PHYSICS

Notes on the Alternative to Practical Paper

1. This paper is an alternative to a practical exam, not an alternative to a

practical course.
2. The preparation for students is a well-designed practical course.
3. The course should teach candidates how to make measurements using many
different types of instruments. They should see the instruments, handle
them, discuss their scales and the scale units before using the instruments.
4. Students should understand why the choice of range for the measuring scale
should match the size of the quantity being measured.
5. Students should know how to record measurements in a table. A table should
record all the measurements needed to obtain the value of a given physical
quantity. For example if a length l is derived from l = l2 - l1 then l1 and l2
should appear in the table. Columns (or rows) in the table should be headed
with the name of symbol of the physical quantity. The unit in which the
quantity is measured should be included. The SI method is recommended.
Encourage neat work.
6. Ideally, when performing an experiment (and relevant readings are
recorded) it is helpful to arrange the experiment so that one variable is
increased step by step. Candidates should always look for a trend in the
recorded results. Some trends are

y increases as x increases
straight line through the origin, if x is doubled then y is doubled, direct
proportionality
y decreases as x increases
x times y = k, inversely proportionality. Inverse proportionality is generally
not properly understood
7. A graph is the best way to display the results of an experiment.

y/unit against x/unit should be understood as the label of each axis

axes should
be labelled with quantity, unit and scaled
as large as possible, but should not use an awkward scale to achieve the size
plotting should be neat and as accurate as possible
graph lines should be neat, thin and a good fit (if there is scatter of points
they should lie either side of the line{in a rough way!! }). Straight lines
should FILL the page (even beyond the range of points) so that any gradient
calculation can use the largest y and x. Students should understand why!
(y is a measurement.)
students should describe what information is obtained from a graph, see
note 6.
8. Students should understand the idea of a fair test or comparison in which
only one variable is altered at a time, eg when investigating how rate of

cooling experiment depends on temperature room to be kept constant-room draughts, volume and type of liquid, amount of stirring.
9. Students should be trained to give a conclusion to an experiment.
10.

Good procedures: -

repeat readings to spot anomalous errors or to calculate an average

avoid making parallax errors, {the line of sight should be perpendicular to

the reading on the scale}

look carefully at any scale that is used eg

notice the unit in which the scale is calibrated - always give the unit of any
measurement
notice the maximum reading that can be obtained
notice the smallest change in value that can be obtained
aim to use quantities that have magnitudes that are towards the upper values
of the scale

in experiments involving the measurement of a length

try to use lengths that are at least 100 mm in length

you can measure to the nearest mm with a rule, or perhaps 0.5 mm
when measuring heights ensure that the rule is held perpendicular to the
base
know how to arrange apparatus so that it is parallel or perpendicular to a
bench
know how to arrange a set square either side of a cylinder/sphere to measure
diameter

in light experiments using objects, lenses and a screen

ensure that each item is aligned so that the centre of each item is at the
same height and on the same horizontal straight line (ideally use the term
optic axis)
use a fiducial aid when measuring a length, eg mark the middle of the lens on
the bench
try to use a translucent screen
perform the experiment in a shaded part of the laboratory

in ray tracing experiments

when using marker pins space the pins so that they are at least 60 mm apart
ensure that the pins are vertical
draw neat thin lines
use the largest angles available and draw the arms of the angle longer than
the radius of any protractor being used, ie a large radius is desirable
when using a thermometer

position the eye so that the mercury thread appears to touch the scale
decide whether you can read between the marks on the thermometer, ie
some thermometers can be read to better than 1 C even though the marks
are every C
check whether the thermometer is full or 1/3 immersion

in heat experiments

choose volume/mass values of the quantities that give large changes in the
temperature
insulate the container, cover the container
stir and wait for highest temperature after stopping heating

in electrical experiments

check for a zero error

tap the meter to avoid sticking
initially choose the highest range for the ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce
the range for the ammeter so that the deflection is almost full scale
always check polarities before closing the switch (completing the circuit)
always check that connections are clean.
switch off the current when not making a measurement.
when measuring resistance use low currents/voltages to avoid heating and
changing the resistance you are measuring

when measuring an interval of time

a stopwatch can measure to about 0.1 s, although it may give a reading to

0.01 s
for oscillations (of a pendulum or vibrating rule), be able to define a
complete oscillation
time N oscillations, usually N>10 and use the terminology periodic time T =
t/N
explain how to use a fiducial aid at the centre of the oscillation
explain where the eye should be placed to avoid parallax errors

Current Electricity
Current electricity is the flow of electrons (flow of charge)
electrons are moving steadily in definite direction - continuously through some conductor
electrons flow from point of excess electrons to point of deficiency of electrons
separation of charge produces electromotive force (EMF)
EMF pushes electrons through conductor
In an electrical circuit, current is the means by which energy is transferred from a source such as a
battery or generator to a load (lamp, motor, or other device that absorbs electrical energy and
converts it into some other form of energy or into work).

EMF - potential difference that exist across a battery, generator, etc. when it is not connected to any
external circuit. The potential difference across the terminals of a source is always less than EMF due
to internal resistance.
Complete electrical circuit:
4 parts:
source of electrons - dry cell
conducting path for electrons - wire
device to open and close circuit - switch
purpose of circuit - load
Other sources of electrons include electrochemical cells and electrical generators.
Electric plug - electrons leave negative terminal at source, go through switches into house, through
one side of plug, through appliance or load, then out through other prong and back to positive terminal
of source
Loads (resistances) - powered by moving electrons which must move through load before they can
return to source
Switches - control circuit
Fuses - interrupt flow of current if flow becomes too great for wires to hold it safely (or appliance to
use it safely). Fuses contain a small piece of wire that melts if too much current passes through it.
Most household fuses will blow at 15 - 20 amps.
Circuit breakers - shut off current if too much flows (open switch)
Semi-conductors - silicon and germanium - conduct electricity poorly - resistance decreases with
increasing temperature
Super-conductors - behave like normal materials at normal temperatures - at extremely low
temperatures resistance decreases and vanishes = no energy loss when current flows

See electrical symbols here

Ohm's Law:

Current = Voltage
Resistance
I (amps) = V (volts)
R (ohms)

Current:
Direction, by convention, is the direction in which positive charges would move. A current is always
assumed to move from positive terminal of a battery or generator to negative terminal in circuit.
Actual electrical currents in metal consist of flow of electrons.
A current of negative particles moving in one direction is electrically the same as a current that consist
of positive particles moving in the opposite direction.
Symbol = I unit = ampere (amp)
measured by ammeter
Definition = rate of flow of electrons past a certain point
Example = gallons of water coming out of a pipe per second
1 amp = the flow of 1 coulomb of electrons passing one point in one second
1 amp = coulomb
second

= 6.25 E 18 electrons
second

1 electron = charge of -1.6 E - 19 coulomb

a current of 1 amp in a metal wire has 1 coulomb's worth of electrons (6.25 E 18) passing a point
every second.

The following chart list sample amperage ratings for common tools:

bug killer 1-2

fan = 1-3

hedge trimmer 2-3

weed trimmer 2-4

electric drill 3-6

saber saw 4-8

sander 4-8

band saw 5-12

lawn mower 6-12

grinder 7-10

chain saw 7-12

drill press 7-14

belt sander 7-15

router 8-13

shop vac 8-14

lawn edger 9-10

air compressor 9-15

table saw 12-15

snow blower 12-15

circular saw 12-15

1/4 HP motor = 6 amps

1/2 HP motor = 10
amps

3/4 HP motor = 14
amps

1 HP motor = 16 amps

Voltage
Symbol = V

unit = volt

measured by voltmeter

Definition = the driving force behind electrons; the work done per unit charge to move that charge
from point A to B; the work required to get electrons passing some point per second
volt = joule = unit of work (F x d)
coulomb # of e-/second
If battery has a rating of 1 volt it is capable of doing 1 joule of work for each coulomb of charge that it
delivers

Resistance
Symbol = R

unit = ohm ()

measured by ohmmeter

Definition = opposition to flow of electrons; the ratio between potential difference (V) and
the resulting current flow (I)
ohm = volt
ampere
A conductor in which there is a current of 1 amp when a potential difference of 1 volt
exist across it has a resistance of 1 ohm.

Resistivity
Resistances of conductors that obey Ohm's Law depend on:
material of which it is composed - the ability of a material to carry an electrical current
varies more than almost any other physical property
length - the longer the conductor the greater the resistance
cross-sectional area - the thicker the conductor, the less its resistance
Resistivities of nearly all substances vary with temperature. In general: metals increase in resistivity
with increase in temperature and nonmetals decrease in resistivity. R = R t

Electric Power
Electric power = current x potential difference
Unit of power = watt (amp x volt)
The power consumed in causing a current to flow is dissipated as heat.
P = IV
2

P=I R

(power = current x voltage)

(power = current squared x resistance)

P = V2
R
(power = voltage squared divided by resistance)
brightness = I V

Sample Problems:
1. A light bulb has a resistance ob 240 ohms. Find the current flowing in the circuit when
placed in a 120 volt circuit.
(I = V/R
120 volt/240 ohms = 0.50 amp)
2. The current in the coil of a 8 ohm loudspeaker is 0.5 amp. Find the voltage across its
terminals.
(V = IR 0.5 amp x 8 ohm = 4 volt)
3. Find the resistance in a circuit that has a voltage of 120 volts and a current of 4 amps.
(R = V/I 120 volts/4 amps = 30 ohm)
4. In a simple house circuit there is an amperage of 0.6 amps and a resistance of 20
ohms. What is the voltage in this circuit?
(V = IR
0.6 amps x 20 ohms = 12 volts)
5. If a 100 watt light bulb burns for 10 hours, how many watt-hours of electricity are
used?
(watt = volts x amps
watt-hour = watt x hours
1000 watt-hours = 1 kilowatthour)

Series Circuits
In a series circuit electrons flow along a single path through 2 or more loads before
returning to source.
Law #1 - any break in a series circuit stops the entire electron flow (a break or loose
connection can prevent electrons from flowing)
Law #2 - when there are two or more loads in a series circuit, the voltage drop across
each load is a fraction of the total voltage supplied by the source
voltage across each load decreases as additional loads are wired into circuit
the sum of the voltage drops across each load = voltage of source
V1 = I R1
V2 = I R2
V3 = I R3
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...
Law #3 - the current is the same in all parts of a series circuit - all electrons flowing from source
eventually return to source - only one path in series circuit - can measure current anywhere in circuit
Law #4 - the resistance (total) increases in a series circuit as the number of loads increases - the total
resistance of a circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of each wire and load
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

Parallel Circuits
A parallel circuit is one in which electrons flow through more than one path or branch. The electrons
can flow through any one or more of the branches before returning to the source.
Law #1 - a break in one branch of a parallel circuit does not stop the flow of current in other branches
Law #2 - the voltage is the same in all branches of a parallel circuit and equals the voltage of the
source
Law #3 - the current is not necessarily the same in all branches of a parallel circuit. The sum of the
current drops in all resistances equals the total current flowing through circuit.
I1 = V/R1

I2 = V/R2

I3 = V/R3

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...
Law #4 - The total resistance in a parallel circuit decreases as the number of loads or individual
resistances increases. The total resistance is less than that of the smallest single resistance. All
branches act as one broad pathway which offers less resistance to the flow of electrons than any
single pathway.
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...

or

RT = ( R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: THE MEMBERS, IN DECREASING and DECREASING ORDER OF

WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY RESPECTIVELY IS CODED HERE AS R I V U X - G
R = RADIO WAVES
I= INFRA-RED
V = VISIBLE RAYS (MEMBERS are CODED INTO R O Y G B I V , ALSO IN THE SAME ORDER AS IN
ABOVE. R stands for red light, O for Orange, etc.)
U = ULTRA-VIOLET
X = X-RAYS
G= GAMMA RAYS
NOTE: MICROWAVES ARE SHOT WAVELENGTH RADIO WAVES. A separate band may be created for it
between radio waves and infrared, but since they are radio waves, such separate band is not
necessary.

waves
Radio waves

Infrared

sources
Radio and TV
transmitting
antenna,
galaxies and
stars

detector
Radio aerial

uses

Hot objects,
electric fire,
the sun

Special films
Skin.

Blackened
thermometer
Electronic
detectors

Visible light

The sun, very

hot objects

Ultraviolet

The Sun,

Mercury vapour

The eye
Photographic
film
electronic
detectors
Photographic
film

Communication
s through radio
and TV
Telephone links
Microwaves for
cooking food
Infrared
remote control
Heating
Taking
temperature
picture ( in
infrared
camera)
In heat therapy
for treatment
of muscular
pains
seeing
photography
photosynthesis
information
transmission
Used in
fluorescent

lamps, electric
arcs in welding
operation

Electronic
detector

X -rays

X- ray tube

Photographic
film

Gamma rays

Radioactive
materials e.g
uranium and
cobalt

Photographic
film, electronic
detector,
Geiger- Muller
tube

lamps
Sterilizing food
Security
marking
Used in
photosynthesis
by flora
To examine
eggs in poultry;
old eggs glow
purple while
fresh glow
scarlet.
In medical
diagnosis( CAT
scan)
Medical
treatment e.g
of cancer
In engineering
to know the
structure of
crystal
Radiography
Treatment of
cancer
Measuring
thickness in
enginnering

Kinematics
Definitions

Distance: The total length travelled by a moving object irrespective of

direction. Its SI unit is meter (m).
Displacement: The distance travelled in a specific direction. Its SI unit is
meter (m).
Speed: It is the rate of change of distance or distance travelled per unit
time. Its SI unit is meters per second (m/s).
Velocity: It is the rate of change of displacement. It is speed in a specific
direction. Its SI unit is meters per second (m/s).
Acceleration: It is the rate of change in velocity. Its SI unit is meters per
second per second (m/s2).

Formulae

Distance: Speed x Time, [In case of constant acceleration]: {(Final Speed +

Initial Speed)/2} x Total Time Taken.
Displacement: Velocity x Time, [In case of constant acceleration: {(Final
Velocity + Initial Velocity)/2} x Total Time Taken.
Speed: Distance Travelled/Time Taken.
Average Speed (in case of constant acceleration): (Final Sped + Initial
Speed)/2.
Velocity: Displacement/Time Taken.
Acceleration: Final Velocity Initial Velocity/Time Taken.

Acceleration of Free Fall

It is the acceleration due to gravity.

It is given the symbol g.
The acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s2.
The direction of this acceleration is towards the centre of the Earth.
This acceleration does not depend on the masses or weights of objects.
During free fall motion there is an opposing force to the motion known as air
resistance.
When an object falls in a uniform gravitational field, it accelerates until air
resistance is equal to the pull of gravity. It then continues at a constant
velocity which is known as terminal velocity.

Distance-Time Graph

The gradient of distance time graph gives us speed.

Speed-Time Graph

The gradient of speed-time graph gives us acceleration.