenter.Anassessmentcenter
programisaprocessinwhichindividualsparticipateinaseriesof

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worksamplesorsimulationsthatresemblewhattheymightbecalledupontodoinanactualjob,andtheirperformanceisevaluatedbytrainedevaluators(assessors).
Assessmentcentershavebeenprovenoverthepasttwentyfiveyearstobeanextremelyaccuratewaytoassesspotential.1
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NewTechnologiesAppliedtoSimulationAssessment
Beforedealingwiththetraditionalassessmentcenterprocess,itscomponents,benefits,andapplications,wediscussthechangesthataffectedsimulationassessment
throughtheapplicationofnewtechnologiesthathavebeenintroducedoverthepasttenyears.Thetraditionalassessmentcenterwassosuccessfulinaccurately
measuringperformancethatpractitionerssoughttoexpanditsapplicationtolowerlevelpositionswithinorganizations.Todothiscosteffectively,various
enhancementsofassessmentcentertechnologyhavebeenmadethatfocusonreducingthetimeandexpenserequiredbythetraditionalformatwhilecapitalizingonthe
powerofjobsimulation.
FactorsAssociatedwithEnhancementsofAssessmentCenterTechnology
Enhancementstoassessmentcentertechnologyresultedfromanumberoffactors.First,giventhecostoftraditionalassessmentcenters(costsformiddlemanagement
andexecutivelevelassessmentcentersrangefrom$1,500to$5,000perparticipant),costeffectivescreeningdevices,todeterminewhowouldproceedtothe
assessmentcenter,weresought?2 Manymethodsofscreeningpotentialassessmentcenterparticipantshadbeenused,includingpanelinterviews,performance
appraisaldata,lotterytyperandomdrawings,andvariouspaperandpenciltests(forexample,personalitytests,intelligencetests,andsoforth)justtonameafew.All
ofthesemethodswereusuallylessaccuratethantheassessmentcenteritself,andthereforetheultimatevalueoftheassessmentcenter(asmeasuredbythenumberof
successfulparticipantsselectedorthecaliberofparticipatingindividuals)waslimitedbytheeffectivenessofthescreeningtechnique.Thus,acosteffectiveandhighly
validoptionforscreeningpurposeswasdesired.
Second,changesinthestructureoforganizationsoverthepasttenyearshavechallengedassessmentcenterpractitionerstostreamlinethetraditionalassessmentcenter
process.Typically,theassessmentcenterprocessrequiresparticipants,assessors,andadministratorstobeawayfromtheirjobsfromthreetofivedays.When
organizationsbeganreducingthenumberofmiddleanduppermanagementpositions,thusreducingtheflexibilityoftheorganizationintermsofavailablepersonnel,
absencesofthreetofivedaysweremoredifficulttotolerate.Thus,costeffectiveoptions,utilizingsimulationtechnology,wereneeded.
Third,asthenumberofemployeesinmiddleanduppermanagementrankswasdecreased,thedemandsonlowerlevelpositionsincreased.Selfmanagedwork
teams,empowerment,andincreasedqualitystandards,amongmanyotherchanges,requiredemployeesatentryandfirstlevelsupervisorypositionsinthe
organizationtoutilizeagreaterrangeofnontechnicalskillssuchasinterpersonalskills,decisionmaking,analysis,problemsolving,andsoforth.However,giventhe
relativelyhighnumberofemployeesattheselevels,morecosteffectiveandpracticalassessmentcentertechnologywasrequired.
Fourth,toselectemployeesinavalidandcosteffectivemannerforentrylevelpositionssuchassales,customerservice,andsecretarial/clericalpositions,practical
butjobrelatedapplicationsofsimulationtechnologywereneeded.
VideoBasedAssessment
Theemergenceofpersonalcomputersandvideocassetterecordersintotheworkplacehasallowedthesetwotechnologiestobeusedforavarietyofapplications
beyondthepurposesinitiallyintended.Simulationassessmenttechniqueshaveadoptedthevideomediaasalowcost,highfidelityalternativetoliveroleplaying,and
thepersonalcomputerhasbeenintegratedtoreducethelaborintensivenessoftheassessmentprocess.
Videobasedassessmentprogramsvaryinformat.However,themosteffectivedesign(intermsofaccuracy,costeffectiveness,andsoforth)involvesusingvideoto
presentthesimulationstimulusitself,aswellasbehav

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Figure151.
Howvideobasedassessmentworks.

ioraldepictionsofmultiplechoiceresponseoptionstothestimulus.Theparticipant'sresponsechoicesaretheninputtedintoacomputerthatscoresthechoicesand
generatesavarietyofinformationforselectionandpromotiondecisions,interviewing,individualandgrouptrainingneedsanalyses,andperformancedevelopment
strategies.SeeFigure151foraflowchartofthevideobasedassessmentprocess.
Muchofthevalueoftheassessmentcenterliesintheabilityofthesimulationsand/orroleplayingstopresentanaccurateportrayalofjobactivities.Videodepictions
ofjobactivitiespresentanextremelydetailedsimulationofthejob.Infact,thevideocanoftensimulateactivitiesoveragreaterrangeofjobfunctionsthanroleplaying.
Oneobviousbenefitofanaccurateportrayalofjobactivitiesistheopportunityfortheorganizationtohavetheparticipantrespondtojobrelevantsituationsby
choosingjobrelevantresponseoptions.Anotherimportantbenefitistheopportunityfortheparticipanttoobservearealisticjobpreview,whichhasbeenshownto
increasejobcommitmentandreduceinitialturnoverofnewemployees.3
Inadditiontoapproximatingtherealismofanassessmentcenter,videobasedassessmentprovidesanumberofadvantagesoverthetraditionalassessmentcenter
process:
Consistency.
Videobasedassessmentprovidesaconsistentsimulationstimulusnotsubjecttothepotentialvaryingperformancesofroleplayerswhichisinherentinassessment
centers.
Eliminationofassessorsandroleplayingparticipants.
Asubstantialcostofanassessmentcenteristhetimeassessorsandroleplayersspendinthesimulationexercises.Thiscostiseliminatedinvideobasedassessment.
Reducedadministrativerequirements.
Videobasedassessmentprovidestheparticipantswithresponsealternativesthatareactedoutonvideofollowingthesimulationstimulus,andparticipantschoose
amongtheseresponsealternatives.Thisallowsforparticipantstobeassessedingroups,whichsubstantiallyreducesadministrativecostssuchastimeandfacility
usage.
Lesspotentialfordisparateimpact.
Withtheresponsealternativesbeingactedoutbehaviorallyonthevideo,thesimulationbecomeslessdependentonreadingskillsandthusfairertoallgroupsinthe
population.

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Increasedobjectivityandmoreimmediatefeedback.

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Becausetheparticipantsareselectingresponseoptions,thecomputercanbeusedtoscoretheirresponsesandgenerateindividualandgroupreportsobjectively,
providingselectionanddevelopmentinformation.4 Thisalsosignificantlyincreasestheimmediacyoffeedback.
Additionalapplicationsofassessmentinformation.
Thecomputercanalsobeusedtogenerateadditionalevaluationanddevelopmentinformationbasedonthevideobasedassessmentdataofeachparticipant.For
example,somevideoandcomputerbasedassessmentprograms5 generatestructuredinterviewguidesthatarebasedoneachparticipant'sassessmentinformation
andallowinterviewerstoprobeanapplicant'sareasofstrengthorweaknessfurther.Thus,theactualinterviewtimecanbeshortened,makingtheinterviewmorecost
effective.Fordevelopment,someprogramsprovideonthejobstrategiesthatparticipantscanusetoimproveperformanceintheirweakerskillareas.When
appropriate,alistingofinternaltrainingprogramsthatspecificallyaddresstheparticipant'sweakskillscanalsobegeneratedbythecomputer.6 Theabilityofthese
simulationprogramstoprovidedevelopmentinformationisextremelyvaluableforinternalapplicantswhoarenotselected.Providingrelevantdevelopmentinformation
tointernalapplicantsenablesthemtopursueconstructiveactivitiesthatwillenhancetheirprobabilityofsuccessinfutureadvancementopportunities.7 Thissortof
developmentinformationisalsoveryhelpfulfordiagnosingdevelopmentneedsofincumbents.
Videoandcomputerbasedsimulationprogramshavebeenshowntobeextremelyaccurate,withreportedvaliditiesthatequalthosereportedfortraditional
assessmentcenters.8 Videoandcomputerbasedsimulationprogramshaveapplicationsforawidevarietyofpositionsandareparticularlyappropriateforhigh
volumepositionsforwhichtraditionalsimulationtechniquesarenotfeasible.9 Theseprogramsalsohavetremendousapplicationasscreeningtoolsusedpriorto
participationintraditionalassessmentcenters.Infact,researchshowsthatthehitrate(thatis,thenumberofparticipantswhoscorewellenoughtobeselectedand/or
promoted)inselectionassessmentcentersincreasesasaresultofusingvideobasedassessmentasascreener.10Programshavebeendevelopedformanagerial/
supervisory,sales,customerservice,andentrylevelworkersaswellasforsecretarial/clericalandbanktellerpositions,amongothers.
ComputerizedAssessmentCenters
Certainlytherearemanysituationsinwhichuseofthetraditionalassessmentcenteriswarranted.Inthesecasesthereareanumberofoptionsforreducingthetime
andcostoftheprocess.Asstatedearlier,thereductionofmanagementpersonnelhasplacedincreaseddemandsonassessorsandhasresultedinfewermanagers
abletoserveasassessors.Therefore,manyofthechangestothetraditionalassessmentcenterprocesshavefocusedonreducingthedemandsonassessors.Reducing
thetimeittakesassessorstoperformtheirfunctionalsoresultsinsubstantialcostsavings.
Computertechnologyhasbeenusedtolessentheburdenonassessorsandoveralllaborintensivenessoftheassessmentcenterprocess.Thishasbeenaccomplished
inanumberofways.Themannerinwhichassessorsobserve,document,andevaluatebehaviorwasoneofthefirstareasinvestigatedwhentimereducingalternatives
wereinvestigated.Theadventofbehavioralchecklistsenabledassessorstosimplyindicatewhetherornotaparticularbehaviorwasobservedforagivensimulation.
Behavioralchecklistssignificantlyreducethetimerequiredofassessorsandevenhavebeenshowntoresultinratingsthatmorecloselyapproximatethoseofexpert
assessorsthanratingsderivedthroughnarrativereportingformats.11Situationalchecklists,whichrequireassessorstorateallbehaviorsbysimulationexercise,have
beenshowntobeatleastaseffectiveasskillbasedchecklists,andtheyarepreferredbyassessors.12Thebehavioralchecklistratingformatenablesthecomputerto
beusedtorecordandclassifybehaviorsintoskillcategories,savingconsiderabletimefortheassessorand,ataminimum,preservingthereliabilityoftheassessment
centerprocess.
Anotherareaofinterestwasthewayinwhichtheassessmentdatafromeachassessorwereassimilatedintooverallskillandperfor

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manceratings.Traditionally,thiscombinationofthedatahasbeenaccomplishedthroughanassessormeetinginwhichtheobservedbehaviorsandresultingratingsof
eachassesseewerediscussedandfinalized.Themathematicalcombinationoftheindividualassessor'sratingshasbeenshowntobeasaccurateaswhencombined
usingtheassessormeetingprocess.13Thisfindingwasfurthersupportedinastudyof107assessmentcentersinwhichtheamountoftimeassessorsspentintegrating
datadidnotmoderatethevalidityoftheassessmentcenter.14Hereagainthecomputercanassumethetaskofcombiningtheassessmentdatamostefficiently.
Inacompletelycomputerizedassessmentcenter,theassessorsratebehaviorsusingsituationalchecklists.Thecomputerthencategorizestheratedbehaviorsintoskills
andassimilatesallratingsintoindividualexercisereports.Anoverallreportcontainingbothnarrativeandnumericalratinginformationisthenprovidedbythecomputer.
Assessorsthenhavetheopportunitytodiscussallassimilatedratingsandtoaltertheratingswhenappropriate.Thisapplicationofcomputertechnologytothe
traditionalassessmentcenterprocesscanreducethetimerequiredofassessorsbyasmuchas50percentwithoutreducingtheaccuracyoftheassessmentprocess
itself.Thisrepresentsatremendouscostsavingstotheorganization.Theintegrationofthecomputerhasapplicationsinvirtuallyallassessmentcenters.
ABriefHistoryofSimulationTechnology
Turningtotraditionalassessmentcentertechnology,theuseofsimulationsforevaluationpurposesismostoftentracedtotheearlyworkconductedbytheU.S.Office
ofStrategicServicesduringWorldWarII.15
In1956theAmericanTelephoneandTelegraphCompanyinitiatedalongitudinalresearchstudy,focusingon422youngmanagers.Thepurposeofthestudywasto
determinethevalueofaseriesofevaluationdevices,someofwhichweresimulations,topredicttheprogressmadebythesemanagersovertime.
ThefirstoperationalassessmentcenterinU.S.industrywasintroducedin1958byMichiganBell,whichimplementedtheconceptforelevatingskillsandtechnical
employeestofirstlevelsupervisorypositions.Thiseffortwascharacterizedbyatotalrelianceonmanagers(asopposedtoexternalpsychologists)asevaluatorsand
assessors.Theuseofinternalpersonnelhassincebecomethemorefrequentchoicebyorganizationsusingtheassessmentcenterconcept.
Inthe1960stheuseofassessmentcentersgrewgraduallyinsuchorganizationsasIBM,GeneralElectric,andStandardOilofOhio.Towardtheendofthedecade,
agenciesofthefederalgovernmentbegantoimplementtheconcept.Duringthissameperiod,journalarticlesforpractitionersstartedappearing.16
Duringthe1970sasignificantupswingintheusageofassessmentcentersoccurred,primarilybecauseoffairemploymentpracticeconsiderations17andagreater
commitmentoforganizationstoemployeedevelopment,bothofwhichareservedbytheassessmentcenterprocess.Inthatdecadeandintothe1980s,moreand
moreorganizationsbeganseeingtheassessmentcentermethodashavingbroaderapplicationsthansimplyforselection.Careerplanningandtheoveralldevelopment
ofemployeeswereseenasareasthatcouldbenefitfromtheconcept.18Estimatesofthenumberoforganizationsthathaveusedassessmentcentershavebeenaslarge
as2,000.19
Asignofthegrowthandacceptanceofassessmentcentersduringthe1970swastheformationoftheInternationalCongressonAssessmentCentersin1972.In
addition,agroupofpractitioners,researchers,andconsultantsintheassessmentcenterfieldjointlypublishedasetofstandardsforpractitionersin1979.20Bythe
1980stheassessmentcenterconcepthadbeenappliedbyanevergrowingnumberoforganizations,bothintheUnitedStatesandinternationally,formany
managementandnonmanagementpositions.21
The1979standardsforpractitionersoftheassessmentcenterprocesswerereplacedin1989byanewsetofguidelinesforassessmentcenteroperations.22The
revisedguidelineswerepublishedtoaddressthedramaticgrowthofassessmentcentersduringthe1980stoawidevarietyoforganizationsrepresentingwidely
diversetypesofjobs.Assessmentcentersandvariationsoftheprocessfocusingonsimulationandoncomputerandvideotechnologiescontinuetobesuccessfully

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appliedtodiversepositionsincludingthoseatlowerlevelsintheorganization.

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ElementsoftheTraditionalAssessmentCenterProcess
Althoughassessmentcenterapplicationsmayvaryfromoneorganizationtoanother,orevenwithinthesameorganization,certainelementsarefoundinallquality
assessmentcenters.Informationmustbeobservable,relevant,andquantifiable,andallcentersshouldmeettheacceptedstandards.23Theprocessusuallylaststwo
tofourdaysincludingorientation.Themajoraspectsoftheprocessareasfollows:
Jobanalysisisusedtodeterminethekeyskillsandsituationstobeobserved.Inotherwords,simulationsaretiedtoastudyofthejob.
Simulationexercisesthatrepresentthebasicdemandsofagivenjobandrequireapersontoperformjobrelatedtasksareused.Theyarealsocalledwork
samples.Theyarenotmeanttobeperfectsimulationsotherwise,differencesintechnicalororganizationalknowledgeamongparticipantsmighthinderattemptsto
measurethekeyskills.
Multiraterapproachesareemployed.Unliketraditionalperformanceappraisalsinwhichratingsaredonebyoneperson,theassessmentcenterusesateam
approachtoarriveatanoverallratingforeachparticipant.Thisprovidesmorereliableevaluations.
Multiexerciseapproachesareused.Veryfewjobsaresosimplethattheycanbereducedtoonesituation.Quiteoftenintraditionalperformanceappraisal,
however,therater(supervisorormanager)isundulyinfluencedbyonesituation.Intheassessmentcenterseveralsituationsareusedsothatnosinglesituationcarriesa
disproportionateweight.
Inaddition,allassessmentcentershaveparticipants,assessors,roleplayers,andanadministrator.Althoughindividualsdifferinthecontributionstheymake,eachof
thesegroupshascertainrolesorcharacteristicsthataresimilarinanycenter.Eachwillbedescribedherebriefly.
Participants
Participantsarethepeoplebeingassessed.Theymayalsobereferredtoascandidatesorassessees.Usually,therearesixtoeighteenparticipantsateachcenter.All
probablywentthroughsomeformofprescreening,rangingfrompanelinterviews,toareviewofrecentperformance,toavideobasedassessment.
Attheassessmentcenter,eachparticipantisaskedtocompleteapredeterminedscheduleof,usually,threetofivesimulationexercises.Thepurposeoftheexercisesis
togivetheparticipantstheopportunitytodemonstratejobrelevantskills.Theseexercisesrepresentthemeasurementinstruments.Itistheparticipants'observed
behaviorduringeachexercisethatultimatelybecomesthebasisforoverallevaluation.Participantsmayalsobeaskedtopreparewrittenreports,summaries,or
outlinesthatrepresentactualorproposedfutureactions.
Whenallparticipantshavecompletedallthesimulationexercises,agroupdebriefingsessionisheld.Thepurposeofthedebriefingistoanswerparticipants'questions
aboutthesimulations,tosummarizetheeventsthattookplace,andtoprovidedirectionsforanyactivitiesthatfollow.Debriefingisnottoprovidefeedbackon
performance,whichcanbegivenonlyafteradditionalworkiscompletedbytheassessors.
Withtheexceptionofparticipantsfromoutsidetheorganizationwhoarebeingassessedforhire,mostassessmentcenterparticipantsreceiveverbalfeedbackasthe
finalsegmentoftheprogram.Inaddition,amoredetailedfinalreportisusuallypresentedatalaterdate.Bothoralfeedbackandthemoreindepthfinalreportstress
observedjobrelevantstrengthsandweaknesses,asdocumentedbyateamofassessors.
Doparticipantsliketheprocessofassessmentcenters?Theresearchpointstoastrongyes.BothDodd24andNirtaut25foundtheanswergenerallytobeaffirmative.
AseriesofstudiesbythePublicServiceCommissionofCanada26showsthatparticipantsenjoygoingthroughtheassessmentcenterprogram.Theyfindthatitis
objective,thatitmeasuresimportantcharacteristics,andthatitisnotdiscriminatory.
Assessors
Assessorsdotheactualobservationoftheparticipantsastheygothroughthesimula

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tionexercises.Inmostinstances,theyarestaffmembersoftheorganization(internalassessors)whoaretrainedasobserversandreleasedfromtheirregulardayto
dayresponsibilitiestofunctionasassessors.Whenassessorsarefromwithinanorganization,theyareusuallyoneandsometimestwopositionlevelsabovethetarget
positionthattheyareassessing.
Anothersource,althoughnotusedasoftenasinternalassessors,ispeoplefromoutsidetheorganization(externalassessors),whohavebeencontractedtoperform
theassessingfunction.Externalassessorsareusedmostfrequentlywhentheorganizationstaffisn'tavailable,orisn'tavailableinsufficientquantity.
Finally,therearecaseswhere,forvariousreasons,bothinternalandexternalassessorsareused.
Sincetheprimarypurposeofanassessmentcenteristocollectqualityinformation,theproficiencyoftheobserverisparamount.Toensureproficiency,assessors
completerigorous,certifiedtrainingprograms.Assessortrainingusuallylastsfromthreetofivedays,afterwhichpeopleareallowedtoassessparticipantsinanactual
program.
Assessoractivitiescanbedescribedasobserving,classifying,andscoringjobrelevantbehaviorsdemonstratedbyparticipantsastheyperformsimulationexercises.
Aseachparticipantengagesintheinteractiveportionofanexercise(meeting,presentation,interview),assessorsobserveandtakenotes.Oncetheexercise
concludes,thenotesarereviewedandclassifiedintoappropriateskillcategories.Thesedata,alongwithanyparticipantwrittenmaterial,arethenusedtopreparea
reportonthatparticularexerciseforthatparticipant.Assessorsarerotatedtomaximizetheparticipant'sexposuretodifferentassessorsthisresultsinindependent
evaluationsforthevariousexercises.
Assessorsusuallyworkinteamsofthree.Althougheachpersonassessesonlyoneparticipantatatime,theteamusuallyassessessixparticipantsoverthecourseof
theirworkatthecenter.Assessorsmustindividuallycompletewrittenreportsforeveryexerciseobserved,usuallysixtoeightreportsperprogram.Thentheymeetas
ateam.
Atthisteammeeting,eachassessordiscusseshisorherdocumentationoftheparticipant'sperformanceandallowstheotherassessorstochallengeorseek
clarification.Theprocedurecontinuesuntiltheteamhasthoroughlydiscussedalltheactionsineachoftheexercises.Afterthediscussion,theassessorsassignratings
toeachoftheassessmentcenterskillsandreachaconsensusonoverallscoresforeachskillforeachparticipantobserved.
Finalevaluationsareusuallydescribedinwritingbytheassessorsinafinalreport,whichhighlightsspecificexamplesofstrengthsandweaknessesandrelatesthemto
skillsrelevanttothepositionforwhichtheparticipantisbeingassessed.Aftertheteammeeting,butusuallybeforethefinalreportsarewritten,oralfeedbackis
frequently(butnotalways)giventotheparticipants.Whengiven,feedbackisonaonetoonebasis,usuallybyoneoftheassessorsrepresentingtheteam.Insome
centers,thefeedbackresponsibility,aswellasthewritingofthefinalreport,isassumedbyaprogramadministrator.Inallcases,itiscarriedoutwithprofessionalcare
andconfidentiality.
RolePlayers
Sinceanassessmentcenterisasimulationofactualjobsituations,itusuallyneedstheinvolvementofmorethanjusttheparticipants.Onthejob,peoplefrequently
interactwithotherstherefore,duringtheassessmentcenterprogramtheymustbeobservedinteractingwithothersinthiscase,roleplayers.Theprimary
responsibilityoftheroleplayersistoensurethatallparticipantsencounterthesametypeofstandardizedinteractions.
Tocarryouttheirresponsibilities,roleplayersmusthavesomepriorguidanceandtraining.Theyreceivethoroughinstructions,orguides,whichexplaintheactions
theyaretotakeduringtheexerciseinteractions.Thetrainingtheyreceivefocusesonlearningtheexercisematerialsandparticipatinginactualpracticesessions.With
thisguidanceandtraining,theroleplayerscaninteractwithparticipantsinaprescribed,reallifemanner.
Administrator
Basically,thefunctionoftheadministratoristoensureconsistencyorstandardizationduringeachassessmentcenterprogram.Inmanyrespects,theadministrator
providesaqualitycontrolfunction.Theactivitiesofthe

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administratorfallintothreegeneralcategories:preassessmentcenteractivities,assessmentcenteractivities,andpostassessmentcenteractivities.
Preassessmentcenteractivitiesinvolveprogramcoordination.Theadministratorschedulestheroleplayerandobservertrainingprogramsandhandlesthelogisticsfor
theactualassessmentcenterprogram.Thelogisticsincludesuchtasksasinformingtheprospectiveparticipantsabouttheassessmentcenter,assigningandscheduling
theroleplayersandobservers,preparingtheproperfacilities,andarrangingforthematerialsandsupplies.
Thesecondcategoryofadministratorresponsibilities,assessmentcenteractivities,hasamoredirectimpactontheparticipants.Tobegintheassessmentcenter
program,theadministratorconductsanorientation,orbriefing,sessionforeveryoneattendingtheprogram.Atthissession,participantsareinformedabouttheskills
thatwillbeevaluatedandtheexercisesinwhichtheywillparticipate.Additionally,thegeneralguidelinesthatmustbefollowedareprovidedalongwithascheduleof
activities.Afterthebriefingsession,theactualexercisesbegin.
Oncealltheexerciseshavebeencompleted,adebriefingsessiontoreviewandansweranyquestionsabouttheprogramisheldwiththeparticipants.The
administratortheninitiatestheteammeetingswiththeassessors.Duringthesemeetings,theadministratorservesasareferee,orguide,bymonitoringtheassessors'
progressandansweringtheirquestions.
Postassessmentcenteractivitiesconsistprimarilyofwrapupactivities.Theadministratorcollectsallprogrammaterialsandsetsupandmaintainsdatafiles.Heorshe
servesasaliaisontothepeoplewhohaveaccesstoandwillusethefileinformation.
SimulationExercises
Thespecificexercisesthataparticipantgoesthroughinanassessmentcenterprogrammayvarydependinguponhisorherlevelintheorganization.Somegeneral
typesofexercises,however,areusedinmanycenters.Afewofthemorefrequentlyusedsimulationideasaredescribedhere.Exercisesusuallyincludeaspecified
amountoftimeformaterialsreview,followedbyinteractionwithoneormoreroleplayersinameeting,presentation,orinterviewformat.It'sduringthisinteraction
phaseofeachexercisethattheparticipantisobservedbyatrainedassessor.Followingaresomeofthetypicalexercises:
Individualproblemanalysisexerciseandinterview.Inthisexerciseeachparticipantisrequiredtoanalyzeaconsiderableamountofdatainvolvingseveral
alternativesolutionstoaproblem.
Employeediscussionexercise.Thisexerciseisprimarilyaoneononeinteractioninwhichtheparticipantisaskedtoanalyzeperformanceinformationabouta
subordinateandthenmeetwiththeemployeeforanoraldiscussion.
Inbasketexerciseandinterview.Thisisanindividualexerciseinwhichtheparticipantassumestheroleofasupervisorormanagerandmustprocessalarge
numberofmemosandlettersstackedinaninbasket.
Taskdirectionexercise.Inthistypeofexercise,participantsarerequiredtoassumetheroleofasupervisorormanagerwhohasjustbeengivenataskinvolvingthe
sortingandassimilationoflargeamountsofdatawiththeassistanceofsubordinatesorpeers.
Leaderlessgroupdiscussion(LGD).Thisisanactivityinwhichparticipantsinteractwithoneanothertocompleteagrouptask.Thereisnoformalleader.Infact,
norolesareassignedtotheparticipants.
TypesofSkillsEvaluated
Tounderstandtheentireassessmentcenterprocessbetter,informationregardingtheskillareastypicallyevaluatedisalsoessential.Asstatedearlier,avarietyof
simulationexercisescanbeusedinanassessmentcenter,andavarietyofskillscanbeevaluated.Approximatelyeighttotwelveskillsareevaluatedinanassessment
centerprogram.Thefollowingskillsareonesthatarefrequentlyevaluatedinsupervisoryandmanagerialassessmentcenters:
Organizationandplanning.Organizationandplanningareneededtostructureone'sownactivitiesaswellastheactivitiesofothersinordertoprovideforeffective
taskperformanceandcoordinatedefforts.

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Decisionmaking.Decisionmakingisrequiredtomakesoundandlogicaldecisionsandchooseappropriatecoursesofactionbasedonanunderstandingofthe
evidenceathand.(Thefocusisonthequalityofdecisions.)
Leadership.Leadershipisnecessarytoprovidedirectionandguidancetotheactivitiesofotherstoachieveresultsthroughdelegation,control,andfollowup
procedurestouseavailablehumanresourcesinachievingtasksolutions.
Perception.Perceptionisneededtoidentifythekeyelementsofasituation,theirimportance,andtheirrelationshiptooneanothertorecognizestrengthsand
weaknessesofindividuals,aswellasdifferencesamongindividuals.
Adaptability.Adaptabilityisnecessarytocopewithchanging2situationstomaintainconstructivetaskperformanceandtomodifyplansandactionsinlightof
changing2circumstances.
Decisiveness.Decisivenessisrequiredtotakeactionandmakedecisionswhenrequiredtoexhibitawillingnesstodefendactionsanddecisions.(Thefocusison
thequantityofdecisions.)
Interpersonalrelations.Goodinterpersonalrelationsareneededtorespondsensitivelytotheneedsandfeelingsofothers,regardlessoftheirstatus.
Oralcommunication.Oralcommunicationskillsarenecessarytoexpressoneselfclearlythroughoralmeanstousegrammar,vocabulary,eyecontact,andvoice
inflectionproperly.
Writtencommunication.Writtencommunicationskillsareneededtoexpressoneselfclearlyandeffectivelythroughwrittenmeanstousegrammarandvocabulary
properly.
Validity,Legality,andUtility
Thesoundnessofanyevaluationtooldependsuponitsvalidity,legality,andutility.Thissectionfocusesonthetrackrecordoftheassessmentcentermethod.
KeyTerms
Beforeproceeding,itisimportanttodefinebrieflysomekeyterms:
Validity.
Thevalidityofanevaluationtoolisthedegreetowhichitachievesitspurpose.Becauseanevaluationtoolmayhaveseveralpurposes,itisimperativethatasound
basisforestablishingvalidityexistforeachspecificpurpose.Ajobanalysisisthecriticalfirststepinestablishingabasisforvalidity.
Althoughthereareseveraltypesofvalidity,eachofwhichcanbeusedtosupporttheapplicationofagivenevaluationtool,twomajortypesareparticularlyrelevantto
assessmentcentersprograms:
Criterionorientedvalidity.Acorrelationiscomputedtoindicatethedegreeofrelationshipbetweenscoresontheevaluationtoolandperformanceonthefocaljob.
Contentvalidity.Ajudgmentismadeontheextenttowhichthecontentofthejobisrepresentedbythecontentoftheevaluationtool.
DisparateImpact.
Disparateimpactreferstoasituationinwhichanevaluationtoolresultsinadisproportionatelylowratioofapplicantsselectedwithinasubgroup(forexample,blacks
orfemales)comparedwiththesubgroupwiththehighestselectionratio.Severaldifferentmethodsoperationallydefinedisparateimpactoneisthefourfifthsrule.For
example,considerthissituation.Thereare300applicantsforagivenposition100areblackand200arewhite.If20oftheblacksand100ofthewhitesare
selected,theratioofblacksselectedtothetotalnumberofblackapplicantsis20/100,or0.20.Incontrast,theratioofwhitesselectedtothetotalnumberofwhite
applicantsis100/200,or0.50.Accordingtothefourfifthsrule,theratioofblacksselectedoverthetotalnumberofblackapplicantswouldhavetobefourfifthsof
thecorrespondingratioforwhitefordisparateimpactnottoexist.Inthiscase,theblackratioof0.20islessthanfourfifthsofthewhiteratioof0.50,andthus
disparateimpactwouldexist.
UniformGuidelines.
TheUniformGuidelinesareasetofguidelinesdevelopedbythefederalgovernment(43FederalRegulation39290,December30,1977)toencourageorganizations
toenhancethefairnessofemploymentpractices.Courtstreattheseguidelineswithaconsiderableamountofrespect,butrecentcourtrulingshavedeviatedfroma

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strictinterpretationofthem.Elaborationoftheguidelinesisprovidedintwoquestionandanswerdocuments(44FederalRegulation11996,March2,1970and45
FederalRegulation25930,May2,1980).Mostrecently,theCivilRightsActof1991waspassed.ThislegislationoverturnssevendecisionsbytheUnitedStates
SupremeCourtincludingsomedisparateimpactcases.TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964isalsoamendedtoallowforcompensatoryandpunitivedamagesas
wellasjurytrialsincasesofintentionaldiscrimination.However,therehasbeennochangeinthejustificationforatestorhiringprocedurerestingonitsbeinga
''businessnecessity"sothatagoodtestisstillalegitimatehiringtoolandshouldbeused.Assessmentcentertechnologyhasalwaysbeenworkrelatedandlegally
defensible.
Utility.
Utilityreferstotheoverallusefulnessofaselectionprocedureandtakesintoconsiderationvariouscostandbenefitsparametersaswell,suchasthecostofthe
selectioninstruments,thecostsoftrainingafterhire,andthebenefitsofhavinglessturnover.
CriterionOrientedValidityStudies
ThefirstcarefullyconductedcriterionorientedvaliditystudyintheassessmentcenterareawastheworkinitiatedbyAT&Tin1956.TheManagementProgress
Study,asitwasreferredto,showedahighrelationshipbetweenassessmentcenterratingsandpromotion.27InanotherAT&Tstudy,assessmentcenterratingswere
predictiveofadvancementbeyondfirstlevelmanagement.28
Otherstudieshavesupportedthecriterionorientedvalidityoftheassessmentcenterprocess.TheseincludeeffortscarriedoutbyIBM,29StandardOilofOhio,30
andotherorganizations.31Arecentmetaanalysisdocumentedsignificantcriterionorientedvalidityfortheassessmentcenterprocessacross107validity
coefficients.32Overall,theassessmentcenterprocessappearstohaveconsiderablecriterionorientedvalidity.
EqualEmploymentOpportunityConcerns
Ofconsiderableimportancewhenexaminingthevalidityofanevaluationtoolishowsubgroupsinthepopulationperformonit.Assessmentcentershavebeenstudied
intermsofminoritygroupperformance,gender,andage.
Withrespecttominoritygroupperformance,somedifferenceshavebeenfound,buttheyhavetendedtobenegligible.33Forthemostpart,womenhaveperformedat
leastaswellasmen.34Infact,researchsuggeststhatassessmentcentervaliditiesarehigherwhenthereisagreaterpercentageofwomenassessees.35Theaverage
ageofassesseeshasbeenshowntohavenoeffectonassessmentcentervalidity.36Ingeneral,theprocessseemstoresultinbasicallysimilarscoresforvariousgroups
inthepopulation.
Anotherissueorganizationshavetofaceisthefairassessmentofdisabledindividuals.Section1630.11oftheAmericanswithDisabilitiesActof1990(ADA)
addressestheadministrationofpreemploymenttestingwithregardtoreasonableaccommodations.Essentially,theADAstatesthatpreemploymenttestsmustbeable
tobeadministeredtodisabledindividualsorbeshowntobeanaccuratesimulationoftherequirementsofthejob.Theactaddressesseveraltypesofdisabilities
includingphysicalandlearningdisabilities.Thevideosimulationtechniquesdiscussedearliermaybeoneofthebestwaystoassessimpairedapplicantsduetothe
visualandauditorypresentationofjobactivities.Thedecreasedemphasisonreadingabilitybyvideosimulationtechniquesalsohelpstoaddresstheissueofilliteracy,
whichisalsocoveredbytheADA.
ContentValidity
Contentvalidityreliescloselyonthefindingsofthejobanalysis.Historically,contentvalidityhasnotreadilylentitselftostatisticalanalysis,althoughrecentmodelshave
beendeveloped.TheUniformGuidelinesrecognizecontentvalidityasalegitimatemeansofsupportingthevalidityofanevaluationprocess.Twoarticlesby
professionalsemployedatfederalagenciesthatregulatefairemploymentpracticesendorsedcontentvalidityasabasisforsupportingthevalidityoftheassessment
centermethod.37Courtcaseshavealsosupportedtheuseofassessmentcentersonthebasisofcontentvalidity.38
Itappearsthatagreaterreliancewillbeplacedoncontentvalidityintheyearsaheadbecauseoftheinherentdifficultyincarrying

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outcriterionorientedvaliditystudies.(Thereareavarietyofpracticalproblems,includingthefrequentabsenceofacriterionformeasuringonthejobperformance.)

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Whatisofparamountimportanceinestablishingacaseforcontentvalidityistheclosenessinmatchbetweenassessmentcentersimulationsandthedemandsofthe
job.
Legality
Ingeneral,assessmentcentershavefaredratherwellwhenchallengedinthecourts,39haveshownlessdisparateimpactthantraditionalpaperandpenciltests,40and
havebeeninstitutedtocompensateforpreviousinequities.41Fromthestandpointofvideosimulations,recentdatahaspointedtoalackofdisparateimpact.For
example,Figure152illustratessomedisparateimpactanalysesofdataformorethan5000participantsonavideobasedassessmentprogram.
OtherPertinentFindings
Theweightplacedonanassessmentcenterprogramreallydependsonthejobanditsrequirements.Researchshowsthattheassessmentcenterisabletomeasure
factorsnotgaugedcompletelyoraswellthroughothermethods.42Ithasbeenfoundthatassessmentcentersareequallyeffectiveindifferentcultures,43that
professionalassessors(thatis,psychologists)performbetterthanorganizationalassessors,44andthatgenerallyitisdifficulttocoachpeopleandexpectimmediate
incrementsinassessmentcenterperformance.45
Utility
Whatistheoverallusefulnessoftheassessmentcenterapproachcomparedwithothermethodsofevaluationwhenvariouscostsandbenefitsareconsidered?Studies
haveansweredthisquestion,andtheresultsspeakwellfortheassessmentcenterprocess.46Particularlyimpressiveistheutilityofvideobasedassessment.
Whenviewedasacomposite,theavailableevidencepertainingtovalidity,legality,andutilityisverysupportiveofthesimulationassessmentprocessingeneral.
UsesofSimulationAssessmentTechniques
Thevalueofsimulationassessmentliesintheinformationitgeneratesregardingthestrengthsandweaknessesoftheparticipants.Iftheinformationisjobrelatedandis
accurate,theassessmenttechniquecanbeusedforselection,development,workforceplanning,andcareercounseling.Iftheinformationisnotjobrelated,itcannot
beusedforanyofthosepurposes.Thissectiondescribesavarietyofusesforsimulationassessmentinformationsomeoftheseusescanbesatisfiedwiththesame
technique.Inaddition,assessmentcentermethodologyhasbeenusedasapartofperformanceappraisaltrainingandinterviewertrainingthisisdiscussedbrieflyas
well.
Selection
Employment.
Aparticularapplicationofsimulationassessmentisitsusefortheselectionofpeopletobeemployedinparticularpositions.Themajordifferencebetweenthisand
otherusesoftheprocessliesinitsapplicationtopeoplecurrentlyoutsidetheorganization.Suchasituationtypicallydemandslessfeedbacktotheparticipantsabout
theirperformance.Theadvantageofthisuseoftheprocess,beyondmoreaccurateselection,isthefavorableimpressionthetechnologyoftencreatesamong
candidates.
Placement.
Thewordplacementinthepresentcontextreferstoabestfitdecision(placinganindividualinthepositionforwhichheorsheisbestsuited)ratherthanan
employmentorpromotiondecision.Inmanyways,itisasimilarbutmorelimiteduseofthecareercounselingapplicationofsimulationassessmenttechniques.For
example,anengineerconsideringatechnicalcareer,amanagerialcareer,orperhapsasalesengineeringcareermightgatherhelpfulinformationfromparticipationinan
assessmentcenter.Simulationassessmenttechniquescanprovidepeoplewithinformationnotonlyaboutdevelopmentalassignmentpossibilitiesbutalsoaboutawide
rangeofotheravailableoptions,aswellasinformationfortheorganizationtoconsider.
EarlyIdentification.
Themajoruseofsimulationassessmenttechniquesforearlyidenti

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Figure152.
DisparateimpactanalysesfortheAccuVisionSMSSystem.Allanalysesindicatethatallgroupsarepassingataratethatiswithin80percentofthe
highestgroup'spassingrate.Thiscomplieswiththefourfifths(80percent)ruleoftheFederalUniformGuidelinesandshowsthatAccuVisionhasno
disparateimpactonanyofthesegroups.(Note:Datarepresentthescoresofmorethan5,000participants.)

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ficationisforevaluatingpeoplewhohavebeenwiththecompanyonlyabrieftime.Inmanycases,theseindividualstendtobeyoung.Anassessmenttechnique
designedforearlyidentificationmightattempttodeterminethemanagerialpotentialofagroupofrelativelyrecentcollegehiresandtoprovidedevelopmentalactivities,
andpossiblycareercounseling,fortheemployees.Oftenthereisagreatsimilaritybetweenanassessmenttechniqueusedtohelpinplacementdecisionsandone
establishedforearlyidentificationoftalent.Themajordifferenceliesinthepopulationparticipatingintheassessmentprocess.
Promotion
Themostcommonusesforthesimulationassessmenttechniqueshavebeenintheareaofpromotion.Theearliestassessmentcentersweredevelopedtoevaluate
hourlyemployeesforpromotiontosupervisorypositionsthishascontinuedtobeamajoruseoftheprocess.Infact,foranyhighlevelpositionwithjobdutiesand
responsibilitiesthatdifferfromthoseatthelowerlevel,simulationassessmenttechniquesprovideameasureofanindividual'spotentialforthehigherlevelposition.
EmployeeDevelopment
Individual.
Adevelopmentsimulationassessmenttechniqueprovidesanonthreateninglearningenvironment.Theassessmentprovidesanemployeewithaccurateinformation
regardingstrengthsandweaknessesinseveraljoblikesituations.Usingsimulationassessmenttechniquesfordevelopmenthasgrownsignificantlyoverthepastfew
yearsasorganizationshavereorganized.Downsizinghasmeantadecreaseinthenumberofnewhiresanorganizationneedstoassess,withtheresultthatupto50
percentofmanagerialsimulationassessmenttechniquesarebeingusedfordevelopment.
Followingassessment,theorganizationmayimplementdevelopmentprogramsdesignedtoimprovetheemployee'scompetencyindeficientareas.Theprogrammay
consistofanycombinationofformalclassroomtraining,externalorinhouseworkshopsandseminars,individualselfdevelopmentactivities(suchasspecialreadings
orworkbookassignments),jobrotation,jobenrichment,orspecialjobassignments.Thedevelopmentplancanbetailoredtomeettheindividualemployee'sneeds
andtoimprovecompetencyinskillsrequiredforeffectiveperformance.Becausethedevelopmentprogramisdesignedtofittheindividual'sspecificneeds,training
activitiesareneitheroverlysimplenortoocomplex.Thiseliminatestheunsatisfactoryresultsobtainedfromroutinelyadministeringprepackageddevelopmental
programstoalargegroupofemployeesslatedforgeneraldevelopmentandpromotion.Inotherwords,thetrainingcanbemadespecifictothediagnosed
deficiencies.
Individualizeddevelopment,whilepotentiallymorecostlyandtimeconsuming,canresultinmoreefficientemployeedevelopmentandamoreeffectiveexpenditureof
companyresources.Theemployeebenefitsthroughhisorherownpersonaldevelopmenttheorganizationbenefitsbynotusingredundantorotherwiseinappropriate
trainingprograms.
CareerPlanning.
Simulationassessmenttechniquesprovideahighlyaccurateestimateofmanagerialpotentialandgeneratesvaluabledataforuseincareercounseling.Theorganization
cannotonlybettermanagethedirectionandrateofjobprogressionforanemployeebutalsooptimallymatchthistotheperson'sassessedabilities.Highpotential
employeescanbeengagedinchallengingfasttrackdevelopmentactivities,whilelowpotentialemployeescanbemovedlaterallyintopositionsthatwouldbenefitfrom
theirstrongabilitiesorwouldprovideenrichedjobopportunitiestodeveloptheirdeficientskills.Inadditiontodevelopingskills,theemployeeformsrealisticjob
expectationsofupperlevelmanagementpositions.
Thisinformation,inconjunctionwithfeedbackonskills,allowstheparticipanttomakeaninformeddecisionaboutcareerplansandworkgoals.Theemployeemay
decidethathisorherabilitiesaren'tsuitedforacareerinaparticularfieldorthataspecificpositionisnotconsistentwithpersonalgoalsandambitions.Inanycase,
theemployeehastheopportunitytoselectacareerpaththatwillbepersonallyrewardingandwillutilizehisorheruniqueskillsandabilities.
AssessorTraining.
Amajordevelopmentbenefitoftheassessmentcentermethodisthe

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Page217

assessortrainingprocess.Practitionershavelongacknowledgedthattraininghelpsassessorsbecomemoreastuteinbehavioralobservationandproblemsolving.
Duringassessortraining,managersaretaughttoobserveanddocumentbehaviorsandthentocategorizethesebehaviorsintoappropriateskills.Theylearnhowto
evaluateaparticipant'sperformancesotheycanmakebehaviorbasedratherthanpurelysubjectivejudgments.Managersarealsotrainedininterviewingtechniques
andinprovidingperformancefeedbacktoparticipants.Thesevitalaspectsoftheassessmentcentermethodobservation,analysis,andevaluationareintegrated
intothedailyworkactivitiesofthemanager.Themanagerbecomesbetterabletoprovidefeedbackandtocompileaccurateperformanceappraisals.Repeated
experiencewithparticipantsinvarioussituationexercisesleadstostrongerskillsinsimilarareasonthejob.
EmployeeMorale.
Amoreperipheraldevelopmentadvantageofsimulationassessmentconcernsitseffectonemployeemorale.Althoughnoempiricalresearchhasbeenperformed
specificallytoevaluatethiseffect,participationinadevelopmentsimulationassessmenttechniquetendstoincreaseemployeemoralebecauseitshowsthatthe
organizationiswillingtoexpendagreatdealoftimeandresourcesinsupportoftheemployee'sdesireforselfimprovement.
FacilitatingAttitudeChange.
Simulationassessmenttechniquesmayalsoservetoaltertheattitudesofanorganization'smanagementpersonneltowardhumanresourcesdevelopment.Themethod
exposesmanagementtoarelativelynewandunconventionalpersonnelstrategy,theeffectivenessandempiricalmeritofwhicharereadilyapparent.Participants
becomesensitivetotheirownshortcomingsandmoreopentodevelopmentideasandtraining.Assuch,thesimulationassessmentmethodassistsinloosening
traditionalandoftenfixedattitudesthathavebeenresistanttochange.
OrganizationDevelopment.
Simulationassessmenttechniqueshavebeensuccessfullyintegratedwithorganizationdevelopment.Aspartofanorganizationdevelopmentprogram,simulation
assessmentcanbeeffectivelyusedtoevaluateorganizationstrengthsandweaknessesonthelevelofaspecificposition,division,ordepartment.Assessmentdataare
summarizedforalargenumberofemployeestoidentifycommonareasofneed.Theseareasareevaluatedandprioritizedtodeterminewhichrequireimmediate
attention.Thisinformationisthenconsideredwhenallocatingtraininganddevelopmentfunds.Moreefficientuseofresourcesisachievedbydesigningorganization
trainingprogramstoaddressthespecificneedsofajoblevel,position,ordivision.Infact,atallphasesofimplementingasimulationassessmenttechnique,information
isintegratedandsharedbypeopleatmanydifferentlevelsandwithmanydifferentfunctionsintheorganization.Thisbroadeningofperspectiveisakeyfeatureofan
organizationdevelopmentintervention.
EvaluatingtheEffectivenessofTrainingandDevelopmentPrograms
Aninterestingandinnovativeapplicationofsimulationassessmenttechniquesinvolvestheiruseasameasureofeffectivenessfortraininganddevelopmentprograms.
Thiscanbeaccomplishedthroughaprepostdesign,whereanemployeeisassessedpriortoparticipationinadevelopmentprogramandthenreassessedimmediately
aftercompletingtheprogram.Employeesareevaluatedtodeterminethedegreetowhichtheyhaveimprovedtheirskills.Alackofimprovementindicatesthatthe
developmentprogramwasnoteffective.Theorganizationcanthendeterminewhataspectsoftheprogramrequirerevisionordeletiontoenableittoaccomplishits
goals.
InterviewingSkillsDevelopmentandPerformanceAppraisal
Anotherbenefitoftheassessmentcenterprogramisthatthemethodologymaybeappliedtoothersystemswithinanorganization.Anexcellentexampleofthiswas
discussedearlierasabenefitofassessortraining,whichcanbecreativelyappliedtoteachingmanagerstoconducteffectiveperformanceappraisals.Similarly,training
inobservationanddocumentationofbehaviorhasbeenappliedtoteachinginterviewerstogetthemost

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outofinterviewsbyusingminisimulationsasasourceofmoreinformation.

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CareerCounselingforSelfDevelopment
Simulationassessmenttechniqueshavealsobeenemployedinavarietyofeducationsettingswheretheyhavebeengearedtowardselfdevelopmentandcareer
counseling.Thisapplicationofthesimulationassessmentmethodhasspreadoverthepastfewyearsasorganizationshavefocusedonthedevelopmentofemployees
atalllevelsintheorganization.
Summary
Simulationassessmentmethodologyhasasuccessfulhistoryinassessmentcenters.Itsstrengthscomefromasetofprinciplesthatarelogically,aswellasempirically,
derived.Since1958hundredsoforganizationshaveutilizedthetechnologyinavarietyofways.Researchstudies,theInternationalCongressofAssessmentCenter
Practitioners,andbooksandarticleswrittenaboutthesubjectattesttoitsacceptanceasanimportanttoolinthefieldofhumanresourcesdevelopment.
Thenextgenerationofsimulationassessmenttechniques,utilizingthelatestvideoandcomputertechnologies,willexpandtheapplicationofsimulationassessmentto
additionalpositionsandlevelswithinorganizations.Thebenefitsofvideobasedassessmenttechnologythathasjobrelevancy,highaccuracy,andiscosteffective
offeracompellingalternativetotraditionalsimulationassessmentinstruments.Theapplicationoftheselatestvideoandcomputersimulationassessmenttechniqueswill
resultinfairer,moreaccurate,andlessexpensiveselectionanddevelopmentproceduresforallemployees,regardlessoftheirlevelintheorganization.
Notes
1.B.B.Gaugler,D.B.Rosenthal,G.C.ThorntonIII,andC.Bentson,"MetaAnalysisofAssessmentCenterValidity,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.72
(1987),pp.493511N.Schmitt,R.Z.Gooding,R.A.Noe,andM.Kirsch,"MetaAnalysesofValidityStudiesPublishedbetween1964and1982andthe
InvestigationofStudyCharacteristics,"PersonnelPsychology,Vol.37(1984),pp.407422.
2.F.D.Frank,D.W.Bracken,andM.S.Struth,"BeyondAssessmentCenters,"Training&DevelopmentJournal,March1988.
3.G.M.McEvoyandW.F.Cascio,"StrategiesforReducingEmployeeTurnover:AMetaAnalysis,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.70(1985),pp.342
353S.L.PremackandJ.P.Wanous,"AMetaAnalysisofRealisticJobPreviewExperiments,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.70(1985),pp.706719.
4.C.L.Jaffee,"NewTechnologyandEmploymentTestingforthe'90s,"HumanCapital,November1990,pp.5657.
5.AccuVision.PublishedbyElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.(1989).
6.Ibid.
7.C.L.Jaffee,F.D.Frank,M.R.Struth,andC.L.Jaffee,Jr.,TheArtofManaging(Reading:AddisonWesley,1991).
8.UnpublishedAccuVisionvalidationreports.ElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.(19891991)S.J.Motowidlo,M.D.Dunette,andG.W.Carter,"An
AlternativeSelectionProcedure:TheLowFidelitySimulation,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.75(1990),640647.
9.C.L.JaffeeandJ.M.Bogumil,"TheSecretaryoftheFutureandtheTestsNecessarytoSelectHim/Her"(PaperpresentedattheConferenceofCollegiate
SecretariesInternationalandFutureSecretariesAssociation,1991.)
10.Unpublishedresearchstudy.ElectronicSelectionSystemsCorp.(1991).
11.R.R.Reilly,S.Henry,andJ.W.Smither,"AnExaminationoftheEffectsofUsingBehaviorChecklistsontheConstructValidityofAssessmentCenter
Dimensions,"PersonnelPsychology,Vol.43(1990),pp.7184J.C.Rehmann,ComparisonoftheNarrativeversustheChecklistAssessmentCenter
ExerciseReportForms.Unpublishedmaster'sthesis,UniversityofCentralFlorida,Orlando,1986.
12.D.J.Gray,ComparisonoftheSituationalChecklistversustheSkillChecklistAssessmentCenterExerciseReportForms.Unpublishedmaster'sthesis,
UniversityofCentralFlorida,Orlando,1986.
13.P.J.Gilbert,"AnInvestigationofClinicalandMechanicalCombinationofAssessmentCenterData,"JournalofAssessmentCenterTechnology,Vol.4,No.2
(1981),pp.110.
14.B.B.Gaugler,D.B.Rosenthal,G.C.ThorntonIII,andC.Bentson,"MetaAnalysisofAssessmentCenterValidity,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.72
(1987),pp.493511.
15.OfficeofStrategicServices,OSSAssessmentStaff,AssessmentofMen(NewYork:Rinehart,1948).
16.C.L.Jaffee,"ManagerialAssessment:ProfessionalorManagerialPrerogative?"PersonnelJournal,Vol.45(1966),pp.162163C.L.Jaffee,"ThePartial
ValidationofaLeaderlessGroupDiscussionfortheSelectionofSupervisoryPersonnel,"OccupationalPsychology,Vol.41(1967),pp.245248H.H.Meyer,
"TheG.E.PlantManagerInBasketTest"(PaperpresentedatthemeetingsoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,SanFrancisco,September1968)D.W.

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BrayandR.J.Campbell,"SelectionofSalesmenbyMeansofanAssessmentCenter,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.52(1968),pp.3641.

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17.Atleastfederalagenciesinvolvedinregulatingfairemploymentpractices,suchastheOfficeofPersonnelManagement(formerlytheCivilServiceCommission)
andtheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,usedtheconceptthemselvesforinternalpurposes.
18.J.M.Bender,"Whatis'Typical'ofAssessmentCenters?"Personnel,Vol.50,No.4(1973),pp.5057C.L.Jaffee,F.D.Frank,andJ.B.Rolling,
"AssessmentCenters:TheNewMethodforSelectingManagers,"HumanResourceManagement,Vol.15,No.2(1976),pp.511.
19.T.C.Parker,"AssessmentCenters:AStatisticalStudy,"PersonnelAdministrator,Vol.25,No.2(1980),pp.6567.
20."StandardsandEthicalConsiderationsforAssessmentCenterOperations,"JournalofAssessmentCenterTechnology,Vol.2(1979),pp.1923.
21.F.Frank,M.Struth,andJ.Donovan,"PractitionerCertification:TheTimeHasCome,"TrainingandDevelopmentJournal,Vol.33,No.9(September1979),
pp.8083L.CohenandH.H.Meyer,"TowardaMoreComprehensiveCareerPlanningProgram,"PersonnelJournal,Vol.2,No.3(1979),pp.15G.
HollenbeckandC.L.Jaffee,"AssessmentofSalesPotential"(SymposiumattheSixthInternationalCongressontheAssessmentCenterMethod,theGreenbriar,
WestVirginia,April5,1978)A.L.McGheeandM.E.Deen,''UtilizingtheAssessmentCentertoSelectPoliceOfficersfortheOcala,Florida,Department,"The
PoliceChief(August1979).
22."GuidelinesandEthicalConsiderationsforAssessmentCenterOperations,"PublicPersonnelManagement,Vol.18,No.4(1989),pp.457470.
23.See"GuidelinesandEthicalConsiderationsforAssessmentCenterOperations."
24.W.E.Dodd,"AttitudestowardAssessmentCenterPrograms,"inApplyingtheAssessmentCenterMethod,eds.J.L.MosesandW.C.Byham(NewYork:
PergamonPress,1977).
25.D.J.Nirtaut,"AssessmentCenters:AnExaminationoftheProcess,ParticipantReaction,andAdverseEffects,"JournalofAssessmentCenterTechnology,
Vol.1,No.2(1978),pp.1722.
26.L.W.Slivinski,ReactionstoanAssessmentCenter,PublicServiceCommissionofCanada,ManagerialAssessmentandResearchDivision,Personnel
PsychologyCenter,Ottawa(CAPAC28),1977.
27.D.W.BrayandD.L.Grant,"TheAssessmentCenterintheMeasurementofPotentialforBusinessManagement,"PsychologicalMonographs,Vol.80,No.27
(1966),pp.127.
28.J.L.Moses,"AssessmentCenterPerformanceandManagementProgress,"StudiesinPersonnelPsychology,Vol.26(1973),pp.569580.
29.H.B.WollowickandW.J.McNamara,"RelationshipsoftheComponentsofanAssessmentCentertoManagementSuccess,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,
Vol.53(1969),pp.348352A.I.KrautandG.J.Scott,"ValidationofanOperationalManagementAssessmentProgram,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.
56(1972),pp.124129.
30.R.M.Finley,Jr.,"AnEvaluationofBehaviorPredicationsfromProjectiveTestsGiveninaManagementAssessmentCenter"(Paperpresentedatthe78th
AnnualConventionoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,MiamiBeach,1970).
31.B.J.Bentz,"ValidityofSears'AssessmentCenterProcedures,"inValidityofAssessmentCenters,W.C.Byham(Chairman)(Symposiumpresentedatthe
70thAnnualConventionoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Washington,D.C.,1971)H.H.Meyer,"TheValidityoftheInBasketTestasaMeasureof
ManagerialPerformance,"PersonnelPsychology,Vol.23,No.3(1970),297307.
32.B.B.Gaugler,D.B.Rosenthal,G.C.ThorntonIII,andC.Bentson."MetaAnalysisofAssessmentCenterValidity,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.72
(1987),pp.493511.
33.C.L.Jaffee,S.L.Cohen,andR.Cherry,"SupervisorySelectionProgramforDisadvantagedorMinorityEmployees,"TrainingandDevelopmentJournal,
Vol.26,No.1(1972),pp.2228J.R.HuckandD.W.Bray,"ManagementAssessmentCenterEvaluationsandSubsequentJobPerformanceofWhiteandBlack
Females,"PersonnelPsychology,Vol.29No.1(1976),pp.1330.
34.F.FrankandJ.Drucker,"TheInfluenceofEvaluatedSexandEvaluationsofaResponseonaManagerialSelectionInstrument,"SexRoles:AJournalof
Research(1977),pp.3133R.P.Bourgeois,"SexandLinguisticDifferencesinaHighLevelAssessmentCenter"(PaperpresentedtotheInternationalCongress
ontheAssessmentCenterMethod,Toronto,June1980)H.L.Hall,"AnEvaluationoftheUpwardMobilityProgramAssessmentCenterfortheBureauof
EngravingandPrinting(TM766),"Washington,D.C.U.S.CivilServiceCommission,July1976(NTIS#PB262521)J.L.MosesandV.R.Boehm,
"RelationshipsofAssessmentCenterPerformancetoManagementProcessofWomen,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.60,No.4(1976),pp.527529.
35.B.B.Gaugler,D.B.Rosenthal,G.C.ThorntonIII,andC.Bentson."MetaAnalysisofAssessmentCenterValidity,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.72
(1987),pp.493511.
36.Ibid.
37.W.A.Gorham,"FederalExecutiveAgencyGuidelinesandTheirImpactontheAssessmentCenterMethod,"JournalofAssessmentCenterTechnology,Vol.
1,No.1(1978),pp.28J.O.Taylor,"TheEEOCGuidelinesonContentValidityandTheirApplicationtotheAssessmentCenterMethod,"Journalof
AssessmentCenterTechnology,Vol.1,No.1(1978),pp.912.
38.Firefighter'sInstituteforRacialEqualityv.CityofSt.Louis,21FEPCases1140(CA85h,1980)Berryvs.CityofOmahaD.C.,DouglasCounty,
Nebraska,November17,1975.
39.W.A.BurroughsandD.Cook,Jr.,"CourtRulesinAssessmentCenterCase,"TheIndustrialOr

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ganizationalPsychologist,Vol.27,No.3(1990),pp.5761Friendv.Leidinger,588F.2d61(4thCir.,1978).

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40.Friendv.Leidinger.
41.TheRichmondBlackPoliceOfficersAssociationetal.v.TheCityofRichmondetal.,CivilActionNo.740267,U.S.DistrictCourtfortheEasternDistrict
ofVirginia(RichmondDivision),September22,1975Chancev.BoardofExaminers,U.S.CourtofAppeals,SecondCircuit(NewYork),June1,1972Equal
EmploymentOpportunityCommission,JamesD.Hodgson,SecretaryofLabor,U.S.DepartmentofLabor,andU.S.ofAmericav.AT&TandBell
Companies,CivilActionNo.73149,January18,1973.
42.W.C.Byham,"AssessmentCentersforSpottingFutureMangers,"HarvardBusinessReview,Vol.48,No.4(1970),pp.150160,appendixJ.O.Mitchel,
"AssessmentCenterValidity:ALongitudinalStudy,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.60(1975),pp.573580G.M.Worbois,"ValidationofExternally
DevelopedAssessmentProceduresforIdentificationofSupervisoryPotential,''PersonnelPsychology,Vol.28(1975),pp.7791.
43.Worbois,"ValidationofExternallyDevelopedAssessmentProcedures."
44.B.B.Gaugler,D.B.Rosenthal,G.C.ThorntonIII,andC.Bentson."MetaAnalysisofAssessmentCenterValidity,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.72
(1987),pp.493511.
45.M.R.Struth,F.D.Frank,andA.Amato,"EffectsofAssessorTrainingonSubsequentPerformanceasanAssessee,"JournalofAssessmentCenter
Technology,Vol.2(1980),pp.1722C.L.JaffeeandC.Michaels,"IsInBasketPerformanceSubjecttoCoachingEffects?"JournalofAssessmentCenter
Technology,Vol.1,No.1(1978),pp.1317D.L.DenningandD.Grant,"KnowledgeoftheAssessmentProcess:DoesItInfluenceCandidateRatings?"Journal
ofAssessmentCenterTechnology,Vol.2,No.2(1979),pp.712.
46.S.L.Cohen,"TheBottomLineonAssessmentCenterTechnology,"PersonnelAdministrator,Vol.25,No.2(1980),pp.5056W.CascioandV.Silbey,
"UtilityoftheAssessmentCenterasaSelectionDevice,"JournalofAppliedPsychology,Vol.64(1979),pp.107118M.D.McCrimmon,"StrategiestoIncrease
theCostEffectivenessoftheAssessmentCenterMethod,"JournalofAssessmentCenterTechnology,Vol.1,No.2(1978),pp.1216.

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Chapter16
TheHRDProfessionalStaff
DavidW.Brinkerhoff
DavidW.BrinkerhoffisPresidentofAbbottSmithAssociates,Inc.,anexecutivesearchfirmbasedinMillbrook,NewYork.PriortojoiningAbbottSmith,hewasAssistantDean
atPurdueUniversity,FortWayne,Indiana,andresponsiblefortheContinuingEducation/CorporateConsultingprogramsthroughwhichhedesignedprogramsforInternational
Harvester,Magnavox,GeneralElectric,andothers.HehasbeenregionIVicePresidentandPresidentoftheNewYorkMetropolitanandFortWaynechaptersoftheAmerican
SocietyforTrainingandDevelopment.HeisalsoactiveintheOrganizationDevelopmentNetwork,HumanResourcePlanningSociety,SocietyforHumanResourceManagement,
andtheAcademyofManagement.Mr.BrinkerhoffreceivedhisB.A.andM.S.degreesfromPurdueUniversityandhasdonestudiestowardhisPh.D.inHumanResources
ManagementatPurdueUniversityandNewYorkUniversity.Inaddition,heteachesatthegraduatelevelattheNewYorkInstituteofTechnology.

Therearemanywaystodividetheprofessionalhumanresourcesdevelopmentstaffhowever,themostcommonfunctionscanbeplacedintotwelvecategories.Those
categoriesexistatsomecompaniesandnotatothers,butlargecompaniesusuallyhavealltwelve(plusafewmorespecialtyareas).Noneoftheareasismutually
exclusive,andonepersonmayberequiredtowearseveralhats,dependingonthesizeofthecompanyorthesizeofthefunctionwithinagivencompany.
SalesTraining
Salestrainingtakesmanyformsandissometimescombinedwithmarketingtraining.However,mostofthesophisticatedcompaniesdifferentiatethetwofunctions.
Salestrainingislargelyconcernedwithgettingnewsalespeople"uptospeed"sotheycanbecomeproductiveassoonaspossible.Thenormaltrainingperiodcanvary
fromaslittleashalfadaytoasmuchassixmonths.Thelatterisusuallytrueintechnicallyorientedindustriessuchasthepharmaceuticalfield.
Itistheresponsibilityofthesalestrainingdepartmenttobringthenewsalespeopleaboardwithaminimumofconfusionandcontinuallytoupdatetheskillsofthe
existingsalesforce.Thesalestrainingdepartmentisoneofthemostinterestinginthehumanresourcesarea.Somecompaniesstaffthesalestrainingdepartmentwith
professionaltrainingpeople,whileotherorganizationsusethesalestrainingfunctionasasteptohighersalesmanagement.Inthelattercase,apersonmayspendfrom
ayeartothreeyearsinthisfunctionandwillthenbepromotedbacktoaline

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salesmanagementfunction.Salestrainingcanvarywidelyfromoneononetrainingtosophisticatedmultilocationsatellitetransmittedprograms.Whilesalestrainingin
itsinfancywashighlymotivational,mostoftoday'strainingisbasedonextensiveneedsanalysisandheavyprogramevaluation.

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Qualifications.
Thebackgroundsofsalestrainersvarywidely,asdiscussedabovehowever,manyhavecomeupthroughtheranksofthesalesstaff.Thereislittlethatonecandoin
auniversitysettingtogainknowledgeinsalestraining.Thebest,andsomeofthemostprofessional,programsofferedaretheonesthattheNationalSocietyforSales
TrainingExecutiveshasdeveloped.Thissocietylimitsitsmembershipanddevotesitselfonlytothebettermentofthesalestrainingfunction.
TechnicalTraining
Technicaltrainingisprobablyoneofthemostcriticalareasofthehumanresourcesdevelopmentfunction.Unfortunately,manyorganizationsjustassumethat
somethingworks,butfewquestionhoworwhy.Technicaltrainingexistsinaworldofspecialknowledgeofavastassortmentofsimpletoextremelycomplex
technologiesandsubjectmatter.Itmayinvolveteachingundereducatedpeopletobecometypistsorfixtelephonesorteachingawidevarietyofindividualshowto
makechipsforthenewestcomputers,howtoflyF16planes,howtopilotaspaceship,orhowtooperateanuclearpowergeneratingplant.TheincidentatThree
MileIslandunderscoredtheabsolutenecessityoftechnicaltraining.Thetechnicaltrainerisuniqueinthatheorshemustbetotallyfamiliarwiththesubjectbeingtaught
andanexpertintheappropriateinstructionaltechnologyfortransferringtheneededknowledgetostudents.
Thetechnicaltrainingstaffisoftenthelargestinmostcompanies,especiallythosesuchasutilities,wherethetechnicaltrainingstaffoutnumbersallothertrainingstaffs
byaratioofapproximatelythreetoone.Thearmedforceshaveextensivestaffsoftechnicaltrainersandhaveservedasoneofthelargestsourcesoftrainersforthe
privatesector.
Qualifications.
Adetaileddiscussionoftechnicaltrainingcompetenciesisbeyondthescopeofthischapter.Ingeneral,manytrainersmustbecertifiedintheirfieldbygovernment
regulatoryagenciessuchastheFederalAviationAdministrationortheNuclearRegulatoryCommission.Otherssimplyneedhandsonexperience.However,allmust
havetakenindepthcoursesintheoriesoflearningandadulteducation.TheAmericanSocietyforTrainingandDevelopmentnowhasanannualconferencedevoted
exclusivelytotechnicaltraining.
SupervisoryTraining
Supervisorytrainingisthebasicfunctionofmosttrainingdepartments.Mosthumanresourcesdevelopmentprofessionalsstartedtheircareersdoingsupervisory
programs.Teachingfirstlinesupervisorshowtogetmaximumproductivityoutoftheirpeoplewithaminimumamountofconflictisfundamentaltothesuccessofall
typesoforganizations.Supervisorsmustbetaughtthefundamentalsofplanning,controlling,andsoforth.Oftentheymustalsobetaughthowtooperateunderaunion
contractorhowtomanagewithoutcreatingworkerdemandforunions.Today,supervisorytrainersrunqualityofworklifeprogramsandareresponsibleforquality
circlesimplementation.Whilethematerialusedissometimesbasic,theresultscanleadtoaverysophisticatedlevelofmanagement.
Qualifications.
Someoneworkingintheareaofsupervisorytrainingmusthaveanunderstandingofbasicmanagementtheoriesandapplications.Toooftenitistheapplicationarea
thatisoverlooked.Supervisorytrainerscomefromalldisciplines,butmanyarefromthelineorganization.Thenextstepinthecareerpathofasupervisorytraineristo
themanagementdevelopmentarea.Mostofthoseinvolvedinsupervisorytraininghavesomecollegecourses,andmanyhavebachelor'sandmaster'sdegrees.
Management/ExecutiveDevelopment
Initssimplestform,managementdevelopmentisatwoprongedattackonmanagementinadequacy.Itsfirstobjectiveistoimprove

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Page223

theskillsofmanagersinplaceteachingsupervisorsandmiddleandupperlevelmanagershowtodotheirjobsbetter.Thesecondobjectiveistheeducationand
trainingofmanagerstopreparethemtoassumegreaterresponsibilities.Insomecompaniesthelinesareblurredbetweensupervisorytrainingandmanagement
development.Insomecasesthesizeofthecompanywilldeterminewhodoeswhat.Likewise,executivedevelopmentissometimeshandledbyaseparatestaff.Again,
thesizeofthecompanyusuallydeterminesthestructure.Also,manycompaniesprefertohavetheirexecutivedevelopmenthandledbyoutsideconsultantsorthrough
universityprogramssuchasHarvard'sadvancedmanagementprograms.
Qualifications.
Themanagementdevelopmentstaffusuallycomesfromtheinhouselineorganizationorfromthesupervisorytrainingstaff.Companiesthathavetheirownexecutive
developmentstaffstendtohavemorePh.D.'sinthefunction,anditisnotunusualtohavesomebodyfromauniversityschoolofbusinessdirectingtheexecutive
developmentfunction.
InstructionalSystemsDesign
Itisabsolutelyessentialthatapersonexercisingthehumanresourcesdevelopmentfunctionbegroundedininstructionalsystemsdesign.Suchdesignershavenotonly
abasicknowledgeoflearningtheorybutalsotheabilitytoapplythisknowledgetoallstagesofthedevelopmentalprocess.Thestepsinthesystemareneedsanalysis,
design,development,implementation,andevaluation.Inlargercompaniesoneormorepeoplecanbeassignedtoanyoneofthetaskslisted.Inreality,thesearethe
peoplewhodesigntheprogramsthatamajorityofthetechnicaltrainingstaffsutilize.Insteadofhavingafulltimeinstructionalsystemsdesignstaff,itiscommontouse
outsideprogramdeveloperswhohaveextensiveexperienceinspecifictechnicalareas.
Qualifications.
Alargenumberofinstructionalsystemsdesignershavedoctoratesinthisfieldorinthefieldofadulteducation.Mostofthepeopleinthisfunctionhavetakena
significantnumberofcoursesatuniversitiesorthroughothersources.Also,mostwillbemembersoftheNationalSocietyforPerformanceImprovement.
HumanResourcesPlanning
Oneofthenewestandfastestgrowingareasinthehumanresourcesdevelopmentfieldishumanresourcesplanning.Mostofthepeopleinthisfunctiondetermine
personnelneedsforthefuture,dosuccessionplanninginmanagementfunctions,anddevelophumanresourcesdistribution(staffingtables).Althoughthismaysound
simplistic,itinvolvesaconsiderableamountoflongrangeandstrategicplanning,coupledwiththeextensiveuseofcomputers.Inlargecompaniesitisthisfunctionthat
ismostcriticalintoday'slabormarket.Coupledwiththisistheplanningforfuturedevelopmentprogramsthatareessentialtoachievethecompany'sgoals.
Qualifications.
Mostofthepeopleinthehumanresourcesplanningareahaveabroadbackgroundinmanagementandorganizationdevelopment,plusextensiveexperienceinseveral
organizations.APh.D.isnotuncommon.Largecompaniesviewthisasamostimportantfacetoftotalcorporateplanning.Mostoftheprofessionalsinthisareabelong
totheHumanResourcePlanningSociety,whichoffersseveralexcellentdevelopmentprogramsforpeopleinthisfunction.
CareerDevelopment
Careerdevelopmentisarelativelynewlabelinthehumanresourcesdevelopmentarea.Manycompanieshavepulledtogethervariousfunctionsthatwerepartofthe
personneldepartmentandlinedepartments,andtheynowcomprisethecareerdevelopmentdepartment.Theseprofessionalsworkverycloselywiththehuman
resourcesplanningpeopleinchartingthemanyandvariedwaysinwhichanindividualcangothroughtheranksofacompany.Otherfunctionsofthisgroupinvolve
helpingpeopleincareertransitionspreretirementcounselingand,insomecases,outplacement.Whileveryindividuallyfocused,thecareerdevelopmentspecialist
helpsmanagersassesstheirentireorganizationandhelpsindeterminingwhoisreadytobepromoted.

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Qualifications.

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Again,thebackgroundsofthepeopleinthecareerdevelopmentareaaremanyandvariedhowever,mostwillhaveadegreeinsomeareaofbehavioralscience,
usuallyincounselingorpsychology.Anabilitytocommunicateonaoneononebasisisanecessity,asisfamiliaritywithgroupandindividualdevelopment.
InternalConsultancy
Internalconsultantscanbelocatedinmanyplacesinmanycompanystructures.However,manyorganizationsareestablishinghumanresourcesinternalconsultants.
Thesepeople,usuallyinlargeorganizations,areresponsibleforsolvingtheorganization'sdifficultpersonnelproblems.Theymustbewellversedinallaspectsof
humanresourcesdevelopmentandusuallyalsohaveagoodknowledgeofthetotalpersonnelfield.Insomeinstances,aninternalconsultantwillfocusexclusivelyon
theproblemsofoneoperatingunit,division,orsubsidiary.
Qualifications.
Theinternalconsultantisverysimilartohisorherexternalconsultantcounterpartbutisusuallysomeonewhoprefersthecorporateenvironment.Usuallytheinternal
consultanthashadconsiderableexternalconsultingexperiencepriortojoiningacompany.Also,anM.B.A.oraPh.D.isafrequentprerequisite.Inmanycases,an
internalconsultantwillprogresstoalinepositionintheorganizationwithwhichheorsheisconsulting.
TrainingManagement
"Somepeoplecantrainsomepeoplecanmanagebutveryfewcanmanagethetrainingfunctionwell."Thisquotefromthemanagerofthehumanresources
developmentfunctioninamajorcompanyis,unfortunately,alltootrue.Asisthecasewithanyothermanager,themanagerofthehumanresourcesdevelopment
functionmustbeabletodealwithbudgets,staffing,overalldirectionoftheactivity,andmanyothertypicalmanagerialfunctions.Thisactivitytakesaveryspecial
personwhocandealwithalllevelsofmanagementinexplainingandsellingtheservicesofthehumanresourcesdevelopmentfunctionifnecessary.Withtheadventof
newtechnologiesandhardwareinthehumanresourcesdevelopmentarea,themanagerisunderincreasedpressure,forexample,tobuythelatestprogramortoinstall
themostadvancedvideoequipment.Insomecases,themanagerofthehumanresourcesdevelopmentfunctionisapersonwhoisonamanagerialrotationplanand
takesthepositionforayearortwo.Manybanksandutilitiesselectthiswayofstaffingthefunction.
Qualifications.
Previousmanagerialexperienceisalmostanecessityformanagersofthehumanresourcesdevelopmentfunction.However,familiaritywiththefieldshouldgohandin
handwithlineexperience.Thecurrentlackofgoodhumanresourcesdevelopmentmanagershasescalatedthesalarylevelofthispositioninseveralinstances.An
advanceddegree,ifnotaPh.D.,isadefiniteasset.Manycompanieslooktothefacultiesofschoolsofbusinessasarecruitinggroundfortheirhumanresources
developmentmanagers.
TrainingAdministration
Inmostsituations,atrainingadministrator(oftencalledatrainingcoordinator)isapersonwhoseestoitthattrainingisdonewhenitshouldbe,whereitshouldbe,and
byatrainerwithappropriateskills.Thispersonalsoarrangesschedules,hasaproperlocationready,ensuresthatnecessarymaterialsandequipmentareathand,
properlyinformsattendeesofwhatisexpectedofthem,andhandlesthedozensofotherdetailsthatmustbetakencareofevencoffeebreaks!Oftenthetraining
administratormayhaveheavybudgetresponsibilities,whichcouldevenincluderecruitingqualifiedoutsideconsultantstocomplementinternalcapabilities.Thisposition
isbecomingmoreimportantandmorevisibleascorporationsbuildtheirownmultimilliondollartrainingcenters.Thispersonmustbefamiliarwiththelatestlearning
technologiesaswellasthephysicalaspectsoftrainingcenterdesignandoperation.
Qualifications.
Thetrainingadministratormusthaveaknowledgeoftheentirehumanresourcesdevelopmentfunctionaswellasanabilitytodealwiththemanydetailsthatgointo
planningsuccessfulmeetingsandcon

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ventions.Heorshemustalsobeabletomanageastaffthatvariesinsizefromdaytoday.Previousexperienceinmeetingplanningandmanagementisnecessaryfor
thisposition.

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AudiovisualProduction
Fromasingleslidetoamultimediapresentation,theresponsibilityoftheaudiovisualpersonistoassistintheproductionofasmoothandeffectivelearningexperience.
ThesearetheprofessionalswhohandlethecamerasmanagetheAVequipmentandproducefilms,filmstrips,transparencies,TVpresentations,andaudiotapesfor
salespeople'scars.Inaneraofincreasinglysophisticatedtechnology,theAVperson'sbudgetislargeandincreasingatarapidrate,soheorshemustbeaneffective
manager.
Qualifications.
Theaudiovisualspecialistusuallyhasadegreeineducationalmediabutmayhavebeeninanycreativefield.ProductionstaffersofTVstudios,movieproducers,and
otheralliedpeopleareoftenfoundinthisdepartment.
OrganizationDevelopment
Oneofthefastestgrowingfieldswithinhumanresourcesdevelopment,andonethatsomeconsideradisciplineofitsown,istheorganizationdevelopmentfield.
Specialistsinthisareadealwiththeentireorganizationratherthanjustonepart.Theiroverallcharteristomaketheorganizationfunctionmoreeffectivelythrough
plannedchange.Todothis,totalorganizationsurveysanddiagnosesareoftendone.Thedatafromthesesurveysanddiagnosescanthenbeusedattopmanagerial
levelstopinpointareasthatneedimprovement.Theinterventionusedtoimprovetheorganizationcanvarygreatlyandcanincludetheinvolvementofallaspectsofthe
humanresourcesdevelopmentfunctionaswellastheinvolvementofallofthestafffunctions.Thisisoneofthemostevolvingpartsofthetotalhumanresources
developmentprofession.Manyleadersinthefieldhavespenttimedoingextensiveresearchinthisarea.Manybooksandarticleshavebeenwrittenaboutorganization
development,anditisanintegralpartofmanybusinessschoolcurricula.
Qualifications.
ManyofthepeopleintheorganizationdevelopmentfieldhavePh.D.'s,butallhavehadextensiveexperientiallearning.MostaremembersoftheOrganization
DevelopmentNetwork,theNationalTrainingLabs,ortheHumanResourcePlanningSociety.Mostpeopleinthisrolehavehadcorporateexperience,andsomehave
astrongmanagementdevelopmentbackground.
Summary
Theprofessionalhumanresourcesdevelopmentstaffincludesagreatnumberofindividualspecialtiesthatrequireavarietyofskills,knowledge,andexperience.
Managementandsupervisoryabilities,technicalcompetencies,creativetalents,andhighlyspecializedoccupationalexpertise,aswellasformaleducationuptoand
includingthedoctorate,areallrepresentedinthetwelvebasicfunctionaljobcategories.
WhethertheprofessionalHRDstaffissmallorlarge,whethersomestaffersmustperformseveralfunctionsorareresponsibleforperformingonlyasinglefunction,the
successoftheHRDdepartmentinprovidingtheprogramsandservicesneededbytheorganizationisdirectlydependentuponthequalityofthepeopleassignedtoit.
Topnotchprofessionalsareamust.

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PART5
DIRECTING

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Chapter17
CommunicationwithintheOrganization
LinKroeger
LinKroeger,CMC,isaPrincipalinTheCommunicationLinkCompany,Inc.,amanagementconsultingfirmspecializinginchangemanagement,appliedcommunication,and
customizedtrainingthatprovidesservicestotheFortune500andmidsizeorganizationsinauditsystems,finance,engineering,R&D,andmanufacturing.SheearnedaB.A.atthe
CollegeofWilliamandMary,anM.A.atVillanova.University,andanM.A.atCornellUniversity.Ms.Kroeger'spreviouspositionsincludedteachingsecondary,university,
andgraduatelevelprogramsandanassignmentwithamajorpublicaccountingfirmasatrainer,writer,andconsultant.AregularcontributortoCorporateController,sheisalso
awellknownspeakerforprofessionalgroups.Ms.KroegerisamemberoftheInstituteofManagementConsultantsandtheNewYorkHumanResourcePlanners.

Everyhumanresourcesdepartmentmustcommunicatethroughouttheorganizationandwithinthefunctionitselftoensurethatmanagementandstaffarewellinformed
aboutthewayshumanresourcescanhelpgroupsandindividualsachievetheirbusinessgoals.Inmanyorganizationsoverthepastfewyears,humanresourceshas
evolvedfromhavingminimalperceivedvaluetobeingperceivedascriticaltotheprofitabilityoftheorganization.Ascorporationshavebeenconfrontedbytheneedto
workmoreefficientlywithfewerresources,thevalueofhumanresourceshasincreaseddramatically.Ongoingcommunicationsthathelpfurthertheorganization'sgoals
andhighlighthumanresources'contributiontothosegoalscanhelpcontinuetodrivethischange.
Thehumanresourcesdepartmentsthathavemanagedcommunicationswellhaveharnessedthemediaavailabletothemtoshapehowmanagementandstaffperceive
theirresponsiveness,relevance,andcontribution.Theyhaverecognizedthattheymustensurethateveryoneinthecorporationaccuratelyperceivestheirvaluein
achievingcorporateandpersonalgoals.Theyhavealsorecognizedandactedupontheircustomers'needs,understandingthatmanyoftheircustomersdonotknow
howtousehumanresources,whathumanresourcescandoforthem,andwhattheyneedtoachievetheirbusinessgoals.
Effectivehumanresourcesgroupsunderstandthatcommunicationstechnologydiffersfromthecommunicationprocesstheypackagetheirprocessesofwriting,
speaking,andinteractinginanyformoftechnologythatwillachievetheirendsinacosteffectiveway.Theystructureeachprocesstoensurethecontentisclear,and
theymanagethetechnologytogetthegreatestreturnfortheirtimeand

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investment.Ultimately,humanresourcesmustuseitscommunicationtosendspecific,strategicmessagesandthenusecommunicationstomakethosemessages
effective.
Tocommunicateproductively,humanresourcesgroupsmustdeterminewhat,how,andwhentocommunicate,andtheymustdeterminehowtostructureeach
messagesent.
WhatHumanResourcesCommunicates:TheContent
Effectivehumanresourcesgroupsusecommunicationtodevelopandsupportleadership,helppeoplelearnanddevelop,andenablepeopletocontribute.Therefore,
theyusecommunicationtoolstodescribe,discuss,andhighlighttheorganization'svision,strategies,andtactics.Usingthesetoolsensuresthathumanresourceshelps
guideandunderscoretheconsistencyofmanagement'smessageineveryinternalconsulting,training,andteamprojectwithwhichtheybecomeinvolved.
Forexample,humanresourcesmightbeaskedtoprovideinternalconsultationtoamanagementgroupseekingtochangeitsqualityofcustomerservice.Asinternal
consultants,humanresourcesprofessionalsneedtoguidethemanagementgroupthroughtheappropriateprocesses:gatheringinformation,facilitatingideageneration,
settingprioritiesforthechange,developingadditionalinternalresourcestosupportthechange,andsoon.Humanresourcescanuseeachdiscussion,meeting,relevant
memo,summaryofoutcomes,andpresentationtostresstheneedforleadershipandtodescribeinpracticaltermswhatthatleadershipwilllooklike.Human
resourcescanuseeachcommunicationsmediumtoclarifythegroup'sthinkingandtounderscoretheirvision,strategies,andtacticsinreal,usableways.
Asanexample,ifmanagement'svisionistobetheproducerwiththelowestmaterialscostandthehighestpossibleservicequality,humanresourcesmightuse
flipchartbasedpresentationsindirectcontrasttotheorganization'straditionaluseofslidesandmultimedia.Indoingso,humanresourcescansendamessagethatlow
costandqualityservicearetheneworganizationaltheme.Humanresourcescanalsostructureeachcommunicationtohighlightlowcostandqualityservice
subordinatingthedetailsofeveryrequestandinstructiontothatbusinesstheme.
CommunicatingInformationaboutServices
Humanresourcesalsocommunicatesregularlyabouttheservicesitprovides.Traditionally,humanresourcesgroupssendmemosaboutpersonnelchangesand
policies.Increasingly,thattypeofinformationisbecomingofsecondaryimportance,especiallyinhumanresourcesgroupsthatwanttocontributetothecorporation's
resourcemanagement,profitability,andproductivity.Theinformationneededisnowmoreaboutservicesratherthanaboutdictates.
Forexample,humanresourcesgroupsoftenproduceanannualtrainingcalendar.Thesecalendarsareprintedandpublishedwithattractive,glossy,highquality
covers.However,tobettermeetcustomerneeds,humanresourcescancreateflexible,computerbasedcalendarsthatcostlessandpermitfasterresponsefromand
toitscustomersaboutschedulechanges.
Also,humanresourcesusuallypublishestheschedulesfortheperformanceevaluationprocessandsalaryreviews.Whynotalsopublishinformationabouttherateof
completionandthestatisticsavailablethroughtheseprocesses?Thosestatisticscandemonstratetotherestoftheorganizationthathumanresourcesfocuseson
businessoutcomesandthathumanresourceshelpstheorganizationachieveincreasedprofitabilityandproductivity.
Thekeyisforhumanresourcestosendmessagestoshowhowitiscontributingtothecorporation'sstrategicgoals.Thesemessagesshouldhighlighthumanresources
achievementsandcontributions.Itisunwisetosendthemessage,"We'regreat!"Itiswisetosendthemessage,"We'reonthesameteam,withthesamebusiness
goals,andwe'reallmakingprogresstogether."
CommunicatingWhileAcquiringInformation
Humanresourcesneedstocommunicatewithitsinternalcustomerstoacquireinformationaboutcustomerneedsandtodeliverinformationabouthowhuman
resourcescanmeetcustomerneeds.Thatcommunicationshouldhighlightthebusinessneedsthathumanresources'servicescanhelpcustomersachieve.
Forexample,humanresourcesfrequently

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conductsneedsassessmentsandattitudesurveys.Theseprocessesoftenincludeoneononeinterviews,groupinterviews,focusgroups,paperorcomputerbased
questionnaires,andassessmentsurveys.Humanresourcescanusethevariousmediaanddesignthequestionstosendmessagesabouthowtheorganizationperceives
itsemployeesandwhattheorganizationvalues.
Byaskingquestionsaboutteamworkandproductivity,thecontentitselfsendsthemessagethatthoseareimportantissues.Byaskingopenendedquestionsinsteadof
onlyeasytotabulatemultiplechoicequestions,humanresourcescansendthemessagethattheresponsesareimportantenoughtobeworthreading.
HowHumanResourcesCommunicates:TheMedia
Manyformsofmediaareavailabletohumanresources:videotapes,audiotapes,newsletters,questionnaires,Emailbulletins,centrallylocatedbulletinboardsand
computerbulletinboards,andmanuals,themanyformsofmeetings,andpresentations.Touseanyoftheseeffectivelyrequiresthathumanresourcesassessthecosts
involvedandassesswhetherthecostofthemediumchosenisworththebenefitproduced.
Forexample,manycorporationshaveinstalledvideomonitorsthroughouttheirbuildings.Theyconstantlytransmitvideotapesaboutevents,stockmarketprices,
departmentalachievements,outstandingpersonalperformance,andsoon.Ifthecorporationhasconsiderableinformationtocommunicateregularlyandwantstosend
itscontentmessagesviaamediumthatisrelativelywarmandoftenseeminglyhuman,videotapecanbecosteffective.However,ifthecorporationchoosesto
communicateinfrequentlyandismoreconcernedaboutdocumentinginformationandminimizingcosts,apaperbasedtoolmightbemorecosteffective.
Videotapecanbeexpensivetoproduce,distribute,andmaintainorupdatepaperisusuallyinexpensive.Therelativecostschange,though,basedonwhathuman
resourcesiscommunicating,howmanywillreceivetheproduct,andhowhumanresourcesandthecorporationwishtobeperceived.
Ahumanresourcesgroupthatusessloppilyproducedpaperquestionnaires,generateserrorriddencomputerprograms,andthatholdsmeetingsinuncomfortable,
unattractiveroomssendsamessagethattheemployeesandtheinformationgatheringprocessareunimportant.Ahumanresourcesgroupthatproducesfancy,
sophisticatedmaterialsandmeetsindeluxeroomsmaysendamessagethatitcares,oritmaysendamessagethatitwastesitsresources.
Theimportantpointtorememberisthateachhumanresourcesgroupmustplaceitscommunicationwithinthecommunicationspackagingthatsendstherightmessage.
Asanexampleofhowtousethenormalinformationgatheringprocesstosendmessages,considerthequestionnaire.Itisanoftenoverusedmeansofcommunication
thatisusefulandeffective.Humanresourcesoftenmustdistributequestionnairestogatheropinions,suggestions,information,andcommentsaboutwhatitsinternal
customersneedandwant.
Thewelldesignedquestionnairecansendamessageofconcern,implythekindsofserviceshumanresourcesispreparedtoprovide,andcollecttheneeded
information.Unfortunately,toooftenthequestionnaireisdeveloped,distributed,andcollectedwithouttherespondentseverunderstandingwhytheyhavehadto
completethequestionnaireandwithouttheirfindingoutwhathashappenedasaresultoftheinformationtheygave.
Asaresult,manyrespondentseitherignorequestionnairesorfilltheminwithoutconcernforaccuracyandcompleteness.Toavoidthewasteofeffortresultingfrom
respondents'apathy,humanresourcesshoulddesignitsquestionnairescarefullyandthensummarizetheresponsesanddistributethemtotherespondinggroup.
Whenpeopleunderstandhowtheirinformationwillbeused,theygenerallyprovidequalityinformation.Thisstephastheaddedadvantageofdemonstratingthat
humanresourcesisresponsivetotheconcernsofitsinternalcustomersresponsivenessisamajorissueincustomerservice.
Inselectingamediumforsendingamessage,itisimportanttorememberthateachmediumhasadvantagesanddisadvantages.(SeeTable171.)

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Table171.Advantagesanddisadvantagesofvariousmedia.
Media

Advantages

Disadvantages

Videotapes

Live

Poorqualitysendsmessagesof
sloppiness,lackofpriorityofmessage
beingsent

Personal

Usuallyrelativelyexpensive

Potentiallywarm

Expensivetomodify

Highlyinterestingwhenwell
scriptedandproduced

Monitorsforviewingnotalways
readilyavailable

Excellentforcommunicatingvisual
informationwithcolorand
motionoftenimportantin
persuasionandwhenpresenting
detail

Stiffandawkwardwhenpoorly
designedorproduced

Interactiveandattractingattention

Imagefadeswithage

Peopleontapedatethetapebecause
offashionchanges,thuscreatingriskof
messageseemingold

Inexpensive

Oftenboring

Relativelysimpletodesign,
produce,anddistribute

Difficulttorememberbecauseoflack
ofvisualsupport

Easytouse

Relativelyinexpensive

Tendencytobecomeboringand
predictable

Canbedesignedtosendmany
andpredictablemessagesvia
contentandvisualchoices

Oftentedioustoproduceontimeand
frequently

Canbecomemajorinformation
sharingtoolwhenandword
processorwellwrittenand
strategicallyfocusedandpackaged

Needatleastonegoodwriterand
wordprocessor

Canservedoublefunctionof
gatheringandconveyingemployees
information

Canbecometedioustoemployees

Canshortcuttheinformation
sharingprocess

Easytodesignpoorlyandbemisused

Canbeusedtobackup
assumptionsandassertionsmade
inothercommunications

Createformaldistancebetweenhuman
resourcesanditscustomers

Canoversimplifyissues

Inexpensive

Easytomakeerrorswhensending
messages

Easilyaccessible

Oftentiringandrepetitiveifnotwell
designedandmanaged

Relativelylowcost

Easyforpeopletoavoidreading

Informal

Interactive

Bulletinboardsandcomputer
bulletinboards

Informal

Canbesloppy

Easilyaccessible

Easilybypassedandoverlooked

Manuals(regularorcomputer
basedhypertext)

Alwaysavailableforreference

Oftenbulky

Excellentsourceofproofthat
informationwasshared

Oftenpoorlywritten

Oftenhardtofindinformation,unless
computerbasedwithHypertextor
comparablesoftware

Audiotapes

Newsletters

Questionnaires

Emailbulletins

Canbeexpensiveiftheprintingis
onglossypaperstock

Canbeexpensiveifadministered
inlargequantities,despite
technologicalimprovements

Oftencontainambiguous
information

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