H O M E U N I V E R SI T Y L I B R A R Y

O F M O D E R N KN O W LE D G E
No 3 7
.

E di tor s :

H E R B E R T FI S H E R M A P B
P R OP G I L B E R T M U R R A Y
,

LL D
P R OP

P R OF

F B A.
.

A R T H U R T H O M SO N M A
W I LL I A M I B R E W ST E R M A

'

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6:

U N I V E R SI T Y
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L I BR A R Y

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book

THE

A N T H R O P O LO G Y

BY

R R M A RE TT M A
R E A D E R I N SO C I A L A NT H R O P O L O G Y I N T H E
U NI V E RSI T Y OF O X FO R D
T H E T H R E SH O L D O F R E L I GIO N
A UT II O R 0 ?
.

"

NE W

Y O RK

H E NRY H O LT AND C O M PANY

L O ND O N

W ILLI A M S

A ND NO RG A TE

C O NTE NTS
P A GI

I
II
I II

SC

OP E

OF

A NTH R O P O L O GY

ANT I Q UII Y OF MA N
'

ACE

30
59

94

IV

1 30
VI

O I

S C AL

O R GAN I! A TIO N

1 81

LA W

1 52

III

RE L G

I I ON

204

IX

M ORA LII Y

2 35

'

MA N TH E

N D IV I D U AL

I L IOG R A P H Y

24 1

B B

25 1

IN D E X

254

h are t hese hal f

Gi dl ed b ut wit h t he imme ns
we are th ey were
darkn ess f th is myste ious un i verse v n
bo rn nd di d suff ed n d struggled Given o v r to fearful
c rime an d pass io n p l unge d in th
blacke t ignorance pre yed
nd g o tesq u
d l usi ons y t tead f s tly
upo n b y hi deo us
f id l in th ir xed fai th t ha t
se rvi ng the p ro f un d es t
ny form is b et ter t h an n on xi te n ce t h y e v r
e xi tence in
resc ue d triumph ntl y f o m t he j ws o f e v r immin en t d
truo
tion t he to rc h f l i f w h i h t h nks to th m no w l ig h ts the
wo ld f r us H w sm ll indeed
m in divi dua l di tincti ns
w h en we l oo k b k on t hese o verw h e lming numb rs o f h uman
b ings pan ting and straining un d th pressure of that vital
w ant ! And how in esse ntial in the yes f God mus t b e the
sm ll surp l us o f th indi vidual s m rit sw amp d as it is in the
v st ocean o f th common merit f m nkind d umbly an d
un d un te dl y d oin g th fun d men tal d uty an d livi ng th h ero ic
lif ! We gro w h umble and re vere nt as we conte mplate t he
p odigious spec tacl
bone an d
brutish pre his toric bro t h ers
BONE

"

o f our

es

o f o ur
a

er

es

as

es

see

er

ac

-e

ea s

e.

"

W ILLIA M

an I mmort lity

JAM E S, in H um

A NTH R OP OLOGY
CHAP TE R I
S C OP E

O F A N TH R O P OL O GY

I N t hi s

c hap ter I pro po se t o sa y s omet hi ng

rs tly ab o ut th e i deal sc o pe of a nthr o po logy ;
sec on dly ab ou t it s i deal li mitations ; an d
thi rdl y an d l as tly ab o u t it s ac t ual re l ations
I n oth er wo rds I s hall
to e xi s ting s t ud i es
e xamin e th e e xt e nt of its c l ai m a n d th e n go
o n to e x amin e h ow tha t c l ai m u n der m odern
c on ditions of sci e nc e an d e ducation is to b e
made good
F i rs tly t he n w ha t i s t h e id eal sc o pe o f
anthro p ology
Take n at its full es t an d bes t
W h at o ught it to c o mpri se
Anth ro pology i s th e whol e hi s to ry of ma n
as tired an d pervad ed b y th e i dea of ev ol ution
M an in ev ol utionth at i s th e subj ec t in it s
fu ll reac h An t h ro p ology s tudi es ma n as h e
o ccurs at all known ti mes I t s tudi es hi m as h e
o ccurs in all k nown parts of th e wo rl d I t

s tudi es hi m b o d y an d s oul toget her as a

,

ANTHROPOLOGY

b odil y o rgani sm subj ect to c on dition s Operat

i ng in ti me an d space whi c h b odi ly o rga ni sm
is in inti ma t e re l ation wi t h a s o u l life al s o
subj ect to tho se sa me c on di tions Havi ng
an e ye to suc h c on dition s fro m rs t to l as t
it seeks to p lot o ut t h e ge n eral seri es of th e
c h ang es b odi ly a n d me n t al togeth er u n der
gon e b y ma n in th e c ourse of hi s hi s t o ry It s
bus iness i s s i mp ly t o descri be But wi t ho u t
e x ceed ing th e li m i t s of it s sc o pe it can an d
mus t pro ceed fr o m t h e parti cular to th e
ge n eral ; ai m ing at nothi ng l ess th an a de
scri p ti ve fo rmul a th at s h all sum up th e whol e
seri es of c ha nges in whi c h th e evol ution of
man c ons i s t s
Th at will d o perh aps as a s h o rt acco unt of
th e i dea l sc ope of anth r o p ology Being s ho rt
it i s b ou n d to be rath er fo rmal an d c olo url ess
T o pu t s o me b o d y into it however it i s meces
sary to brea th e but a s ingl e wo rd T ha t wo rd
i s : Darwin
Anth rop ology is th e c hil d of Darwin
D arwini sm makes it p o ss i b l e Reject the
D arwini an p oin t of V i ew an d y o u mus t rej e ct
anthr op ology al s o Wh at th e n i s Darwin
i sm ? No t a cu t an d dri ed d oc t rin e Not a
d ogma Darwi ni sm i s a working hyp othes i s
Yo u supp o se s o me t hing to be t rue a n d wo r k
a wa y to see wheth er in th e light of tha t
supp o sed t ru th cert ain fact s t together
,

SC OP E O F A NTHR OPO L OG Y

than the y d o on a ny ot her supp o s ition

Wha t i s th e t ru t h th at D arwini sm supp o ses 2
Si mp ly that all th e fo rms of life in th e wo rl d
are re l at ed togeth er ; an d tha t th e re lati on s
ma nifes t ed in ti me an d space be tw ee n th e
di ffere nt li ves a re su fc i e n t ly unifo rm t o be
descri bed un der a g e n eral fo rmul a o r l aw of
ev ol ution
Thi s mea n s tha t man mus t fo r certain
purp oses of sc i e n ce to e th e lin e with th e res t
of li ving thi ngs An d at rs t n at urally
e nough man di d not li ke it He w as too
lo rdly Fo r a long ti me there fo re he pre
t e n ded to be ghting fo r th e B i b l e wh e n h e
w as really ghting fo r hi s own dignity Thi s
w as rat h er ha rd on th e B i b l e whi ch has
nothin g to d o with th e A ri s tote li an th e o ry
of th e xit y of spec i es ; t hou gh it mi ght seem
p o ss i b l e to rea d bac k s omet hing of the kin d
into the pri miti ve creation s to ri es preserved
in G en es i s Now a day s however we h ave
m o s tly got o ver th e rs t s ho ck to our family
pri de We are all Darwini an s in a pass i ve
kin d of wa y
But w e n eed to darwi niz e
acti ve ly I n th e sci e n ces th at h ave to d o wi t h
p l ants an d with the res t of the an i mal s
bes i des man na t urali s ts hav e bee n so ac ti ve
in th ei r da rwin izi n g th at th e pre Darwini an
s tu ff is on ce fo r a ll l ai d b y on th e s h e lf
Whe n man h owever e ng ages on the subj ec t
b e t t er

AN THR O P OLOGY

10
of

hi s

no b l e self t he te n d e n c y still is to say :

We accep t D arwini sm so l ong as it is not
a llow ed to c o unt so long as w e may go on
be li evi ng th e same ol d s tu ff in the same o ld
way
H o w d o w e a nt hr o p o l ogi st s pro p o se to
c ombat thi s t en de n c y
B y wo rk ing aw a y
at o ur subj ect a n d persuad ing peo p l e to h ave
a loo k at our resu lt s O n c e pe o p l e t ake up
a nthr op ology th e y may be t rus t ed not to dr o p
it a ga in I t i s like l earning to s l eep with yo ur
w in d ow o pe n W h at c ou l d be m o re st upe fy
ing th a n to s hut yourse lf up in a c lo se t a n d
s w allow your own ga s ? But i s it a ny l ess
st upe fying to s hut yo urself up wi t hin th e l as t
fe w tho usa n d y ears of th e hi s to ry of yo ur own
c o rn er of th e wo rl d a n d suck in th e s t al e
at m o sp h ere of it s own se lf ge n erat ed p re j u
d i ces ? Or to vary th e met ap hor a nth r o
E
ver
y
on
e
s
t
ar
t
s
b
y
l
o gy i s li ke t rave l
o
p
thin k ing th at there i s nothing so perfect a s
hi s own pari s h Bu t l et a ma n go ab o ard
s hi p to vi s i t fo re ign part s a n d wh e n h e ret urn s
home h e will cause th at par i s h to w ake up
With Darwin th e n w e a nthr o p ologi s t s
sa y : Let a ny a n d every p o rtion of h uma n
hi stor y be s t ud i ed in th e light of th e whol e
hi s tory of ma nk in d a n d a ga in st th e back
r
o
u
n
d
of
th
e
hi
s
to
r
y
of
li
v
ing
thing
s
in
g
ge n eral It is t he D arwi n ia n o u tloo k t hat
,

SC O PE O F ANTHR OPO L OGY

ll

matte rs N on e of D ar win s parti cu lar doc

t r in es wil l n ecessar ily e n dur e th e test of time
a n d tri al Into th e me lti n g po t mus t the y
go as oft e n as a ny ma n of sc i e n ce dee ms it
tting Bu t Darwinism as th e touc h of n at ure
th at makes th e whol e wor l d k in ca n h ardl y
pass aw a y At any rat e a nth ro p ology s ta n ds
o r fall s with th e wo rk ing hyp oth es i s deri ved
fr o m Darwini sm of a fun dame nta l k in s hi p
a n d c ontin u ity am i d c h ang e be tw ee n all th e
fo rms of huma n life
It rema in s to add th at hitherto a nthr o
l
o gy has dev o t ed m o st of it s a tt e ntion to
o
p
th e pe o p l es of rude th at i s to sa y of s imp l e
cu l t ure who are vu lgarly known to u s a s

Th e ma in reas on fo r t hi s
sava ges
I
suppo se i s th at no b od y muc h m in ds s o long
as th e d ar win izin g k in d of hi sto ry c onn es
i t se lf to ou t s i ders O nly wh e n it i s app li ed
t o se lf an d f r i e n ds i s it rese nted as a n im
pertin e n ce But althou gh it ha s alw ay s up
t o now pursued th e lin e of l eas t res i s t a n ce
anthro p ology d oes not abat e on e j ot o r tittl e
of it s cl a im to be th e whol e sc i e n ce in th e se n se
of th e whol e hi s to ry of man A s re g ards th e
wo rd ca ll it sc i e n ce o r hi sto ry o r a nt hro

l
o gy
o
o
r
a
ny
hing
e
l
se
wh
a
t
d
o
es
it
t
p
matt er
A s re g ards th e thing h owever
th ere ca n be no c omprom i se W e anthr o
p o lo gist s are o ut to secure t his : t hat th e re

ANTHR OPOLOGY

12

h all n o t be o n e kin d o f h i sto ry fo r savages

a n d anoth er k in d fo r o urse l ves but th e same
k in d o f hi st o ry with th e same ev ol u t io n ary
pr in c i p l e ru nning r ight thr ou gh i t fo r a ll
men ci vil ized a n d savage prese nt a n d past

So muc h for th e i deal sco pe of anth r op ology

N ow in th e sec on d p l ace for it s i deal li m it a
tions Here I am a fra i d w e must touc h fo r a
m ome nt on very deep a n d d i fcu lt q uestion s
But it i s w e ll wo rth whil e to tr y at all c o s t s
to g et rm hol d of th e fact th at a nthr o p ology
thou gh a b ig thing i s not everyt hing
I t w ill be e nou gh to in s i st bri e y on th e
following p oint s th at a nth r op ology I S se l e n c e
in w h at ever w ay hi sto r y i s sc i e n ce ; th at it i s
thou gh it must c onfo rm to
n o t p hilo s o p hy
it s n eeds ; a n d th at it i s not p oli c y thou gh i t
may subserve it s des ign s
Anthro p ology is sc i e n ce in the se n se of
spec i alized researc h that a ims at t ru th fo r
truth s sake K nowin g b y part s i s sc ie n ce
k nowing th e whol e as a whol e i s p hilo s o p hy
E ac h supp o rt s th e other an d there i s no
prot in ask in g whi c h of th e two s hou l d c o me
rs t O n e i s a ware of th e u ni verse as th e
w hol e u ni verse h ow ever muc h on e may be
re sol ved t o s tud y it s det a il s on e a t a time
T h e sc i e nti c m ood how ever is uppe rm o st
wh en o ne sa y s : H ere is a p arti cu l ar lot of
.

SC OPE O F AN THROPOLOGY

13

things that seem to h ang together i n a parti

c u la r w a y ; l e t us t ry to g e t a g e n era l i dea
of wh at th at w a y i s An th r o p ology th e n
spec i aliz es on th e parti cu l ar gr oup of human
be ings whi c h i t se lf i s part of th e l arger par
I n asmuc h as
t ic ula r gro up of div in g be ings
it t akes o ver th e evol ution ary prin c i p l e fr o m
th e sc i e n ce dealing with th e l arger gro up
n ame ly b iology anthr o p ology ma y be re
garded as a bran ch of b iolo gy Le t i t be
added however th at of all th e bran c h es
of b iology i t i s th e on e th at i s li ke ly to br ing
us n earest t o th e t rue meaning of life ; because
th e life of huma n be ing s mus t alwa y s be
n earer to human st ude nt s of life th a n sa y t h e
life of p l a nt s
But yo u will per haps o bj ect anthr o pology
was previously i de nt i ed with hi sto ry an d
now i t i s i de nt i ed with sc i en ce n amel y with
a bran c h of b iology ? Is hi sto ry sc i e n ce
Th e an s wer i s Y es I know th at a grea t
many peo p l e who call th emsel ve s hi s t o ri ans
sa y th at i t i s not apparent ly on th e gr o un d
that wh en it c omes to wr i t ing hi sto ry t ruth
fo r t ruth s sake i s ap t to bring o ut th e w r ong
resul ts Well th e d octored s o rt of hi stor y
i s not sc i en ce no r anth r o p ology I am read y
to admi t But now l et us li s te n to an oth er
an d a m ore serious o bj ection to th e cl ai m of
hi sto r y t o be sci ence Sc i e n ce i t will be sa id
.

AN THROPO L OGY

l4

b y m any earn es t me n of sc i en ce aims at

di sc o ver ing l aw s th at are c l ean out of t ime
Hi s t or y on th e oth er h an d ai ms at no m ore
th an t h e ge n eralized descri ption of on e o r
anot h er p h ase of a time pr ocess T o thi s
it may be repli ed th at p hy s i cs a n d p hy s ics
only an s wers to th is altog eth er too n arr ow
c on ception of sc i e n ce T h e l aw s of matt er
in m ot ion are or seem to be of th e ti mel ess
o r math emat i cal kin d D irectly w e pass on
to b iology how ever l aw s of thi s kin d are
not to be di sc o vered o r at any rat e are not
d i sc o vered B iology deal s with life o r if
yo u li ke with matt er as l i ving M att er
m o ves L ife evol ves W e h ave e nt ered a
n e w di me n s ion of e xi s t en ce Th e l aw s of
matt er in m otion are not abr og ated for th e
s i mp l e reas on t h at i n p hy s i cs on e makes
abst raction of lif e o r in oth er words l eaves
i t s peculi ar e ffect s e ntirely out of acco u nt
But th e y are t ran sce n ded T h e y are mul ti
p li ed b y w a n un known q uantity Thi s
be ing so fr o m th e st an dp oint of pure
p hy s i cs b iology t ak es up th e t al e afr es h an d
devi ses mean s of it s o wn fo r descri b ing t he
p a rti cul ar w ay s in whi c h thi ng s h ang togeth er
i n virt ue o f the ir be ing ali ve An d b iology
n ds tha t it c annot c on veni ently abst rac t
a w ay th e re fere n ce to ti me It ca nnot t reat
living thi ngs a s mac hin es Wha t d oes it do
,

'

SC O PE O F ANTHROPOLOG Y

15

the n
It t akes t h e form of hi sto ry It
st at es that cert ai n thing s h ave c hang ed in
cert ain w ays an d go es on to s how so f ar as
it can t hat th e c h ang es are o n th e whol e in
a c ert ain direc tion In s ho rt it fo rmul at es
t en den c i es an d the se are it s only l aw s Some
te n den c i es of c ourse appear to be m ore e n
d uring than others an d t hus may be thou ght
t o appr oxim at e m o re c lo se ly to l aw s of t h e
timel ess k in d But (12 t h e un known q uantity
t h e s o mething o r oth er th at i s not p hy s i cal
run s thr ou gh t h em all however muc h or li ttl e
t he y ma y seem to e n dure For sc i en ce at
any rate whi c h depart mental iz es th e worl d
a n d st udi es it b it b y b it th ere i s no g etting
over th e f ac t th at li ving be ings in gen eral
an d human be ings in parti cul ar are subj ect
to an evol uti on whi c h i s s i mp l e matt er of
hi story
An d now what ab out p hil o s o p hy
I am
not going into p hilo s o p hi c al q ues t ion s h ere
F o r that reas on I am not goin g to descri be
b iology as n at ural hi sto ry or anthr o p ology
as th e n at ural hi s t o ry of man Le t p hilo so
h
e
rs
di scus s wh at n at ure i s going t o mean
p
fo r t hem In sc i en ce th e word i s q ues tion
begging ; an d th e onl y s ou n d rul e in sc i en ce
i s to be g as fe w p hilos o p hi cal q ues t ion s as you
o
ss
i
b
ly
ca
n
E
ver
ything
in
th
e
wo
r
l
d
i
s
p
n at ural of c o urse in th e se nse that thi ngs are
.

"

ANT HROPOLOGY

16

ome h ow all ak in al l of a p i ece We are simply

b oun d to t ak e in th e part s as part s of a whol e
an d i t is j us t thi s f ac t that makes p hil o s o p hy
not only p oss i b l e bu t in evit ab l e All th e
same thi s f ac t d o es not preve nt t h e part s
fr o m havi ng th e i r own spec i c n at ures an d
spec i c w ay s of be h aving Th e peo pl e who
i dent ify th e n at ur al with th e p hy s i cal are
putting all th e ir m on e y on o ne S pec ic k in d
of n at ure o r be h avio ur th at i s to be foun d in
th e w orl d I n t h e case of man th e y are
bac king th e wr ong horse
Th e horse to
bac k i s th e horse th at go es As a going
c on cern however anth r o p ology as part of
ev ol uti on ary b iology i s a hi s t o r y of vit al
te n d en c i es whi c h are not n at ural in th e sen se
of merely p hy s i cal
Wh at are t he fu n ction s of p hilo s o p hy as
c ontras t ed with sc i e n ce ? T wo Fi rstly it
mus t be criti cal It mus t p oli ce th e c ity of
th e sc i e n ces preve nting them fr o m in t erf ering
with eac h oth er s right s an d free develo pme nt
C o o pe rat io n b y all mean s as fo r in s t an ce
betw ee n anthr o p ology an d b iology But no
j ump ing oth er fol ks c l a ims an d l aying d own
th e l aw fo r all ; as for in s t an ce wh e n p hy s i cs
w oul d i mp ose t h e kin d of met ho d appli cab l e
t o mac hin es on th e sc i e n ces of evol ving lif e
S ec on dl y p h ilo s o p hy mus t be s yntheti c It
must put all th e w ay s of knowing together an d

SCO PE O F ANTHR OPOLOGY

17

pu t t h ese in th e ir e nti rety toget her

with all t he w ay s of f ee li ng an d ac ting ; so t ha t
t here may resul t a th eo ry of reali t y an d of
the good life in tha t org ani c interdepe n de n ce
of th e t wo whi c h o ur very e ffo rt to put thing s
togeth er presupp o ses as its o bj ec t
What t he n are to be the re l ation s betw ee n
anthro po logy an d p hi lo so p h y ? O n the on e
han d th e q ues tion whe ther ant hro pology can
h el p p hilos o p hy n eed not c on cern us here
Tha t i s fo r th e p hilo s o p her to de termin e
On the oth er han d p hilos o p hy can he lp
w ays : in its criti cal
ant h ro p ol o gy in t wo
capacity b y hel p ing it to guard its own cl ai m
an d deve lop free ly wit hout interfere n ce fro m
ou ts i ders ; an d in its s yn t he ti c capacity
per haps b y s ugges ting t he rul e tha t of two
types o f e xp l a n ation fo r in s tan ce the
p hys i cal an d the biologi cal th e m o re abst rac t
i s li ke ly to be farther aw ay fro m the whol e
t ruth whereas c ont rariwi se the m o re yo u
tak e in the be tter yo ur c han ce of really
un ders tan ding
It remains to speak abo u t p oli c y I use
thi s t erm to mean any an d all prac ti ca l
e xp loitation o f th e result s of sci e n ce Some
ti mes ind eed it i s hard to sa y wh ere sci e n ce
e n ds an d poli cy be gins as w e sa w in th e
of tho se ge ntl eme n who wo ul d d octo r t he i r
hi s to ry be ca use practi call y it pa y s to have
lik e wise

ANTHRO P O LOG Y

18

a good co n ce it of o urse l ves an d be li eve t ha t

o u r s i de alw a y s win s its ba ttl es
Anth ro
l
o
p o gy how ever wo ul d b o rrow s o me t hing
bes i des th e evol ution ary prin c i p l e fr om
b iology n ame ly it s d i s int eres ted n ess I t is
not ha rd to be ca n di d ab o ut bees an d ants ;
u nl ess in dee d on e i s making a parab l e of
them But as ant hro p ologi s t s w e mus t t ry
wh at i s so muc h harder to be can di d ab o ut
o ursel ves Le t us loo k at o urse l ves as if w e
w ere so many bees an d ant s not fo rge tting
of c o urse to make use of the ins i de info rma
tion t hat in the case of th e insec ts we so
c on sp i cu o us ly l ack
T hi s d o es not mean t hat h uman hi s to ry
on ce c on s t ruct ed acc o rding to t ru th reg ardi ng
prin ci p l es s ho uld an d c o ul d not be used fo r
th e prac ti cal advant age of man kin d T h e
anth rop ologi s t how ever i s not as suc h c on
cern ed with th e practi cal emp loy me nt to whi ch
hi s d i sco veri es are pu t A t m o s t he may on
t he s t re ngth of a c on vi ction that t rut h is
m ighty a n d will prevail fo r h uma n goo d
in vit e practi cal me n to s t ud y hi s fac ts an d
ge n eraliz ation s in t he hope th at b y kn owing
manki n d be tt er the y may c ome to apprec i a te
a n d serve it be tter Fo r in s t an ce t he ad
mini s t rato r who ru l es o ver savages is al m ost
in vari ab ly q uit e we ll meaning but not se l d om
utterly igno rant o f na ti v e cus to ms an d be li e fs
,

SC OP E O F AN THROPOLOGY

19

So in many cases i s th e mi ss ion ary anoth er

type o f pers on in au tho rity whose inte ntions
are o f the bes t bu t who se methods too ofte n
l eave muc h to be des i red
No am o unt
of zeal will su f ce apart fro m sci e nti c in
s ight into th e con dition s of th e practi cal
pro b l em An d the educa tion i s to be got b y
paying fo r it But go vern me nts an d c hurc h es
wi t h s ome hono urab l e ex cep tion s are s till
wofully di s in c lin ed to pro vi de t h ei r pro
b a t io n e rs with th e n ecessary speci al t raining ;
though it i s igno ran c e th at always pro ves m os t
co s tly in th e long run P oli c y however
in cl uding bad p oli c y d oes not c o me within
the of ci al c ogniza n ce of the anth ro po logi s t
Ye t it is l e giti mat e fo r hi m to ho pe t hat j us t
as
fo r many years al read y p hys iologi cal
sci e n ce has in di rect ly subserved the art of
medi cin e s o a nth ro p ologi ca l sci en ce ma y
in di re c tly though non e th e l ess e ffecti vely
subse rve an art of p oliti cal an d re lig ious
hea li n g in t he da ys to c o me
,

Th e t hi rd an d l as t part of thi s c hap ter will

s how how un der m odern con ditions of sc i e n ce
an d educa tion anthr o p ology is to reali ze its
programme Hitherto t h e t ro ubl e with e u
t hro p o lo gists h as bee n to se e t he wood fo r t he
t rees E ven whi l s t atte n ding mainly to t he
pe op l es of rude cul ture the y have heape d
,

ANTHROPOLOGY

20

fact s e noug h to be wil der b ot h them

se l ves an d t hei r readers T he ti me has c ome
to d o s o me s o rting ; o r rather the s o rting i s
d oing it self All mann er of groups o f spec i al
s tude nts interes ted in s o me parti cu lar s i de
c o me now a da y s t o the
o f h uma n hi s to ry
anthro p ologi s t as king l eave to b o rr ow fro m
hi s s toc k of fact s the ki n d that the y happe n
to w ant T hus he as g en eral s to rekeeper i s
be ginn ing to ac qui re al m o s t un c on sc io us ly
a se n se of o rder c o rresp on ding to th e dema n ds
th at are made up on hi m T h e goods th at he
will n eed to ha n d ou t in separate bat c h es
are be ing gradually arranged b y hi m on separ
at e s he l ves Our bes t w ay th e n of pro ceed
ing wi t h th e prese nt inq ui ry i s to t ake not e
I n ot h er wo rds w e mus t
o f th ese s h e l ves
c on s i der on e b y on e th e speci al s t ud i es that
c l ai m to have a n ger in the a nth ro p ologi ca l
t oge th er

i
e
p

.
'

Or to avoi d th e di s h eart eni ng t as k of re

vi e wing an arra y of blo o dl ess

ologi es l et
us put th e q ues t ion to o ursel ves th us : Be it
supp o sed th at a you ng man o r wo man w h o
w an t s t o t ake a c ourse of at l east a ye ar s
l ength in th e el ement s of a nthr o p ology j oi n s
s o me u ni vers i t y w hi c h i s thor o u ghly in to uc h
wi t h t h e sc i e n t i c ac ti vi t i es of the da y A
uni vers ity as it s ver y n ame i mp li es ought
to be an all embraci ng assemb l ag e of hi gher
,

SC OPE O F ANTHROP OL OGY

21

t u di es so ad just ed to eac h ot h er t h at i n
c o mb in ation th e y pr o vi de be ginn ers wit h
a good ge n er al education ; whil s t severally
t he y o ffer t o m ore advan ced s t ude nt s th e
Opp ortuni ty of d oing thi s or th at kin d of
S peci c researc h
In suc h a w ell organiz e d
uni vers ity th e n how wo ul d our budding
anthr o p ologi s t pr oceed to fo rm a preli min ary
acq uaint an ce wi t h th e four c orn ers of hi s
Wh at depart ment s mus t h e att en d
subj ec t
i n t ur n
Le t us draw hi m up a curr i cul um
prayi ng meanwhil e th at the mu l t i p li c i t y of th e
d eman ds made up on him will not t ake aw ay
M an i s a many s i ded
hi s breath altogeth er
be ing ; so th ere i s no h el p for i t if anthr o p ology
al s o i s many s i ded
F or on e thi ng h e must sit at th e f eet of
t ho se whose parti cul ar c on cern i s with pre
It is w ell to be gin h ere s in ce
hi sto ri c man
th us will th e gl am our of th e subj ect s in k into
Let hi m fo r in st an ce
hi s s o ul at th e s t art
travel back in tho u ght to th e E ur o pe of many
tho usan ds of y ears ago s hi vering u n der th e
e ffec t s of th e great i ce ag e y et p opulous wi t h
h uman be ings s o f ar li ke o ursel ves th at the y
w ere ali ve to th e advant ag e of a goo d re
mad e h an d y tool s ou t of s ton e an d w oo d
an d bo n e paint ed ani mal s on t h e w alls of
t he ir caves o r e n graved th em o n mamm ot h
ivory far more skil full y t han m o s t o f us c oul d
s

ANTHR OPO LOGY

22

now an d b uri ed t h e i r dead in a cerem oni al

w ay th at p oints to a beli e f in a f ut ure l ife
T hus too h e will l earn betimes how t o
b l en d the metho ds an d mat eri al s of di ffere nt
bran c h es o f sc i e n ce A hum an sku ll l et u s
an d s o me b on es of e xtin ct a ni mal s an d
s ay
so me c hi pped in t s are all di sc o vered s i de
b y s i de s ome tw enty f eet below the l evel of
th e s oil At l eas t fo ur separate authorities
must be call ed in be fore th e part s of t he
pu z zl e can be tt ed tog eth er
Ag ain he must be t au ght s o met h ing ab o ut
race or inh erit ed breed as it app li es to ma n
A d o se of practi cal an atom y t h at is to sa y
s ome ac t ual h an dling an d measur ing of th e
prin c i pal p o rtion s of th e human frame in it s
l eading vari eti es will e n abl e o ur be ginn er t o
apprec i at e th e di fferen ces of o u t er fo rm th at
d i stingui s h say th e Br iti s h c oloni st i n

Aust ral i a f r o m th e n ati ve b l ack f ellow o r

th e whit es fr o m the n e gr oes an d reds k in s
an d yellow A s i ati cs in th e U nit ed St at es At
thi s p oint h e may pr ot ab ly embar k on t he
det ai l s of th e D ar wini an hy p oth es i s of the
d esce nt of man Let hi m sear c h am ongs t t he
manifol d m o dern vers ion s of t he th eo ry o f
human evol ution fo r th e on e t hat c omes
n eares t t o e xp l aining th e de grees o f p hy sical
li ke n ess an d unl i ken e ss s h own b y me n in
as
er
a
l
c omp ared wit h t he an i mal s es pe
n
e
g
do

SC O P E O F ANTHR O P O LOGY
c ially

28

t h e man l i ke apes ; an d a gai n t h ose

sh o wn b y th e me n of di vers a g es a n d re gion s
as c o mpared wi th eac h oth er
N or i s it eno ugh
fo r hi m w h e n thus e ngaged to t ake not e
si mp ly of p hy s i cal f eat ures th e s h ape of th e
skull th e c olour of th e s kin th e tint a n d te x
t ure of th e h ai r an d s o on T here are li ke wi se
ment al c h aract ers th at seem to be b o un d up
clo se ly with th e org ani sm a n d to follow th e
bre ed S uc h are th e s o call ed in stin ct s th e
s t ud y of whi c h s houl d be h el ped o ut b y
e xc ursio n S int o th e m in d hi s to r y of a ni ma l s
o f c hil dre n an d of t h e in sa n e
More o ver th e
measuring an d t esting of ment al fu n ction s
an d i n parti cul ar of th e sen ses i s now a day s
carri ed on b y m ea n s of all s ort s of ing enious
i n s trument s ; an d s o me experi e n ce of the i r use
will be all to th e goo d wh en pr o b l ems of
d escent ar e be ing t ackl ed
F urth er o ur s t udent must submi t t o a
thorough gr o u n ding in wo rl d g eograp hy with
its p hy s i cal an d h uman s i des wel ded r ml y
tog eth er He must be abl e to p i ck out on
th e map th e head q uart ers of all t h e m ore
not abl e peo p l es not merely as th e y are now
but al s o as th e y w ere at var io us out s t an ding
m ome nt s of th e pas t Hi s n e xt bus in ess is
t o mas t er th e ma in f ac t s ab o u t th e n a t ural
c on d ition s to whi c h eac h pe o p l e is subj ec te d
the climate the c onformation o f l an d an d
-

'

ANTHROPOLOGY

as

nimal s an d p l ant s Fro m he re i t is

b ut a s t ep to th e ec ono mi c lif ethe foo d
supp ly th e clothing th e d welling p l aces th e
prin c i pal o ccupation s th e imp l eme nt s of
l ab o ur A sel ect ed li st of b ooks of t ravel
mus t be c on sult ed N o l ess i mp o rt ant is it
to work s t ea dily thr ou gh t h e s how cases of
a goo d e thnologi cal museum No r will it
sufce to h ave surve y ed the wo rl d b y region s
Th e c o mmuni cation s betw ee n re gion s t h e
migration s an d c onq ues t s the t rading an d th e
b o rr owing of cus to ms mus t be t raced an d
acc o unt ed fo r Fi n ally on th e bas i s of t he i r
di s t r i bution w hi c h th e l earn er mus t c h art
o ut for hi mself on b l an k maps of th e wo rl d
th e chi e f vari eti es o f th e useful arts an d
appli an ces of man ca n be follow e d fr o m s t age
to s ta g e of th e ir develo pme n t
O f th e Spec i a l s t ud ies c on cer n e d wit h ma n
t h e n e xt in o r der m ight seem to be th at whi c h
deal s with th e various fo rms of h uma n s o c ie ty ;
s in ce in a se n se s o c i al o rg anization mus t
depe n d d irectly on mat eri al c ircums t a n ces
I n a noth er an d per h aps a deeper se n se how
ever th e pr ime c on d ition o i t rue s oc i a lity is
s omething e l se n ame ly th e e x cl us i ve ly h u ma n
gi ft of arti cu l at e speech To wha t e xt e nt
th e n mus t our nov i ce pa y atte ntion to t he
hi s to ry o f l a nguag e ? S pecu lation abo u t it s
far o ff o ri gins is n ow a da y s ra th er o ut o f
se a,

t he

S CO PE O F ANTHROPOLOGY
f a shion

25

More over l a nguag e i s n o l onger

supp o sed to pr o v i de b y it se lf at a ny ra t e
a n d apart fr o m oth er cl ues a ke y to th e
e n d l ess r i ddles of rac ia l desce nt Wh at is
m o st n eeded th e n i s rather s ome e l eme nt ar y
i n st ruction c on cerning th e or ga ni c c onn ection
betwee n l anguage a n d thou ght a n d c on cer ning
th e ir j oint deve lopme nt a s v i e w ed ag ain st
th e back gr ou n d of th e g e n era l deve lopme nt of
s o c i ety An d just as wo rds a n d thou ghts
are esse nti ally s ymb ol s so th ere are al s o
g est ure s ymb ol s a n d wr itt e n s ymb ol s whil s t
a ga in a nother s e t of s ymb ol s i s in u se fo r
c o u nting All t h ese p re re qu i s it es of h uma n
int erco urse may be c on ve ni e ntly t ak en
togeth er
Co m ing now to th e a naly s i s of th e fo rms
of s o c i ety th e be ginn er mus t rs t of all face
th e pr ob l em : Wh at makes a pe o p l e on e
Ne ith er b lood no r t err itor y no r l a nguage
but only th e fact of be ing m o re o r l ess co m
a c t ly o r g a niz ed in a p oliti ca l s oc i ety wi ll be
p
fou n d to yi e l d th e u nifying pr in c i p l e re qu i red
O n ce th e pr imary c on st it ut ion of th e b o d y
p oliti c h as bee n made ou t a li m it i s se t up
in s i de of whi c h a n umber of fa i rly de nit e
forms of gr oup ing offer th emse l ves for e xa mi
n ation ; whil st o ut s i de of it var ious s o c i al
r el at ion s hi ps of a va guer k in d h ave a l s o t o
be con s i dered T hus am ongst i n s t it utions o f
.

ANTHR OPO L OGY

26

t he int ern al kin d th e fam ily b y it self p re se nt s

a wi de e l d of researc h ; thou gh in cert a in
cases it i s li ab l e to be o vers h ad owed b y s o me
oth er s o rt of o rg anization suc h as not ab ly
th e c l a n Un der th e same rubri c f all th e many
fo rms of m ore o r l ess vol u nt ary ass o c i ation
ec ono m i c religious a n d so fo rth O n th e
oth er h a n d out s i de th e c i rcl e of th e b o d y
p oliti c th ere are at all known st ages of s o c iety
mu tual u n ders t an d ing s th at re gu l at e w ar
t rade t rave l th e ce l ebration of c o mm on
rit es th e int erch ange of i deas Here th e n i s
a n abun da n ce of t ypes of huma n ass o c i at ion
to be rst scrutiniz ed separat e ly an d a ft er
wards c on s idered in rel at ion to eac h oth er
Clo sely conn ect ed with the previous subject
i s th e hi sto ry of l aw E very ty pe of ass o c i a
tion in a w ay h as it s l aw wh ereb y it s
members are c on st ra in ed to fu ll a certain
of o b lig ation s T hus o ur s t ude nt will
se t
pass on s t ra igh t fr om th e fo rms of s oc i ety t o
th e m o st esse nti al of th e ir fu n ction s T h e
f act t h at am ong st th e l ess c i v ilized pe o p l es
th e l aw i s u n c o d ie d a n d mere ly customary
whil st t h e machin er y fo r e nfo rc ing it is
thou gh g e n erally e ffecti ve e no u gh y et oft e n
highl y in de nit e a n d o ccas ion al makes t he
t rac ing of th e gr owt h of l e gal in s titu tion s
fr om th e i r rud iment s no l ess v ita lly imp ortant
The
t h ough it mak es it non e th e ea s i er
,

SC O PE O F ANTHROPOLOGY

27

h i st o ry of autho rity i s a s tr i ctly k in dred to p i c

Le gis l ating an d j udging on th e on e h a n d an d
governi ng on th e oth er are d iffere nt aspect s
o f th e same ge n era l fu n ction
I n acc ordan ce
th e n with th e o rder alread y in d i cat ed l aw
a n d gover nme nt as adm ini s tered b y th e
p oliti c a l s o c i ety in th e pers on of it s re p re
s e n t a ti v e s
c hi ef s e l ders w ar lo rds pri est
kings a n d so fort h must rst be e x am in ed ;
th e n th e j uri sd i ction a n d di sc ip lin e of sub
o rdin at e b o d i es suc h as th e f am ily a n d th e
c l an o r aga in th e religious s o c i eti es t rade
gu il ds an d th e rest ; th e n l astly th e int er
na tiona l c on ve n t ion s with t h e ava il ab l e
mean s o f e n suring th e ir observan ce
A ga in th e hi st o ry of religion i s a n a lli ed
th eme of far reac hing int erest For th e
u n ders t a n d ing of th e ruder fo rms of s o c iety
it ma y eve n be sai d to furni s h th e mast er ke y
At this st ag e re ligion is th e ma in s t ay of l aw
a n d go ver nme nt T h e c on s tra ining fo rce of
cus to m makes i t self fe lt l arge ly t hr ou gh a
ma gnifyin g h a ze of m y s ti c san ct ion s ; whil s t
a g ain th e p o s i t ion of a l eader of s oc i ety res t s
fo r th e m o s t part on th e sup e m o rmal p owers
imput ed to him R e ligion a n d ma gi c the n
must be carefully s t ud ied if w e wou l d u n der
s t an d how th e var ious pers on s a n d b od i es
th at e xerc i se author ity are ass i s t ed or e l se
hi nd ere d in t he ir e ffo rt s to mainta in s oc ial
.

A NTHRO POLOGY

28

d i sc i p l in e A part fr o m thi s fu n dame nt al in

q u i ry th ere i s a noth er no l ess i mp o rt ant
in it s w ay to whi c h th e s t ud y of rel igion
T hi s is th e
a n d ma gi c o pe n s up a path
pro b l em ho w reection man ages as it were
t o d o ub l e h uman e x peri e n ce b y se tti n g up
bes i de th e o u ter wo rl d of sen se an inn er
w o rl d o f tho u ght rel ation s Now c on st ruc ti ve
ima gina t ion i s th e q uee n of tho se me nt al
fun cti on s whi c h mee t in wh at we loo sely term
th o u ght
an d i ma gin ation i s ever m o s t
a c ti ve w h ere o n th e o u t er fring e of t h e min d s
ro u tin e wo rk o ur in arti cul at e q uestio ni ngs
radi a te into th e u nkn own Whe n th e ge ni us
has hi s vi sion a l m o s t in vari ab ly am ong t h e
i t i s accep ted b y hi mself an d
rud er peo p l es
his s o ci e ty as s o me thing sup e m o r mal an d
sa cred wh e th er it s f ru it be a n ac t of l eaders hi p
a practi cal in ve ntion o r a wo rk
o r an ed i c t
a
a s to ry of th e pas t o r a pro p hec y
o f art
cure o r a devas t ating curse Mo reo ver s oc i al
t rad ition t re as ures th e mem o ry of th ese
reve l ations an d b l en ding them wi th th e
c ont ri butions of h umbl er fol kfo r all of us
d ream o ur dreams pro vi des in m yth an d
l ege nd an d t al e as we ll as in manifol d other
a sti mu l us to th e insp i ra tion of
art fo rms
fu ture gen erations Fo r m os t purp oses n e art
a t an y ra te d u ring it s m o re rudi me nta r y s ta ges
may b e s tudie d in co nnec ti on wit h re li gion
.

SC OP E O F ANTHROPO LOGY

29

So far as l aw an d re ligion will no t accoun t

fo r t h e vari eti es of s o ci al be h avi o ur th e
no vi ce ma y m o s t c on ve ni e ntly c on s i der th em
un der th e h ead of m o ral s T h e fo rms of
s o ci al int erc o urse th e fas hion s th e fes ti viti es
are i mp o sed on us b y o ur fe llow s fro m witho ut
an d non e th e l e ss e ff ec ti ve ly beca use as a
ge neral rul e w e fa ll in wit h th em as a matt er
of c o urse T h e differe n ce be tw ee n mann ers
an d m o ra l s of th e higher o rder i s due s i mp ly
to th e m o re press ing need in th e case o f o ur
m o s t serio us duti es of a reecti ve san ction

a m o ral se n se to break us in t o th e c o mm on
servi c e It i s no eas y t ask to keep l e gal an d
religious pe n alti es o r re w ards o ut of th e
reck oning wh e n t rying to fr ame an es ti ma te
of wh at th e notion s of right an d wr ong pre
val ent in a gi ve n s o ci e ty am o u nt to in them
sel ves ; n everth e l ess it is wo rt h d oing an d
val uab l e c oll ection s of mat eri al e xi s t t o ai d
the wo rk T h e fact s ab o ut educati on whi c h
eve n am ongs t rude pe o p l es is ofte n carri ed
on far into ma nhood th ro w muc h light on
thi s pro b l em So d o th e mo ra lizin gs embod i ed
i n t he t radi tional lo re of the fol k the pro verbs
the beas t fab l es th e s to ri es of h eroes
T here remain s the in d ivi dual to be s t u di ed
in hi ms elf
I f th e in di vi dual be i gno re d
b y s oc i al sci e n ce as wo ul d s o me ti mes appe ar
,

t o b e the

case , so

much the wo rse fo r

so cial

ANTHROPOLOG Y

80

scie n ce w hi ch to a c o rresp on di ng e xt e nt
f all s s ho rt of be ing t ru ly an t h ro p ologi cal
T hr o ughou t t he hi s tory of man o ur be ginn er
s hou l d be on t h e look o ut fo r the sign s an d
the e ffec t s of pers on al initi ati ve F re e d o m
of c hoi ce of c ourse i s li m it ed b y wh at there
i s to c hoo se fr o m ; s o th at t he deve lo pme nt of
what ma y be termed s oci al O pp o rt u nity s houl d
be c on curre ntly revi e wed Again it is th e
a im of ever y m oral s y s t em s o to educat e
eac h ma n t h at hi s di rec t i ve self may be as
far as p o ss i b l e i de n ti ed with his s o ci al self
E ve n sui ci de i s not a man s own a ffai r
acco rd ing to the voi ce of s oc i e ty whi c h speaks
in th e m o ral c o de
Neverth el ess l est th e
i mp ort a nt t ruth be o ver look ed th at s oc i al
c on t rol i mp li es a will that mus t mee t the c on
t rol h alf wa y it i s we ll fo r th e s t ude nt of
man to pa y separat e a n d speci al atte ntion
to t h e in d i vi dual age nt T h e l as t wor d i n
an thr o p ology is : Know thyse lf
,

CHAP TE R
A N T I Q UI TY

II

O F M AN

HI S T O RY in th e n arr ower sen se of t he word

depe n ds on writ t en rec o rd s As w e follow
bac k hi s to ry t o th e point at whi ch o ur wri tte n
,

ANTI QUI TY O F MAN

31

r d s gr ow ha zy an d th e i mmedi at e an c es
tors Or predecess ors of th e pe op l es who appear
in hi story are di sclo sed in l e ge n d t h at n eeds
muc h eking o ut b y th e h el p of t h e spade w e
pass into pr oto hi s to ry At th e back of t h at
ag ain be yon d th e p oint at whi c h wri tt e n
rec ords are of any avail at all c omes pre
hi st o ry
H ow the n yo u may w ell inq ui re d o es th e
hi sto ri an g e t t o work
pre
Wh at i s his
metho d of l in king f act s togeth er
An d wh at
are th e s o urces of hi s informat ion ?
Fi rs t as to hi s met hod S upp o se a n umber
of b oy s are in a el d p l a ying foot ball who se
superu ous garment s are lyi ng ab out ever y
wh ere in h eaps ; an d supp o se yo u w an t fo r
s ome reas on to n d o ut in wh at order th e b oys
arr i ved on th e gr o un d H ow wo ul d you se t
abo ut th e bus in ess ? S urely yo u woul d go
to on e of th e h eaps of di scarded clot hes an d
t ak e note of t h e f ac t th at t hi s b oy s j acket
l ay un der th at b oy s w ai st c o at Mo vi n g on
to oth er h eaps yo u might di sc o ver t hat in s ome
cases a b oy h ad thr own d own hi s h at on on e
h eap hi s ti e on ano t h er an d s o on Thi s
woul d h el p you all t h e m o re to make o u t t h e
ge n eral seri es of arri val s Yes but what if
s ome of th e h eaps s howed sign s of h aving
bee n up set
W ell you mus t make allow
an ces fo r t h ese d i st urban ces in yo ur cal cu la
re c o

AN THRO P OLOG Y

82

O f c ourse if s ome on e h ad d el i berat el y

mad e ha y with th e lot you woul d be non
p l usse d Th e c h an ces are however th at
O
i
ve
n
e
no
u
gh
h
eaps
an d bar
f c loth es
g
inte ntion al an d s y st emati c wrecking of th em
wo
u
l
d
ab
l
e
to
make
o
u
t
pre
tty
w
e
ll
o
u
b
e
y
whi c h b oy preceded whi c h ; t hou gh you c oul d
h ardly go on to sa y with any prec i s ion whether
To m preceded Di c k b y h alf a min u t e o r h alf
an h o ur
S uc h i s t h e metho d of p ro hi story It i s
c all ed th e s t ratigrap hi cal method because it
is bas ed o n th e descri ption of s t ra t a o r
l ay ers
Le t me gi ve a s i mpl e e x amp l e of how s t rat a
t ell th e i r own t al e It i s no very remarkab l e
in st an ce but h appe n s t o be on e t h at I have
Th e y w ere digging ou t
e x ami n ed fo r m y self
a p l ace fo r a g as hol der in a mead ow in th e
town Of St He li er Jerse y an d carri ed the ir
b o rings down to bed r o ck at ab out thi rty f ee t
wh i c h ro u ghly coin c i des with th e prese nt
mean se a l evel
T h e m odern me ad ow s oil
we nt d own ab ou t ve f ee t Th e n came a bed
o f m oss peat o n e to thr ee f ee t thi ck
Th ere
ha d bee n a b og h ere at a t i me whi c h to j ud g e
b y si mil ar n ds in other p l aces was j us t
be fore th e be ginning of t h e br onze age
Un dern eath t h e m o ss peat came two o r t hr ee
fee t o f sil t wit h sea s hell s in it
Clearl y t he
t ions

ANTI QUI TY O F MAN

88

isl an d o f Jerse y u n derw e nt in tho se day s some

s ort o f submer gen ce Below thi s s t rat um
came a great peat bed ve to seve n f ee t t hi ck
with l ar ge t r e e t ru n ks in it t h e remain s of a
n e fores t that mus t h ave n eeded m ore o r l ess
el evate d l an d on whi c h to gr ow In th e peat
w as a w eap on of p oli s h ed s t on e an d at th e
b ottom were two p i eces of p ot t er y on e of
them dec orated with littl e p i t te d marks
T h ese fragme n t s of evi de n ce are e nough to
s how th at th e forest ers belonged to th e ear ly
n eolit hi c perio d as it i s call ed Ne xt o ccurred
ab o ut fo ur f ee t of s ilt with se a s he ll s marki ng
anot h er advan ce of th e se a Below th at
a gain was a mass s ix to e ight feet deep of
th e c harac t er i s t i c y ellow cl ay wi t h f ar carri ed
fragme nt s of r o ck in it th at i s ass o c i at ed with
th e great oods of th e i ce age T h e l an d mus t
h ave bee n ab o ve th e reac h of th e t i de fo r th e
gl ac i al drift to settl e on it Fin ally three o r
four fee t of bl ue c l ay res ting i mme di at ely on
bed r ock were suc h as might be pr o duced b y
th e sea an d t hus pro bab ly betoken ed it s
presen ce at thi s l evel in th e still remo t er pas t
Here the s t rata are mo s tly ge ologi cal M an
only c omes in at on e p oint I might have
take n a far m o re s t ri king caseth e best I kn o w
fro m S t Ac heu l a suburb Of Ami en s in t he
no rth of F ra n ce
Here M Common t fo un d
human i mp l eme nts o f di s tin ct types in ab out
.

ANTHRO P OLOGY

34

e ight o u t of e l eve n o r tw el ve success i ve

ge ologi cal l ayers B u t th e s to ry would take
t o o long to te ll
However it i s we ll to s tart
wit h a n e x ampl e tha t i s pri marily g e ologi cal
Fo r it i s the ge ologi s t who pro vi des t h e pre
hi s to ri c c hrono me t er Pre hi s to ri ans have t o
reck on in ge ologi c al ti me tha t i s to sa y not
in years but in ages of in de ni t e e xte nt
c o rresp on d ing to marked c h an ges in th e
c on di tion of t h e eart h s surface It takes th e
p l ain man a long ti me to n d o u t th at it
i s n o use asking th e pre hi s to ri an who i s
pro udl y d i sp l aying a skul l o r a s ton e imp le
me nt
P l ease how many years ago e xac tly

di d it s own er li ve ?
I remember h earing
suc h a q ues tion pu t to th e great sa vant
M C a rta ilha c wh e n h e w as l ec t uring up on th e
h
s
to
r
i
c
dra
w
ing
s
fo
u
n
d
in
th
e
F
re
n
c
h
a
n
d
i
ro
p
S pani s h caves ; an d he rep li ed
Per haps not
l ess than
y ears ago an d not m o re tha n
T h e backb on e o f o ur prese nt
s y s t em of det ermining t h e seri es of pre
hi s to ri c ep o c hs i s th e ge ologi cal th eo ry o f an
i ce ag e c ompri s ing a success ion of periods of
e xt reme gl aci ation pun c t ua t ed b y m il der
interval s I t i s fo r the ge ologi s ts to settl e in
th ei r own w a y u nl ess in deed t he as t rono mers
ca n he l p them why t h ere s ho ul d ha ve bee n
what was th e n umber
an i ce ag e a t a ll ;
e x t e nt a n d re l a ti ve dura tion o f its ups an d
.

ANTI QUITY O F MAN

85

d own s ; an d a t wha t ti me ro u ghl y it ceased

in favo ur of th e temperat e c on d i tion s that w e
now en j oy Th e p ie hi s t o ri an s fo r thei r part
mus t be c ont e nt to make what t races th e y
di sc over of early ma n t in with thi s pre
es t ab li s h ed sc heme u n cert ain as it i s E very
day however m o re ag reeme nt i s be ing reached
b oth am ongs t th emse l ves an d betwee n th em
an d th e geo logi s t s ; s o that on e da y I am
con de nt if not ex actly to m o rrow w e s h all
know with fai r accurac y how the b oys who
l e ft the i r clothes lying ab o ut followed o n e
anoth er into t h e e l d
So me ti mes how ever ge ol o g y d oes not on
th e face of it c ome into th e reck oning Th us
I mi ght h ave asked the reader to ass i s t at th e
digging o ut of a ca ve sa y on e of th e fam o us
caves at M e nton e on th e It ali an Ri vi era jus t
be yon d th e s o uth e as t ern c o rn er of Fran ce
Th ese caves w ere inh ab it ed b y man during an
i mme n se s t ret c h of ti me and as yo u d ig d own
you light up on on e l a yer aft er anoth er of hi s
l eavings Bu t not e i n suc h a case as thi s how
eas ily yo u may be bafed b y s o me on e ha vi ng
upse t th e heap o f clothes o r in a wo rd b y
rearrangeme nt Thus th e ma n who se l eavings
ou ght to fo rm th e l ayer h alf w a y up may have
see n t to d ig a deep hol e in th e cave o o r in
o rder to bury a deceased fri e n d an d with hi m
l et us supp o se to bury al s o an ass o rt me nt o f
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

36

i l l i kel y to be use ful in th e life be yon d the

grave Cons e que ntly a n i mp l eme nt of o n e
age will be fo un d lying c he c k b y j owl wi t h th e
imp l eme nt of a muc h earli er ag e o r eve n it
may be s o me fee t be low i t T hereup on t he
pre hi s to ri an mus t fall back on th e ge n eral ru n
o r type in ass igning th e d iffere nt i mpl eme nt s
eac h to i t s own s t rat um Luckily in th e Old
day s fas hi on s t en ded t o be rigi d ; s o th at
fo r th e pre hi s to ri an two in t s with s ligh tly
d iffere nt chi pp ing may s t an d fo r separa te ages
o f c u l t ure as c l early as d o a G reek vase a n d
a G erma n beer mu g fo r t he s t ude nt of m o re
rece nt ti mes

art c es
.

E no u gh c on cerni ng t h e s t ratigrap hi cal

me thod A word in th e n e xt p l ace ab out the
pre hi s to ri a n s main s ources of info rmation
A part fr om g e ologi ca l fac t s t here are three
main cl asses of evi de n ce t h at serve t o dis
t in guish on e pre hi s t o ri c ep oc h f ro m anot her
Th ese are ani mal b on es h uman bon es an d
human ha n d iwo rk
Ag ain I ill us t ra t e b y mean s of a case of
w hi c h I happe n to h ave rst h an d knowl ed g e
In Jerse y n ear t h e ba y of St B re lad e is a
ca ve in whi c h w e dug d own th ro u gh so me
tw e nty fee t of accumu l ated c l a y and ro c k
rubb i s h presumab ly th e e ffect s o f the las t
t h roes of the ice age a n d came upo n a p re
,

ANTI QUI TY O F MAN

37

hi s to ri c h eart h Th ere were t he b ig s tones that

had pro pped up the re an d there w ere the
as h es B y the s i de were th e remain s of a h eap
of food re fuse T h e p i eces of decayed b on e
w ere not muc h to look at ; yet submi tt ed t o
an e x pert th e y d i d a t al e u nfol d He s howed
them to be th e remains of th e woolly r hino
ceros th e mamm oth s eve n m o re un wi e l d y
c o mr ade of the rein deer of two kin ds of ho rse
on e of them th e p ony li ke wil d ho rse s till t o
be fo u n d in th e Mongoli a n desert s of th e wil d
o x an d of th e deer T ru ly th ere w as bet t er
h un t ing to be got in Jerse y in th e days whe n
it fo rmed part O f a froze n c on t in e nt
Ne xt th e foo d h ea p yi e l ds t hi rt ee n of s o me
b od y s t ee t h Had th e y eat e n hi m
I t b oots
not to inqui re ; tho ugh as t h e own er was aged
between twe nty a n d thi rty the t eeth cou l d
hardl y have fall e n o u t of t hei r own acc ord
S uc h grin ders as the y are t oo ! A sec on d
e x pert decl ares t ha t t he roo ts beat all reco rds
T he y are of t he kin d tha t go es with a n im
me n se ly p owerful j a w n eed ing a mass i ve
brow ri dge to c ou n t erac t t h e s t rain of th e
b it e an d in ge n eral in v ol v ing t h e type of
skull kno wn as t h e Nean dert h al b ig brain ed
e no ugh in it s wa y bu t un c o mm only ape li ke
all th e same
F in ally the banquet ers have l e ft pl e nty of
T h es e goo d folk
t he i r kni ves lying ab o ut
.

ANTHR OPOLO GY

88

h ad t he i r spec i al a n d re gu l ar wa y of s t ri ki ng
O ff a bro ad at ake fro m th e in t c o re ; th e
c o res are lying ab o u t t o o a n d wi t h l uck yo u
can res to re s o me of th e akes t o t hei r o rigin al
p o s ition T h en l eav ing on e s i de of t h e ake
un touc hed the y t ri mmed th e surface of th e
remaining face a n d as th e ed ges gre w b l u nt
wi t h use kep t touc hing them up with the

h ammer s ton e t h ere it i s a l s o lying b y th e

h earth un t il perhaps the ake loses it s o val
s ha pe an d bec o mes a p oint ed t ri angl e A
thi rd e x pert i s call ed in a n d has no d i fficulty
in rec ognizing these k ni ves as the c haracteri s ti c
h an di wo rk of th e ep oc h kno wn as th e Mo us
t eri an
If on e of t hese wo rked i nts fro m
Jerse y was p l aced s i de b y s i de with another
fro m th e cave of Le Mo us ti er n ear th e right
ban k of th e V e z ere in s o ut h ce nt ral Fra n ce
whe n ce t h e t erm Mo us t eri a n yo u c o ul d hardly
t e ll whi c h w as whi c h ; whi l s t yo u wo ul d Still
s e e th e same family li ke n ess if yo u c o mpared
th e Jerse y speci me ns wi t h s o me fro m A mi e n s
o r fro m No rt he e t on the T hames o r fro m
Icklingh am in S u ffol k
Putt ing all th ese kin ds of evi de n ce together
the n w e ge t a notion d o ub tl ess rather
meagre but as far as it goes we ll g ro un ded
o f a h u nt er of t h e i ce a ge who w as abl e to get
th e be tt er of a woolly rhino cero s c oul d c oo k
a l us ty s tea k off hi m had a s harp knife to
,

ANTI QUITY O F MAN

89

a ve i t an d the teet h to c h ew it a n d ge n erally

kn e w ho w un der th e ver y c hill y ci rcum
st an ces b ot h to make hi mself c o mfo rtab l e
an d to keep hi s race going
T h ere i s on e oth er cl ass of evi den ce on whi c h
the pre hi s to ri a n may with due caution draw
though the ri sks are cert ain an d the prot s
un cert ain T he ruder pe op l es of t o day are
li ving a life th at in it s bro ad features cannot
be wholly unli ke th e life of the me n of long
ago Thus th e p re hi s to ri a n s houl d s t ud y
S pe n cer an d Gill e n on th e n ati ves of Ce nt ral
Aust rali a if only th at he may take rm hol d
of the f act th at pe o p l e with skull s in c lining
towards t he Nean derth al t ype an d us ing
s ton e kni ves ma y n everth el ess h ave very
acti ve min ds ; in s ho rt th at a ri c h e no u gh life
in it s w a y may l eave be hin d it a p oo r rubbi s h
h eap Wh e n it co mes however to th e
b o rrowing of de t ail s to pat c h up th e hol es in
the pre hi s to ri c rec o rd wit h m o dern rags an d
ta t ters makes be tter lit erature than sci e n ce
A fter all the Aus t rali an s o r T asmani an s o r
Bus h me n o r E ski m o of who m s o muc h is
be ginning to be h eard am ongs t pre hi s to ri an s
are o ur c ont emp o rari es th at i s to say h ave
j us t as long a n an ces t ry as ourse l ves ; a n d in
th e c o urse of th e l as t
years o r s o o ur
s toc k h as see n s o many c hanges th at th ei r
s toc ks ma y p oss i b ly have see n a fe w al s o Ye t
c r

A NTHR OPOLO G Y

40

l reme d y I t ake it again s t the mi su se

Of an alogy is th at th e s t ude n t s houl d make
hi mse lf su fci e ntly at home in bo th bran c hes
O f anth ro p ology to know eac h of the t wo things
he co mpares fo r wh at it t ruly is

t he

re a

Having gl an ced at metho d an d s o urces I

pass on to resul t s So me t e xt b oo k mus t be
c on sulted fo r th e long li s t of pre hi s to r i c
perio ds re qui red fo r wes tern E uro pe not to
me ntion th e furth er c o mp li cations caused b y
bringing in the remaining p o rtion s o f th e
wo rl d T he s ton e age with it s th ree grea t
di vi s ions the eolithi c (6 6 3 G ree k fo r dawn
an d lithos s ton e ) the pal aeoli thi c (p a lazo s
n eos n e w ) a n d th e i r
o ld ) an d th e n e olithi c (
n umerous subd i vi s ion s c o mes rs t ; th e n th e
age of c o pper a n d bronz e ; an d the n th e early
i ron a ge whi c h i s ab o ut th e li mit of proto
hi s to ry Here I s h all c onn e m y remarks t o
E uro pe
I am not going far a el d into suc h
q ues tion s as : Who w ere th e m o un d buil ders
An d are th e C al averas
o f No rth Ameri ca
skull an d o t h er remain s fo u n d in th e gol d
bea ring gravel s of C aliforn i a to be reck on e d
am ong st th e earli es t t races of ma n in t h e
glo be
N or again mus t I pause to sp e c u
l at e wh eth er th e dark s t ain ed l us t ro us int
impl eme nt s d i sc o vered b y Mr He n ry Bal four
a t a high l e ve l below t he V i c to ria F all s an d
,

AN TI Q UITY O F MAN

41

p os si bly dep o sit ed th ere b y th e ri ver ! ambe zi

befo re it had carved t h e prese nt gor ge in t h e
s ol i d basalt pr o ve th at li ke wi se in South
Afr i ca man was ali ve an d bus y untol d
thousan ds of y ears ago Al s o I s h all here
c onn e m y self to th e s ton e age bec ause m y
O bj ect i s c hi e y to ill us t rat e th e long pedigr e e
of th e spec i es fr o m whi c h w e are all sprung
Th e a ntiquity of man being m y i mmed i at e
th eme I can hardl y avoi d saying s ome thing
ab o ut eoliths ; thou gh th e subj ec t i s on e th at
in vari ab ly set s pre hi st or i an s at eac h other s
thr o at s T here are eoliths an d eolit hs how
ever ; an d s ome of M R ut o t s Be lgi an e x amp l es
are now a day s al m os t reck on ed respec t
ab l e Let u s n everth el ess inq ui re wh eth er
eoli t h s are not to be fo un d n earer ho me
I can wi s h th e reader no m ore delightful
e xperi en ce th a n t o run d o wn t o I ghtham in
Kent an d pa y a c al l on M r Ben j amin Harr i
In th e r oo m ab o ve wh at used t o be Mr
so n
H arr i s on s gr ocer y s t o re eolit h s beyon d all
c ou nt are on vi ew whic h h e h as man ag ed t o
amass in hi s rare m ome nt s of l e i sure A s h e
lo vin gly c on s t h e s ton es o ver an d s how s off
th e ir p oint s hi s en t hus i asm i s li kely to pr ove
cat ching Bu t th e vi s i t or w e s h all supp o se
V ery good ; it i s not f ar thou gh
is scepti cal
a st i fsh pull t o A s h on th e to p of t h e No rt h
Downs Herea b out s are Mr Harri s on s
,

ANTHR OPO LOGY

42

hunting gr oun ds Over th ese s tony t racts he

has c on duc t ed Si r J o sep h Pres twi c h a n d Si r
John E van s to c on v in ce th e on e authority
but not th e o t h er M ark this pebbly drift
O f rus ty red c olo ur spread i rre gul arly along
th e el ds as if th e relics of s ome an c i e nt
s tream o r ood O n th e surf ace if yo u are
l uck y yo u ma y p i ck up an u nq ues tion ab l e
pal aeoli t h of early type with t h e rus ty red
s t ain of t h e gravel o ver it to s how th at it has
l a in th ere for ag es But b oth on an d below
th e sur fac e t h e gravel be ing perh aps fr om ve
to seve n f ee t deep another ty pe of ston e
occurs t h e so c all ed eolith It i s p i cked o ut
fr o m am ongs t ordin ar y s ton es partly because
of i t s s h ape a n d partly because of r ou gh an d
muc h wo rn c hi pp ing s th at su gges t th e ha n d of
art o r of n at ur e acc ord ing to yo ur t urn of
m in d Take on e b y i t self e xp l ains M r
Harr i s on an d you wil l be sure to ran k it
as ordin ary r o ad me t al But t ake a ser i es
toget her an d the n h e ur ges th e s ight of th e
same forms o ver a n d o ver a ga in will persuade
yo u in t h e en d th at h uman des ign not ai ml ess
c h an ce h as bee n at wo rk h ere
W ell I mus t l eave M r Harri s on to c on vert
yo u in t o t h e fri en d or foe of hi s eolith s a n d
will merely add a word in reg ard to th e
pro bab l e age of t h ese e olit h bearing gravel s
Sir J o sep h Pres twi c h has t r i ed to wo rk th e
-

A NTI QUITY O F MA N

43

pr o bl em out N ow a d ay s Kent an d S usse x

ru n eas tw ards in ve m ore or l ess parall el
ri d ges not f ar s hort of
f eet high wi t h
deep vall e y s betw ee n Fo rmerly how ever
no suc h vall e y s e xi st ed an d a great d ome of
c h al k s o me
fee t high at it s cr own
perh aps thou gh oth ers woul d sa y l ess c o vered
th e whol e c ou nt ry T h at i s why r i vers li ke
th e Darenth an d M edw a y o ut cl ean thr ou gh
th e N orth D own s an d f all into th e T hames
in s t ead of owing eas t w ards d own th e l at er
vall e y s T h e y s t ar t ed to carve th ei r c h ann el s
in th e s oft c h al k in th e day s gon e b y wh e n th e
w aters h ed w ent north an d s ou t h d own th e
slo pes of th e great d ome An d th e red gravel s
with th e eo lith s in th em c on cl udes Pres t wi c h
mus t h ave c ome d o wn th e no rt h slo pe whil s t
th e d ome w as still in t act ; for th e y c ont ain
fra gme nt s of s ton e th at h ail fr om righ t acr oss
th e present val l e ys Bu t if th e eolit h s are
man made th e n man presumab ly kill ed game
an d cu t it up on to p of t h e W eal den d o me
how many y ears ago on e t rembl es to thin k
-

n e xt pr oceed to th e subj ect of

T
h
ere
i
s
a
t
a
ny
ra
t
e
no
d
o
ub
t
l
a
l
o
h
s
i
a
t
p
ab ou t th em Y et rath er m o re th a n h alf a
ce ntury ago wh e n th e Abb B ouc h er de
Perth es fou n d pal aeolith s i n th e grave l s of th e
Somme a t Abbe vill e a n d was t h e rs t t o
Le t

us

ANTHR OPOLOGY

44

recognize th em fo r wh a t th e y are th ere wa s

no sma ll scan dal N ow a da y s how ever t he
wor l d t akes it as a matt er of c ourse th at tho se
l ump i s h d i sc olo ured a n d muc h r oll ed ston es
s h aped s ome t hing like a pear whi c h c o me
fr om th e high t erraces dep o s it ed b y th e
A n c ie nt T h ames w ere on ce up on a t i me
th e w eap on s o r tool s of s o meb o d y who h a d
p l e nty of musc l e in hi s arm P l e nty o f sk ill
h e h ad in hi s ngers too ; fo r to c hi p a in t
pebb l e a long b oth faces till it t akes a m ore
o r l ess s y mme t ri ca l a n d s t a n dard s h ape is not
Hammer aw a y your
s o eas y as it s o u n ds
self at suc h a pebb l e a n d see wh at a mess
you make of it T o go back for o n e m ome nt
to th e subj ect of eolith s w e ma y f a i rly ar gue
th at e x per i ment al forms s till ruder th a n t he
muc h t r im med pal e olith s of th e early r i ver
dr ift mus t e xi s t s omewh ere wh eth er Mr
Harri s on s e olith s are to be c l assed am ong st
th em o r not I n deed th e Tasma ni a n s of
m odern day s carved th e i r s imp l e tool s so
r ou ghly th at any o n e igno rant o f th e ir
hi sto ry m ight eas ily m i s t ake th e great er
n umber fo r c omm on p i eces of ston e O n t he
oth er h an d as w e m ove on fr om th e ear li er
to t he l at er types o f ri ver drift imp l eme nt s
w e not e how b y d e grees prac ti ce mak es
perfect Th e forms grow ever m ore re gul ar
an d re n ed up to t h e p oint of ti m e w hi c h has
,

ANTI Q UI TY O F MAN

45

bee n ch o se n as th e li mi t fo r th e rs t o f th e
th ree ma in s t ages into whi c h th e vas t p a lze o
lithi c ep o ch ha s to be br o ke n up T h e man
of th e l at e St A c h eu l per iod as it is t ermed
w as t ruly a great art i st in his w a y I f yo u
s t are vaca n t ly at hi s h an d iwo rk in a museum
you are l ike ly to rema in c ol d to it s ch arm
Bu t pro be ab ou t in a grave l bed till yo u h ave
th e goo d fo rtu n e to light on a mas t erp i ece ;
t e n der ly sm ooth aw a y with your nge rs th e
di rt s t i ck ing to it s surface a n d bring to V i e w
th e t apering o r ova l ou tlin e th e s tra ight e dge
th e eve n a n d de li cat e c hi pp ing over b oth
faces ; th e n wrapp ing it ca re fu lly in your
h a n dkerc hie f t ake it ho me t o w as h a n d feas t
till bed t ime on th e c l ea n fee l a n d s hi ning
me llow colour of wh at i s h ard ly m o re a n
imp l eme nt th a n a g em Th e y too k a pri de
in th e ir work d i d th e me n of ol d ; a n d u nt il
you ca n l ear n to s ympathiz e yo u are n o
ant hro p ologi s t
D ur ing th e succe ed ing ma in s t age of t he
pal ae olithi c epo ch th ere wa s a dec i ded se t back
in th e cul ture a s j ud ged b y th e q uality of th e
wo rkma n s hi p in int T ho se were th e da y s
o f th e Mo u ste ria n s w ho
d in e d o ff woolly
rh ino ce r o s in Jerse y Th eir s t o n e imp l eme nt s
wo rke d only on on e face are p oo r thin gs b y
co mpar ison with tho se o f l ate St A ch eu l da ys
tho ug h fo r a time dege ne rate d forms o f the
.

ANTHR OPOLO G Y

46

l att er seem to h ave rema in ed in use Wh at

h ad h appe n ed ? We ca n only guess Pro b
ab ly s o me thing t o d o with t h e c li mat e w as
at t h e b ott om of thi s c h ange fo r t h e wo rse
T hus M B u t o t be li eves th at dur ing th e i ce age
eac h b ig free z e w as followed b y a n e q ually
b ig ood preced ing eac h fres h ret urn of m il de r
wea t her O n e of th e se oo ds h e thinks
must h ave drown ed ou t t h e n eat n ge re d race
of St A c h eu l a n d l e ft th e c o as t c l ear fo r the
M o u st e ria n s wi th th e ir c o arser ty pe o f cu lt ure
Per h aps th e y w ere c o ar ser i n th e ir p hy s i cal
1
type a s w e ll
T o th e cre dit of t h e M o u st e rian s h owever
mus t be se t d own th e fact th at th e y are
ass o c i at ed with th e h ab it of li ving in caves
a n d per h aps may eve n h ave s t art ed it ;
t ho u gh s o me i mp l em e nt s of th e dr ift type
o ccur in L e Mous t i er it self as w ell as in oth er
caves suc h as th e f am o us K e nt s C avern n ear
T or q uay Cli mat e on ce m o re h as very
p o ss i bly to a n s w er fo r h aving thus dri ve n man
u n dergr o un d A nyw a y wh eth er because th e y
.

Th e irs was c e rta inly the rat h e r ape -l ike Nean d e rth al
b uild
If, h o w e v er , the sk ull fo un d a t Gall e Hill , n ear
No rt he e t in Ke n t , a mo ngst the gr a ve l s la id o wn b y the
Th ames w h e n it was a b o ut n in e ty fe e t ab o v e its re se nt
l e ve l , is o f ea rl y palmo lit hic d ate , as so me go o d a ut o ritie s
b e l ie ve , t h e re was a kin d o f ma n awa y b ac k in the dr ift
e ri o d who ha d a fa ir l y h ig h fo re h ea d a n d mo d e rate
r o w- r id g es a n d in g e n e r a l wa s a l e s s b ruta l spe c ime n o f
h uman ity han o ur M o us te rian frie n d o f the large grin d e rs
1

A NTI QUI TY O F MAN

47

must o r bec au se t h e y li ked it th e M o u st e rians

we nt on with th e i r cave lif e dur ing an i mme ns e
space of time making littl e pr ogress u nl ess
it w ere to l earn gradually how to s h arpe n
b on es in to i mp l ement s Bu t caves an d b on es
ali ke w ere to p l a y a far m ore s tr i king part in
th e days i mmedi at ely to follow
Th e thi rd an d l as t main s t ag e of th e p ala c
li thi c ep o c h develo ped b y de grees into a
gol de n age of art But I cannot d w ell on all
it s glori es I mus t pass b y th e beautiful work
in int ; suc h as th e thin b l ades of l aurel l eaf
patt ern f ai rly c o mm on in Fran ce but rare in
E ngl an d belonging to t h e st a g e o r type of
cul t ure kno wn as th e Sol u t ri an (fr o m Sol ut re
in th e depart ment of Sa n e e t L oir e )
I
mus t al s o pass b y th e e xqui s it e F re n c h
e x amp l es of th e carvings o r engravings of
b on e an d i v ory ; a s ingl e engraving of a
h orse s head fr o m t h e cave at C res well Crags
in Derb y s hire be ing all th at E ngl an d has t o
Any goo d museum ca n
O ff er in thi s l in e
s how you spec imen s o r m o del s of th ese delight
ful o bj ect s ; wh ereas th e t hing s ab o u t whi c h
I am going t o speak mus t remain hi dde n a w ay
for ever wh ere th e i r makers l e ft th emI mea n
t h e paintings an d e ngrav ings on the w all s of
th e Fre n c h an d S pan i s h caves
I in vi t e you t o acc ompany me in th e sp irit
rs t of all t o the cave of G ar g as n ear Ave ntiro n
,

ANTHR OPOLO G Y

48

un der th e s h ad ow of th e P i c du Mi di i n the
High P yre n ees Half w ay up a hi ll i n t he
mi ds t of a wil dern ess of r oc k y fragment s t he
reli cs of th e i ce ag e i s a smalli s h hol e d own
whi c h w e c l amber into a spac io us but low
r oofed gr otto s t ret c hing back ve hu n dred
feet o r s o into inn ite darkn ess Hard b y
th e m outh wh ere th e light of day free ly
ent ers are th e rema in s of a h earth wi t h b on e
refuse an d di scarded i mp l emen t s mingling
wi t h th e as h es to a c on s i derabl e depth A
gl an ce at th ese imp l eme nt s for in s t an ce th e
small int scraper with n arr ow high back an d
perpen di cular c hi pp ing along th e s i des is
enou gh to s how th at th e men who on ce
w armed th e i r ngers h ere w ere of th e so call ed
Aurign ac i an ty pe (Aur ign ac in t h e depart me nt
of Haut e G ar onn e in s o uth ern Fran ce ) t h at
i s to s ay l i ved s o me where ab ou t t h e da wn of
th e thi rd s t age of th e p almo lit hic ep oc h
D i rec tly aft er th eir d i sappearan ce n at ure
wo ul d seem to h ave seal ed up th e cave aga in
u n t il o ur ti me s o th at w e can s t ud y th em here
all b y th emsel ves
N ow l et us t ake o ur l amps an d e xp lo re t he
secret s of th e int er ior T h e i c y to rre nt s th at
hollow ed i t in t h e li mes ton e h ave eat e n a w ay
r ou n ded al c o ves al ong th e s i des O n th e
whit e surf ace of th ese gl a zed o ver with a
pres er ving l m of s tal ac tit e w e at on ce noti ce
-

ANTI Q UITY O F MAN

49

th e o utlin es of ma ny h an ds Mo s t of th em
are l eft h an ds s howing th at th e Aurign ac i e n s
t en ded to be r ight h an ded l ike o urse l ves an d
dus t ed on t h e paint b l ack mangan ese o r red
oc hre betwee n th e out spread n gers i n j ust
th e w a y th at w e too wo ul d n d c on ve ni ent
Curio us ly e nou gh thi s practi c e of s t en c illing
h an ds up on th e w all s of caves is in vogue
am ongs t th e Australi an n ati ves ; th o u gh
unfor t un a tely th e y kee p th e reas on if there is
any deeper on e th a n mere amusement st r i ctly
to th emse l ves L i ke th e Aus t rali an s ag ain
an d oth er rude pe o p l es th ese Au rign a c ia ns
wo ul d appear to h ave bee n gi ve n to lo pp ing
off an occas ion al n ge rfr om s ome re ligio us
m oti ve w e ma y guess to j udg e fr o m th e
mutil at ed loo k Of a goo d many of t h e h an d
pr in t s
T h e use of paint i s h ere li m it ed to thi s cl ass
of w all dec o ration But a s harp int makes a n
e xcell ent graving tool ; an d th e Aurign ac i a n
h unt er i s be n t on repr o duc ing b y t hi s mean s
th e forms of t ho se game an i mal s ab out whi c h
h e d o ub tl ess dreams night an d da y H is
e ffo rt s in t hi s d i rection how ever rat h er
remi n d us of those of o ur infant sc hool s
Loo k at thi s b i s on H i s s nou t i s drawn
s i de w ay s bu t th e ho rn s bran c h o ut r ight a n d
l e ft as if in a full face vi e w Again o ur fri e n d
scamps det ail s suc h as th e l e gs Sh eer w ant
.

AN THROP O L OGY

50

s kill we may suspect l ead s him t o c onst ruct

w ha t i s m ore li ke the s y mb ol of s o mething
t h ou ght th a n th e p o rt rait of s o me t hing see n
An d so w e w an der farther an d farther into
the gloo m y dep ths add ing ever n e w spec i me ns
t o o ur pre hi s t o ri c me n ageri e in cl uding t he
rare n d o f a b i rd th at loo ks un c o mm only li ke
th e penguin Min d b y th e wa y th at yo u
d o not fall into th at ro un d hol e in th e oo r
I t i s e no rm o us ly deep ; an d m o re t han fo rty
cave bears have l e ft th ei r s ke l e tons at th e
bottom am ongs t whi c h yo ur s ke l e ton wo ul d
be a littl e o u t of p l ace
Ne xt day l et us m o ve O ff eas tw ards to t he
Littl e P y re n ee s to see another cave Ni au x
high up in a vall e y scarred n early up to th e
to p b y fo rmer gl aci ers T hi s cave i s ab o u t a
mil e deep ; a n d it will take yo u ha lf a mi l e
o f aw k w ard gr o p ing a m ong s t b o u l ders a n d
s ta l act i t es not to me ntion a c ho ke in on e part
o f th e passa ge suc h as mus t pu zzl e a f at ma n
be fo re t h e cavern bec o mes spac io us an d yo u
n d yourse lf in the vas t un dergro un d cat hedral
that pre hi s to ri c man has chose n fo r his p i cture
g all ery T hi s w as a l a t er s tock tha t had in
th e meanti me l earnt how to dra w t o p e rfe c
tion Cons i der th e b ol d b l ack an d whi te o f
that po rt rait o f a wil d p ony wit h owing
ma n e an d tail glo ss y barrel a n d j olly s n ub
It is four o r ve fee t acro ss an d
n ose d f ace
of

ANTI QUI TY O F MAN

51

in ch o f th e wo rk is o ut o f scal e The
same is t rue of n early every on e of t h e oth er
fty o r m o re gures of game ani mals Th ese
arti s t s c oul d paint wh at t h e y sa w
Yet the y c oul d paint up on t he w all s w hat
th e y thou ght too Th ere are li ke wi se whol e
screeds of s ymb ol s wai ting perh aps w aiting
fo r ever to be int erpre ted T h e d ots an d
lin es an d p ot hoo ks c l early be long to a s ys t em
of p i cture writing C an w e make o ut thei r
meaning at all ? O n ce in a wa y perh aps
Not e these marks loo king li ke two d iffere nt
k in ds of t hrowing c l ub ; at any rat e there are
Aus t rali an weap on s not unli ke them T o th e
l e ft of them are a lot of d ot s in wh at loo k li ke
patt ern s am ongs t whi c h we get twi ce o ver the
scheme of on e d ot in th e ce nt re of a ci rc l e
of oth ers Th e n farth er s till t o th e l e ft
c o mes th e paint ed g ure of a b i s on ; o r to
be m o re accurat e th e fr ont half i s paint ed th e
back be ing a p i ece of prot rudi ng rock that
gi ves th e e ffect of low re li e f The bi s on is
rearing back on it s h au n c h es an d th ere i s a
pat ch of re d paint li ke an o pe n wo un d j us t
over th e re gion of its h eart Le t u s t ry t o
read th e ri dd l e It may w e ll embod y a c ha rm
tha t ran s omewh at th us
With th ese
weap on s an d b y these e n ci rcling ta cti cs ma y
we s l a y a fat b i s on 0 ye p owers of the dark l
D epe n d upo n i t the men who we nt half a mi le
no t an

ANTHROPOLOGY

52

into the bo w e l s of a m o u n t ain to paint t hi ngs

up on th e w all s d i d not d o s o merely fo r fu n
T hi s is a very eeri e p l ace an d I daresay m o s t
of us would not li ke to spe n d th e night there
alon e ; t ho u gh I k now a pre hi s to ri an who d i d
In A us t rali a as w e s h all see l ater on rock
painting s of game ani mal s not so life li ke as
these o f th e ol d day s but s ymb oli c al m o s t
be yon d all recognizing fo rm part o f s ol em n
cerem oni es wh ereb y good h unting is he l d to
be secu red Somethi ng of t he s o rt th en w e
ma y supp ose too k p l ace ages ago in the cave
SO in deed it w as a ca t hedral a ft er
o f Ni au x
a f as hion ; an d h aving in min d th e carve n
p ill ars o f s ta l ac tit e t he curvi n g al c o ves an d
s i de c hape l s th e s hining w hit e w al ls an d the
d i m ce iling th at he l d in sc o rn o ur p owerful
l amps I ve nt ure to q ues tion wh ether man
has ever li fted up his h ear t in a gran der
,

,
,

o ne .

S pace wou l d fail me if I n o w s o ught t o

c arry yo u off to the cave o f Altami ra n ear
S ant an der in the n o rth w es t of S pain Here
you might se e at i t s bes t a s till la ter styl e o f
rock painting whi c h deserts mere b l ack an d
w hite fo r colo ur s h ad ing of the m o s t free
d escri p tion I n deed it is al m os t to o fre e in
m y jud gme nt ; fo r tho ugh th e contr ol o f the
arti s t over hi s rude ma teri al is c omp l e t e
he is inc line d to turn hi s back o n real lifg,
,

ANTI QUITY O F MAN

53

fo rc i n g th e ani mal fo rms into attitudes m o re

s tri kin g th an n atural an d e n d owing thei r
faces s o me ti mes as it seems to me wi t h
alm ost h uma n e xpress ions
Wha tever ma y
be tho ught of th e li ke lihoo d of these beas ts
being p o rtr ay ed to loo k li ke me n cert ain it i s
that in th e pa in ted caves of thi s period th e
me n al m o s t in vari ab ly have ani ma l h eads as
if the y w ere m yt hologi cal beings half ani mal
an d h alf hu ma n ; o r e l seas perhaps is m o re
probab l e masked da n cers At on e p l ace
howevern ame ly in th e ro ck s he l t er of Cogul
n ea r Leri da on the S pani s h s i de of th e P yre
n ees we have a p i c t ure O f a group of wo me n
dan cers who are not masked bu t atti red in
the s tyl e of th e ho ur The y w ear high ha ts o r
c hignons tight w ai s t s an d be ll s h aped ski rt s
Really con s i dering th at w e th us h ave a
c ontemp o rary f as hion p l at e s o to sa y whil s t
there are li ke wi se th e numero us s t en cill ed
ha n ds e l se where on vi e w a n d eve n as I h ave
see n with m y own e y es at Ni aux in th e san d y
floo r harden ed o ver with s tal agmi t e th e
ac tual print of a foot w e are brought very
n ear to our pal aeoli t hi c fo reru nn ers ; t ho ugh
in denit e ages part th em fro m us if w e rec kon
b y s h eer ti me
,

Be fo re e n di ng thi s c hap t er I have s till to

make good a pro mi se to sa y so mething ab out
,

ANTHR OPOLO G Y

54

n eo lithi c me n of we s tern E uro pe These

pe o p l e o ften though not alwa ys pol i s hed
th ei r s ton e ; th e pal aeolithi c fo lk di d not
That is t he di s tingui s hing mark b y whi ch
th e wo rl d i s p l eased to go It wo ul d be fat al
t o fo rge t how ever th a t with thi s t ri ing
differen ce go many o t hers whi c h tes ti fy m o re
cl early to th e c ont rast betw ee n th e Ol der
an d n e wer types of cu lt ure
Thus it has
s till to be pro ved th at th e pal aeoli thi c races
ever used p ottery o r th at th e y d o mes ti cat ed
ani mal sfo r ins tan ce the fat poni es w hi ch
th e y w ere s o fon d of ea ting ; o r th at the y
p l a nt ed crops A ll these things di d th e
n eoli t hi c pe op l es s oon er o r l at er ; so th at it
woul d not be s t range if p almo lit hic man with
dre w in th e i r favour be cause h e coul d not
c o mpe t e Pre hi s to ry i s at prese nt al mo s t
sil ent concerning th e mann er of hi s passing
In a damp an d draughty t unn el however
call ed Ma s d Az il in th e s o uth of Fran ce
wh ere th e ri ver A ri ze s till b o res its wa y
th ro ugh a m ou ntain so me p almo lit hic fo lk
seem t o have lingered on in a sad s t at e of
decay Th e o ld sure n ess of touch in th e
ma tter of carving b on e had l e ft t h em Ag ain
th ei r pa inting was c onn ed t o t he ad o rning of
c e rtain pebb l es wit h spots a n d lin es curio us
O bj ec ts tha t perha ps are not witho ut an alogy
in Aust rali a whi l s t so methi ng li ke the m cro ps

the

AN TI Q UI TY O F MAN

55

up again i n the no rth of S c otl an d in wh at

seems to be th e early i ron a ge Had th e res t
of th e pal ae olithi c me n al read y followe d th e
re in deer an d o ther arc ti c ani mal s tow ards th e
no rth eas t
Or d i d the n e olithi c in vas ion
whi c h came fro m th e s ou t h wi pe ou t th e lot
Or w as th ere a c o mmingling of s toc ks an d ma y
s o me of us have a li ttl e d o se of p al aeolithi c
bloo d as we cert ainly have a l arge d ose of
n e olithi c
To all these q ues tion s it can only
be rep li ed th at w e d o not ye t kno w
No m o re d o we know h alf as much as w e
s hou l d lik e abo ut fty things re l ating t o th e
small dark long h eaded n e olithi c fol k with a
l anguag e tha t h as p o ss i b ly l e ft t races in th e
m odern Bas q ue who spread o ver th e w es t

till the y reac h ed Great Brit ain it pro bab ly

w as an i s la n d b y thi s ti me an d erec ted th e
w ell known long barrows an d other m on u
me nts of a megalithi c (great s ton e ) type ;
thou gh not th e r o un d barrows whi ch are th e
wo rk of a subse que nt r o u n d headed race of
the bronze age E very da y however the
spade i s addi ng to o ur kn owl ed ge Bes i des
mo s t of th e ruder peo p l es of t he m o dern
wo rl d w ere at th e n eolithi c s t age of cu lt ure
at the ti me of th ei r d i sco very b y E uro peans
Hen ce th e w eap on s the ho use hol d ut e n s il s
th e p ottery th e p il e d w ellings an d s o on
can be compared c losely ; an d we have a
-

AN THR OPOLO GY

56

fres h in s t an ce of the w ay in whi c h on e bran c h

o f ant hro p ology can a i d a n oth er
In pursuan ce of m y p l an how ever of mere ly
p itc hing h ere an d there on an ill us t rati ve
poin t I s h a ll co n c l ude b y an e x curs ion to
Bran d on j us t on t he S u ffol k s i de Of th e bo rder
be tw ee n that c o u n t y a n d No rfol k Here w e
can s t an d as it were wi t h on e foot in n e oli t hi c
ti mes an d th e ot her in the life of to da y
Wh en C anon G ree nwe ll in 1 8 7 0 ex p lo red in
thi s n e ighb ourhood on e of the n e oli t hi c i n t
min es known as G ri me s G raves h e h ad to d ig
o ut th e rubb i s h fro m a fo rmer fu nn e l s ha ped
p it s o me fo rty fee t deep D own at thi s l eve l
it appeared th e n eolithi c wo rker had fo un d
th e la yer of th e bes t int Thi s he q uarri ed
b y mean s of n arr ow gall eri es in all d i rections
Fo r a p i ck h e used a red deer s antl er In the
Bri t i s h M useum is t o be see n on e of the se wit h
th e min er s thumb m ar k s t amped on a p i ece of
cla y s ti cking to th e h an d l e H is l amp was a
cup of ch al k Hi s l adder was pro bab ly a
seri es of rou gh s te ps o ut in th e s i des of th e
p it As re gards th e use to whi c h the mat eri al
was put a n e olit hi c wo r ks ho p was fou n d jus t
to th e s ou t h of G ri me s G raves Here
sca ttered ab o u t on all s i des w ere th e c o res th e
hammer s tones t hat bro ke them up an d kni ves
scrapers b o rers spe ar h eads an d arrow heads
g alo re in all s t ages of man u fac t ure
.

AN T I Q UI TY O F M AN

57

W ell now l et us hi e to Lin ghe at h not far

o ff a n d wh at d o w e n d
A family of th e
n ame of D y er carr y on to d a y e x actly th e
same Old met ho d of mining T h e i r p i t s are of
s quarer s h ape th an th e n eolit hi c on es but
o t h erwi se s i m il ar T he ir on e pr ong ed p i ck
ret a in s th e s h ape of th e deer s antl er T h e ir
light i s a can dl e s t uck in a cup of c h al k An d
th e l adder i s j us t a seri es of l edges or as th e y
call th em
t oes in t he w all ve f ee t ap art
an d c onn ec t ed b y foot hol es
T h e min er
s i mp ly j erks his load several h un dred w e ight
of in t s fr o m l edg e to l ed g e b y th e a i d of hi s
h ead whi c h h e pr ot ec t s with s o mething th at
n e olithi c man w as pr o bab ly witho u t n amely
a n ol d b owl er h at He eve n t alk s a l anguage
of hi s own
Bubber hu tc hing on th e s o s h
i s th e t erm fo r s in k ing a p i t on th e s l a nt an d
for al l w e ca n t ell ma y h ave a very an ci e nt
ped igree An d wh at bec omes of t h e m in er s
out put It i s s ol d b y th e j ag
a j a g be ing
a p il e j us t s o high th at wh e n you s t an d on a ny
si de yo u can see t h e b otto m int on th e ot h er

to th e kn appers of Bran d on Any on e of

t hese fo r in s t an ce m y fr i en d Mr Fred Sn are
will whil e yo u w ait break up a lump with a
s ho rt r oun d h ammer in t o ma n ageab l e p i eces
T h en p l ac ing a q uart er wi t h hi s l e ft h an d
on th e l eather pad t h at c o vers hi s kn ee h e will
with an o b long h ammer s tr i ke o ff ak e aft er
,

ANTH R OPOLO G Y

58

perh aps
in a m orning ; an d n ally
w ill wo rk these up int o s h arp ed ged s quares
to serve as gu n in t s for the t rade with n ati ve
A fr i ca Al as ! the pal m y days of kn app ing gun
in t s fo r th e Br i t i s h Arm y will n ever re t urn
to Bran d on S t ill t h ere mus t h ave bee n t rade
depression in tho se part s at any t i me fr om
the br onze age up t o t h e t i mes of Br own Bess ;
for th e s t ri ke a light s s t ill to be got at a pe nny
eac h can h ave barely kep t th e wolf fr o m th e
d oo r An d Mr Sn are i s not merely a n a rti san
bu t an arti s t He h as c hi pped o ut a int
ring a feat whi ch t ax ed t h e p ow ers Of th e
cl ever n eolithi c kn appers of pre d yn asti c
E gy p t ; whil s t with on e of hi s own in t sh
hoo ks h e h as t ake n a n e t r ou t fr o m t h e L ittl e
Ouse th at run s b y th e town
T hus there are things in ol d E ngl an d th at
are ol der eve n th an s o me of o ur fr i e n ds wot
I n th at on e c ou nty of S u ffol k fo r in s t an ce th e
goo d i nt ao r i c h in c olo ur as i t i s an d so
resp on s i ve to th e h ammer at any rat e if yo u

g et d own to th e low er l ayers o r sase s fo r

in s t an ce t h e o o rst o n e o r t h e b l ack sm ooth
s ton e th at i s gen erally below w ater l evel ha s
served t h e n eeds of al l t h e pal aeolit hi c perio ds
an d of t h e n e olit hi c ag e as w ell an d li ke wise
of t h e m o dern E ngli s hme n who fou ght with
i n t lo c ks at W at erloo o r s t ill m o re rece n t ly
took o ut tin der b ox es with th em to t h e war

ake ,

RA C E

59

in Sou th Af ri ca An d wh at d o es thi s
fo r in terms of t h e an t iq ui t y of
Tho usan ds of y ears ? W e d o not
e xactly ; but sa y rath er h un dreds of
san ds of y ears
.

s t an d
man
know
tho u

CHAP TER III

R ACE

i s a s to ry ab o ut th e Bri t i s h sa ilor
who w a s asked t o s t at e wh at h e un ders too d b y

a D ago
Dagoes h e rep li ed
i s anything

wot i s n t our s ort of c h aps

In e x actly th e
same w ay wo ul d an an c i ent G reek have

e xp l ain ed wh at h e meant b y a barbar i an

Wh en it t akes t hi s whol esal e fo rm w e speak
not witho u t reas on of race prej udi ce We
ma y w e ll won der in the meant i me how far thi s
prejud i ce an s wers to s omethi ng real R ace
woul d cert ainly seem to be a f ac t that st ares
on e in t h e f ace
Str oll d o wn any L on d on s t ree t yo u cannot
go wr ong ab ou t t h at Hin du s t ude nt wit h
feat ures rath er like o urs but of a darker s h ade
Th e s ho rt dapper man wi t h eyes a littl e as l ant
It t akes
is no l ess un mi s t akably a Japan ese
but a slightly m ore practis ed e y e t o p i ck o ut
THE RE

AN T HROPOLOGY

60

th e G erman w ait er t h e Fren c h c h au ffeur an d

th e It ali an ven d o r of i ces L ast ly whe n you
h ave made yourself really goo d at t h e g ame
you will be scarcely m ore li ke ly t o c onfuse
a small dark W el s hman wi t h a br o ad or i d
Yorks hireman t h an a ret ri ever with a mas t iff
Y es but remember th at yo u are j ud ging b y
th e gr o ss i mpress ion not b y th e el em
e nt of
race or breed as di stingu i s h ed fr o m t h e res t
Here yo u sa y c ome a c oup l e Of o ur Amer i ca n
c ous in s Per h aps it i s th e i r speech t h at
bew ra yet h t h em ; or per h aps it i s t h e ge n eral
cu t of t h e ir j i b I f yo u w ere t o go into t h e i r
act ual ped igrees yo u wo ul d n d t h at th e on e
had a S c ot c h f at h er an d a m ot h er f r o m ou t of
D orset ; whil st t h e ot h er w as part ly S can d i
n av ia n an d partly S pa ni s h wi t h a tin ct ur e of
Je w
Y et to all int ent s an d purp oses t h e y
form on e ty pe An d th e m ore deeply you go
into i t th e m ore mix ed w e all of us t ur n ou t
t o be wh en breed an d breed al on e i s t h e
subj ect of inq u iry Y et race in t h e on ly
se n se th at th e wo rd h as fo r an an t hr o p ologi s t
mean s inh eri t ed breed an d not hing m ore o r
l ess inh er i t ed breed an d all t h at i t c o vers
wh et h er b o d il y or me n t al f eat ures
For race l et it not be for gott en presumab ly
e xten ds t o min d as w ell as t o b od y It is not
merely skin deep Con t ras t t h e s t oi cal R e d
In di an with th e vi vac io us Ne gr o ; or t he p hl og
,

RA C E

61

mat i c D u tc hm an wit h t h e pass ion a te It ali an

True yo u sa y bu t wh at ab o ut the in ue n ce
of the i r vario us climat es or ag a in of th e ir
differen t i deal s of be h aviour
It
Q ui t e s o
is i mme n sely d i f cul t t o separat e t h e e ffec t s
of th e various f actors Y et surely t h e race
factor c oun t s fo r s omet hi ng in t h e me nt al
c on stit ution Any breeder of horses will t ell
yo u th at n ei t her t h e climat e of Newm arke t
nor careful t raining no r any quantity of o at s
no r anyt hing el se will pu t rac ing me ttl e into
cart horse s t ock
In wh at follows the n I s h all t r y to s how
j us t wh at th e pr o b l em ab out th e race factor
i s eve n if I have to t respass a li ttl e w a y into
1
gen eral b iology in o rder to d o so
An d I
s h all not att emp t to c on ceal t h e di ffi cul t i es
rel at ing to th e race pr o bl em I k n ow th at
th e ordi n ary reader i s supp o sed to prefer th at
all th e thin king s ho ul d be d on e be foreh an d
a n d merely th e resu lt s subm itt ed to him But
I ca nnot beli eve th at h e wo ul d n d it ed ify i n g
to loo k at h alf a d oze n b ooks up on th e races
of man kin d an d n d h al f a d oz e n acc ount s
of th ei r rel ation s hi ps h av ing scarce ly a s ingl e
s t at ement in c omm on F ar bett er face th e
fac t th at race s till bafes us al m os t c omp l e te ly
.

The

read e r

is

to co n sul t al so the mo re co mpre

E volution b y P r o fesso rs Ge d d es an d

ad vise d

on
hen siv e st ud
Th omso n in t is se ries

ANT HR OPOLO GY

62

Yet bree d i s th ere ; an d in it s own t ime an d in

i t s o wn w ay bree d will o ut
R ace o r breed w as a m o me nt ago desc r i bed
Bu t to break
a s a f ac to r in h uma n n at ure
up h uman n ature in t o f acto rs i s s omethi ng
t h at w e can d o o r t r y to d o in t hou ght only
I n pract i ce w e can n ever succeed in d oing any
thi ng of th e kin d A mac hin e suc h as a w at c h
w e can t ake t o b it s an d th e n pu t tog eth er
E ve n a c h em i cal c omp o u n d suc h a s
a g a in
w at er w e ca n res ol ve into oxyge n an d hy droge n
a n d th e n repr oduce ou t of i t s e l eme nt s Bu t
to di ssect a li v ing t hing i s to k ill it on ce a n d
fo r all L ife as w as sa i d in th e rs t c h ap t er
is s o mething u niq ue with th e u niq ue pr o perty
of be ing ab l e to evol ve A s life evol ves th a t
i s to sa y c h anges b y be ing h an ded on fro m
cert ain forms to cert a in oth er fo rms a parti a l
rigi d i t y marks th e pr o cess toget h er wi t h a
part i al p l as t i c ity T h ere i s a s tiffe ning so
to speak th at keeps t h e life fo rce up to a
p oint t rue to it s ol d d i rection ; thou gh s ho rt of
t hat li m it it i s f ree to t ake a n ew lin e of it s
own Race th en s t an ds fo r th e s tiffe ning
in th e evol ution ary process Jus t up t o wh at
p oin t it go es in a ny gi ve n case w e pro bab ly
can n ever q u it e t e ll Y et if w e c ou l d think
o ur w ay anywh ere n ear to th at p o int in re gard
to ma n I d oub t not th at w e s houl d eve ntually
succeed i n fo r g ing a fres h in s t rume nt fo r c o n
,

RA C E

68

tr oll ing th e destini es of o ur spec i es an in st ru

me nt per h aps m o re p ow er fu l th an educa tio n
it selfI mean eu ge ni cs th e art of i mpr o ving
th e human breed
T o s ee wh at race mean s wh e n c on s i dered
apart l e t us rs t of all t ake yo ur in d i v i dual
self an d ask how you wou l d pr o ceed to
separat e your inh er it ed n at ure fr om th e n a ture
whi ch yo u h ave ac qu i red in t he c ourse of li v ing
yo ur life I t i s not eas y S upp o se how ever
th at you h ad a twin broth er b o rn if in deed th at
w ere p o ss i b l e as lik e you as on e pea i s like
a noth er A n acc i de nt in c hil dhood how ever
So h e bec o mes
has caused him to lo se a l e g
a cl erk li v ing a sedentary lif e in a n offi ce
Y o u on th e oth er h a n d with yo ur two l us ty
l eg s t o h e l p you bec o me a p o s tman alw ay s
W e ll th e two of yo u are now ver y
o n th e ru n
di ffere nt me n in looks an d h ab it s He i s pal e
an d you are br own Y ou p l a y foo t ball an d
h e s i t s at home readi ng Neverth el ess a ny
fr i e n d who k nows you b oth inti mat e ly will
di scover ft y littl e thing s t h at bespeak in you
th e same u n derlying n ature an d be nt Y o u
are b oth fo r in st an ce s lightly c olour b lin d
an d b oth in c lin ed to y int o v iol e nt pass ion s
T h at i s your c o mm on inh er it
o n o ccas ion
an c e peep in g ou tif at l eas t your fr ie n d h as
rea lly man aged to make allow an ce fo r your
whi c h might ma inl y
co mm on br inging u p
,

ANTHR OPOLO GY

64

acco u nt for th e pass ion at e n ess thou gh h ard ly

fo r th e c olo ur b lind n ess
Bu t now c omes th e g reat d i fcu lty Le t
us fu rth er supp o se th at yo u two twin s marry
wi ves who are al s o twin s b o r n as l ike as two
peas ; a n d eac h pa i r of you has a fam ily
Whi ch of th e two bat ch es of c hil dre n will t e n d
on th e whol e to h ave th e s trong er l eg s
Y our
l eg s are st rong b y use ; yo ur broth er s are w eak
b y d i suse But d o u se a n d d i suse make a ny
d iffere n ce to th e race
T h at i s th e th eo reti ca l
q uestion whi ch ab o ve a ll oth ers c o mp licat es
a n d h ampers o ur prese nt da y att emp t s to
u n ders ta n d h ered ity
I n t ec hni cal l anguage thi s is th e pro b l em
of use inh er it an ce oth erwi se k nown as th e
inh erit an ce of acq u i red c h aract ers It i s ap t
to seem o bv ious to th e p l ain man th at th e
e ffect s of use an d d i suse are t ra n sm itt ed to
off spr ing So too thou ght Lamarck w ho
h alf a ce nt ury be fo re Darwin pro p ou n ded a
th eo r y of th e or igin of spec i es th at was eq ually
evol ution ar y in it s w a y Why d oes th e
gi ra ff e h ave s o long a n eck ? Lamarc k
thou ght it w as because th e gi ra ffe h ad acq u ired
a h ab it of s t ret c hing hi s n eck out E very
time th ere w as a bad seas on th e giraffes must
all st re t c h up as high as ever th e y c ou l d
tow ards th e l ea fy to ps of th e t rees ; a n d th e
one th at s t re tc h e d up fa rthest surv i ve d an d
,

RA C E

65

h an d ed on th e capac ity for a like f eat t o his

fo rt un ate desce n da nt s N ow Darwin h imse lf
w as read y t o a llow th at use a n d d i suse m ight
h ave s ome in ue n ce on th e offspr i n g s inhe rit
a n ce ; bu t he thought th at thi s in ue n ce w as
sma ll as co mpared with th e in ue n ce of wh at
for w an t of a bett er t erm h e call ed sp ont a n e o us
vari ation C ert ain of hi s followers however
who call th emsel ves Ne o Dar wini an s
are
read y to go on e bett er Led b y th e Germa n
b iologi st We i smann t h e y wo ul d thr us t th e
Lamarcki an s wi t h th e ir hy p oth es i s of use in
h er it an ce cl ean o ut of t h e el d S p ont an e ous
var i ation th e y assert i s all t h at i s n eeded to
prepare t h e w a y fo r t h e sel ection of t h e t all
gira ffe It happe n ed t o be b o rn th at w a y
In ot h er wo rds it s pare nt s h ad it in th em to
breed it s o T hi s i s no t a t h e o ry th at t ell s on e
an yt hing p o s it i ve It i s merely a cau t ion to
loo k aw ay fr o m use an d d i suse to ano t h er
e x pl an ation of vari at ion th at i s not y et forth
c o ming
Aft er all th e p l ain ma n must remember
that t h e e ffect s of use an d di su se whi c h h e
seems t o see everywh ere ab o u t him are mix e d
up with p l e nt y of apparent in s t an ces to th e
c ontrary He will smil e per h aps wh en I t ell
t off th e t ail s of e n dl ess
hi m th at W e i smann c u
mi ce an d breeding t h em t oget h er foun d th at
tails in vari ably dec orat ed th e race as be fore
.

AN TH R OPO L O G Y

66

I remember h ear ing M r Bern ard Sh aw c o m

men t on t hi s e x peri me nt He w as defe n d ing
th e Lamarck i ani sm of S amue l Bu tl er who
decl ared t h at o ur hered i t y w as a k i n d of race

mem o ry a l apsed in t elligen ce

Why sa i d
M r Sh aw
di d t h e m i ce c ontin ue t o gr ow
t ail s ? Because t h e y n ever w an t ed t o h ave

th em cut off
But me n fol k are wont to
s h ave o ff th e i r beards because th e y w ant to
h ave t h em off ; an d am ongs t pe o pl e m o re
c on servat i ve in t h e i r h ab i t s th a n o ursel ves
suc h a cus t om may pers i s t t hr ou gh n umberl ess
ge n erat ion s Y e t who ever o bserved t h e
s light es t s ign s of beardl ess n ess be ing pr o duced
in t hi s w ay ? O n t h e ot h er h an d t h ere are
beardl ess as w ell as bearded races in t h e wo rl d ;
an d b y cr o ss ing th em yo u c o ul d d o ubtl ess
s oon pr o duce ups an d d own s in t h e ra zor t rade
O nly as We i smann s sc hool woul d sa y th e
re q u i red var i ation i s in thi s case sp ont a n e o us
th at i s c o mes enti rely of i t s own acc o rd
L eav ing th e q ues t ion of use inh er i t an ce
O pe n I pass on to sa y a wo rd ab o u t vari at ion
as c on s i dered in i t self an d apart fro m t hi s
d oub t fu l in uen ce We i sma nn hol ds th at
or ga ni sms resu l t ing fr o m th e u nion of two
ce ll s are m o re var i ab l e th a n t ho se pr o duced
ou t of a s ingl e on e O n t hi s v i e w var i a t ion
depe n ds l arg e ly on th e l aw s of t h e int er
action o f th e d i ss i m il ar c h aract ers br o u ght
.

RA CE
t og e t h er in

67

ce ll u nion But wh at are t hese

l aw s ? T he bes t th at can be sa i d i s th at
w e are g et t ing t o know a li ttl e m ore ab o ut
th em ever y day Am o n g st ot her lin es of
inq uiry the so call ed M en de li an e xp e ri
me nt s pr om i se to cl ear up much that i s at
prese n t dark
Th e deve lop me nt of th e in d i v idual th at
resu lt s fr o m suc h cell uni on i s no mere m ix
t ure or addi t ion bu t a pr o cess of sel ect i ve
o rg aniza tion To pu t it ver y absur dl y on e
d oes not n d a pa ir of two l egged pare nt s
ha vi ng a c hil d with l e g s as b ig as th e two set s
of l eg s t ogether or wi t h four l e gs two of t h em
of on e s h ape a n d two of anot h er I n o t h er
words of th e p o ss i b iliti es c ontr i but ed b y th e
fath er an d m ot h er s o me are t ake n an d s o me
are l e ft in th e case of any on e c hil d M rt he r
different c hil dren will represe nt different
sel ec t ion s fr o m am ongs t th e germ in al el eme n t s
M en deli sm b y t h e w ay i s espec i ally c on cern ed
to n d o ut th e l aw acc ording to whi c h t h e
differe nt ty pes of or g aniz ation are d i s t r i bu t ed
be tw ee n th e offspr ing E ac h chil d mean
whil e i s a u niq ue in d i vi dual a li ving whol e
wi t h a n o rg ani zation of i t s very own T hi s
mean s th at it s c on s t it ue n t e l eme n t s fo rm a
s y s tem T h e y s t an d to eac h oth er in rel at ion s
of mu t ual supp o rt In s hort life i s p o ss i bl e
because th ere i s b al an ce
-

ANT HR OPOLO GY

68

T hi s ge n eral s t at e of bal an ce however is

abl e t o go along wi t h a lot of spec i al bal an c ings
th at seem l arge ly in depe n de nt of eac h other
I t i s i mp o rt ant to remember t hi s wh e n w e
c o me a lit tl e l at er on to c on s i der t h e in s t in c t s
Al l s o rt s of l esser s y s t ems preva il within t h e
l arger s y st em represent ed b y th e in di vi dual
o rgani sm It i s jus t as if wi t hin th e st at e with
it s ce nt ral go vern ment t h ere w ere a n umber
of c ou nty c ou n c il s mu ni c i pal c orp oration s
an d s o on eac h of th em e n j oying a cert a in
measure of self go vern ment on i t s own acc o u nt
T hus w e can se e in a ver y g e n eral w ay how
it i s th at so muc h var i at ion i s p o ss i b l e T h e
sel ec ti ve o r ganiz ation whi c h fr om am ong s t
t h e g erm in al el eme nt s prec i p it at es ever s o
many an d diff ere n t forms of fres h life is s o
loo se an d e l as ti c th at a working arrangeme n t
betw ee n the par t s can be reac h ed in all s ort s
of di rec t ion s T h e l esser s y s t ems are so far
se lf go verning th at t h e y can be t rus t ed
to get along in al m o st any c omb in at ion ;
thou gh of c ourse s o me c omb in at ion s are
n at urally s t r onger an d m o re s t abl e th a n th e
res t an d h en ce t en d t o o ut l as t th em o r
as th e p hrase go es to be preserved b y n a t ural
se l ect ion
It i s ti me to t a k e acc oun t of t h e pri n ci p l e
o f n at ural sel ec t ion
W e h ave d on e wi t h th e
subj ec t of variation Wh ether use an d d i suse
,

RA C E

69

h ave h el ped t o s h ape th e fres h forms o f li fe

or wh et h er th ese are purely sp ont an e o us c o m
b in at io n s t h at have c o me i n t o be ing on wh at
we are p l eased to call t h e ir own acco unt at
any rat e l et us t ake them as gi ven What
h appe n s now
At thi s p oin t begin s th e work
of n at ural sel ection Darwin s great ac hi eve
me nt was to fo rmul at e t hi s l aw ; t hough it i s
onl y fa ir to add t h at it was d i sc o vered b y
A R W all ac e at t h e same m om e n t B o t h of
t h em ge t t h e rs t hint of it f r o m M al th us
T hi s E ngli s h c l er gy man writing ab ou t h alf
a cent ury earli er h ad s hown tha t th e gr owt h
of p op ul ation i s ap t very c on s i derab ly to ou t
s t r i p th e develo pme nt of foo d supp ly ; wh ere
up on n at ural c h ecks suc h as f amin e o r w ar
must h e ar gued ruthl essly int erven e s o as
to redress t h e bal an ce A pp lying th ese c on
s i deration s to th e p l ant an d a ni mal kingd oms
at l ar g e Dar win an d W all ace perce i ved th at
o f th e mul t i t udino us fo rms of lif e thrus t o u t
up on th e worl d to get a li velihoo d as bes t th e y
c oul d a vas t q uantit y mus t be w eeded o ut
Moreo ver s in ce t h e y vary e xceedingly in the i r
type of or ga niz ation it seemed reas on abl e to
supp o se th at of th e c ompe t i t o rs tho se who
w ere inn at ely tted to make th e bes t of th e
ever cha nging c i rcumst an ces woul d o u tli ve
t h e rest An appe al t o th e f act s f ully b o re
It must n o t in dee d b e
o ut thi s h yp ot h esi s
,

A N THROPOLOG Y

70

t hought that all th e w eeding o ut whi c h goes on

favo urs th e t t es t A cc i dent s will alway s
h appe n O n t h e whol e how ever th e ty pe
t h at i s m o s t a t home u n der th e surr o u n di ng
c on di t ion s it may be because i t i s m ore c o m
pl e x o r it ma y be because it is of s i mp l er
or ganiz a t ion survi ves t h e rest
N ow t o surv i ve i s to survi ve to breed If
you li ve t o e ight y a n d h ave no chi l dren yo u
d o not surv i ve in t h e b iological sen se ; whereas
your n e igh b our who di ed at forty may survi ve
in a n umer o us pr ogeny Nat ural se l ection
i s alwa y s in t h e l as t res o rt betw ee n in d i vi dual s
because in di vi dual s are alon e c omp et e n t t o
breed At th e same ti me t h e reas on for t h e
in di vi dual s surv i val may li e very l ar gely o u t
s i de hi m Am ongs t th e bees for in s t an ce a
non working t y pe of in sect surv i ves to breed
because th e s t er il e wo rkers d o t h e ir du t y b y
th e hi ve So t oo th at ot h er s oc i al a ni mal
man carr i es on t h e race b y mean s of s o me
whom ot h ers d i e c hil dl ess in order t o preserve
Neverthel ess breeding be ing a s t r i ctly in d i vi d
ual an d pers on al a ffa ir t h ere i s alw a ys a ri s k
l es t a s o c i et y t hrou gh spen ding i t s bes t t oo
free ly en d b y recru i ting i t s n umbers fr o m
t ho se in whom t h e e n gra in ed capac ity to
re n der s oc i al servi ce i s weakly de velo ped T o
rear a goo dly f am ily mus t alw ay s be t h e rst
duty of un se ls h pe o p l e ; for othe r wi se t h e
.

RA C E

71

sp irit of un s e lshnes s can h ardly be kep t ali ve

in th e wo rl d
E nou gh ab o u t heredi ty as a c on d ition of
evol u tion W e ret urn wi t h a bett er c h an ce of
di stingu i s hing t hem to th e c on s i deration of t h e
spec i al e ffec t s th at it brings ab ou t I t w as
sai d j ust now th at h ere di ty i s th e s t iffening in
h uman n at ure a s tiffening b o un d up with a
m o re o r l ess c on s i derab l e offse t of p l as ti c i t y
Now c l early it i s in s o me se nse t rue th at th e
chil d s whol e n ature it s m odi cum of p l as ti city
in c l uded i s ha n ded on fro m it s pare nt s Our
busin ess in thi s ch ap t er however i s on t h e
whol e to put o ut of our t hou ght s thi s p l as ti c
s i de of the inh eri t ed life force Th e m o re o r
l ess rigi d de ni t e s ys t ematiz ed c ha ract ers
th es e fo rm th e h eredi t ary facto r t h e race
Now non e of these are ever q u it e x ed A
certa in measure of p l as ti ci t y h as to be c ou nt ed
in as part of the i r very nat ure E ve n in th e
bee with it s highly de nite in s tin ct s th ere i s
a certa in e xi b ility b o un d up with eac h of
these ; s o th at fo r in s ta n ce th e in b o rn facu lty
of buil ding up th e c o mb re gu l arly i s m o di ed
if th e hi ve happe n s to be of an a wk ward s h ape
Yet as c o mpared wi t h wh at remain s o ver t h e
c harac ters th at w e are ab l e to di s t ingui s h
as rac i a l mus t s how xit y
Unfo rt un at ely
hab it s s how xit y too Ye t hab i t s belong t o
the p l as t i c s i de of o ur nature ; fo r in fo rming a
.

ANTHR O P OLOGY

72

hab it we are p l as ti c at the sta rt th ough

h ardly so on ce w e have l e t o urse l ves go
Hab it s the n mus t be d i sc oun t ed in o ur search
fo r th e h ered itar y b ias in our li ves I t is no
use t ryi ng to d is gui se th e dif culti es atten ding
an i nq ui ry into race
,

These dif cul ti es n otwith s ta n d ing in th e

res t of t hi s c h ap t er l e t us c on s i der a few of
w h at are usually t ake n to be raci al features of
man As be fo re th e t reat me nt mus t be
i ll us t rati ve ; w e cannot wo rk th ro u gh the li s t
Further w e mus t be c ont e nt with a very ro ugh
di v i s ion into b odily an d me ntal feat u res
Jus t at thi s p oint w e s h all n d it very hard to
sa y wh at i s t o be reck on ed b o dily an d w h at
me nt al Leaving th ese ni ceti es to the p hilo
s o p hers h owever l e t us go a head as bes t we
can
O h fo r an e xt ern al race mark ab o ut whi c h
th ere c oul d be no m i s take i T h at h as alway s
bee n a dream of th e anth rop ologi s t ; but it i s
a dream th at s hows no s ign s of c o ming t rue
All s o rts of tes t s of thi s kin d have bee n sug
ges ted C rani um crani al su t ure s front al
process n asal b on es e ye c hin j aws wi sd om
t eeth h ai r h umerus pe l vi s th e h eart lin e
colo ur an d
a cr oss t h e h an d calf ti bi a h ee l
eve n sme ll all th ese e xtern al s igns as well as
ma ny m o re have be e n thou ght separat ely
,

R AC E

78

toge ther t o a ffo rd th e cruci al te s t o f a man s

pedig ree Cl early I cannot here cro ss ex amin e
th e e nti re crow d of c l ai man t s were I eve n
c o mpet e nt to d o s o I s h all t here fo re sa y a
few wo rds ab o ut two a n d two onl y na mely
head fo rm an d c olo ur
I beli eve th at if th e p l ain man were to as k
hi mself how in w al king d own a Lo nd on s t ree t
h e di s tingui s hed on e raci al type fr o m anot her
h e wou l d n d t ha t h e c hi e y we nt b y c olo ur
I n a ge n eral wa y h e know s how to make
allowan ce fo r su n burn an d ge t d own to th e
n ati ve c o mp l exion u n dern eath But if he
we nt off presently to a museum an d t ri ed t o
app ly hi s tes t to th e pre hi s to ri c me n on vi e w
th ere it wou l d fail fo r th e s i mp l e reas on th at
long ago the y l e ft t he i r s kins be hin d t hem
He woul d h ave to get to wo rk there fo re on
the i r b ony part s an d d oub tl ess woul d attac k
th e skull s fo r c hoi ce B y c on s i dering h ead
fo rm an d c olour th en we may h el p to c over a
cert ain am o u nt of th e gr oun d vas t as it is
Fo r remember that anthro p ology in thi s
depart me nt draw s no lin e be twee n anc i e nt an d
m odern o r be twee n savage an d ci vilized but
t ri es to t ackle every s o rt of man that c o mes
within it s reac h
Head s ha pe i s really a far m o re c omp li cat ed
thi ng to arri ve at fo r purp o ses of c ompari s on
t han o n e might supp ose Sin ce n o part o f

or

'

ANT HR OPOLO G Y

74

t he s kull maint ain s a s tab l e p os ition in reg ard

to th e res t t h ere c a n be no x ed s ta n dard of
measureme n t but at m o s t a j ud g me n t of li ke
n ess o r u nli ke n ess fo un ded on an averaging of
the tota l pro p o rtion s T hu s it co mes ab o u t
th at in th e l as t res o rt th e i mpress ion of a goo d
e x per t i s wo rth in t h ese ma tt ers a g reat dea l
m o re th an rows of gures Mo re over row s
of gures in th ei r t urn ta ke a lot of un der
s ta n d ing Bes i des t he y are not a lw ays eas y
to ge t T hi s is espec i ally th e case if yo u
are measuring a li ve subj ec t Perh aps h e i s
armed with a c l ub an d ma y t ake ami ss th e
use of an in s t rume nt th at h as to be p o ked
into hi s ears o r what not So fo r on e reas on
o r a nother w e h ave O ft e n to pu t up wi t h th a t
very un sat i s facto ry s ingl e g u re descri p tion
of t he h ead fo rm whi c h is known as the crani a l
in de x Yo u t ake the g reat es t l e ngth an d
great es t breadth of th e sku ll an d w ri te down
t he result O b t ain ed b y d i vi ding the fo rmer
int o th e l att er wh e n mu l ti p li ed b y 1 00
M edi um h eaded pe o p l e h ave an in de x of
a nything be t w ee n 7 5 a n d 8 0 Below t h at
gure me n ran k as lon g headed ab ove it as
rou n d headed T hi s t es t however as I h ave
hint ed will not b y i t self carry us far O n
the ot her h an d I beli eve t h at a good j ud ge
of h ead fo rm in all i t s aspec t s ta ke n toge t h er
wi ll ge nerally be ab l e to make a pre tty shre wd
,

RA C E

75

guess as to th e pe o p l e am ongs t w ho m t he
own er of a gi ve n sku ll i s to be p l aced
Un fo rt un ate ly to s a y pe op l e i s not to s ay
race It may be t h at a gi ve n pe op l e t en d t o
h ave a c haract eri s t i c h ead fo rm not s o muc h
because th e y are of c o mm on breed as becaus e
th e y are subjected aft er b i rth o r at any rate
a ft er c oncep tion to on e a n d the same e n vi ron
me nt T h us s o me care ful O b serv ations made
rece ntly b y Profess o r B o as on Ameri can i mmi
gran t s fr o m various parts of E urope seem to
s how th at th e n e w e nv i ron me nt d oes in s ome
u n e x p l ain ed way m od ify th e h ead fo rm to a
rema rkab l e e xt e nt Fo r e xamp l e amongs t
th e E as t E uro pean Jew s t h e h ead of t h e
E uro pean b o rn i s s ho rter an d wi der than that
of th e A meri can bo rn t h e differe n ce being
even m o re ma rked in th e sec on d gen eration
of th e Ame ri ca n bo rn At th e same ti me
o t h er E uropea n n ation aliti es e xhi b it c ha ng es
of other kin ds all these c hanges however
be ing in th e di rec tion of a c on verge n ce tow ards
on e an d th e same Ameri can type How are
w e to e xp l ain t h ese fac t s supp o s ing th em to be
c o rr ob o rated b y m o re e xte n s i ve s t ud i es
It
would seem th at w e mus t at any ra t e allow fo r
a c on s i derab l e p l a s t i city in t h e h ead fo rm
wh ereb y i t i s capab l e of un dergoing deci s i ve
al t eration un der t h e in uen ces of en vi ron ment
not of c o urse at any m o me nt during life bu t
.

ANTHR OPOLO G Y

76

duri ng thos e early da ys wh e n t h e g rowth o f

the h ead i s espe c i a lly rap i d T h e furth er
q ues tion wh ether suc h a n ac q ui red c h arac t er
ca n be t ra n sm itted w e n eed not rai se again
Be fo re pass ing on how ever l et thi s on e wo rd
I f th e sku ll can be s o
t o th e wi se be u t t ered
a ffect ed the n wh at ab o ut th e brain in s i de
it ? I f th e h ereditarily long headed can ch ange
un der sui t ab l e c on d i tion s the n w hat ab o ut
th e hered itar ily s ho rt witt ed
I t re mains to sa y a wo rd ab o ut th e types
o f pre hi s to ri c me n as j ud ged b y th e i r b ony
remain s an d espec i ally b y t h e i r skull s Nat ur
al ly th e subj ec t bri stl es with u n cert ai nti es
B y itse lf s ta n ds th e so call ed P it he c an t hro
A
pe
m
an ) of Java
3
re
g
u
l
ar
m
i
ss
ing
u
s
(
p

lin k
Th e to p Of th e skull severa l t ee th an d
a thigh b on e fo un d at a cert ain d i s t an ce fro m
eac h other are all that w e h ave of it o r hi m
D r D ub oi s th e i r d i sc overer has made out a
fai rly s t rong case fo r supp o s ing tha t th e ge o
logi cal s t ratum in whi c h th e remain s occurred
is P lio ce ne th at i s to sa y be longs to th e
Terti ary ep oc h to whi c h man has not y e t
bee n t rac ed back with any s t rong pro bab i lity
It must remain however highly d o ub tful
whe t her thi s i s a proto h uman being o r mere ly
an ape of a type re l at ed to the gi bb on T h e
inte rme di ate c harac ter i s s hown especi a lly
in the hea d fo rm If an ape Pi t he ca nt h ro pus
.

R AC E

77

had an e no rm o us brain ; if a man he mus t

h ave verged on w hat we s ho ul d c on s i der
i dioc y
Al s o s t an d ing s o mewhat b y itself i s t he
He i de l berg man All t h at w e h ave of hi m i s
a we ll preserved lower j a w wi t h it s tee th It
w as fo un d m ore th an eighty fee t below t he
surface of the s oil in c ompany with ani mal
rem ain s th at make it p o ss i b l e to x it s p os ition
in the scale of pre hi s to ri c perio ds with s ome
accurac y Jud ged b y thi s tes t it i s as ol d as
the ol des t of th e un mi s t akab l e drift imp le
me nt s the so call ed Che llean (fro m Che ll es
in th e depart me nt of S ein e e t Marn e in
Fran ce ) The j aw b y it se lf wo ul d suggest a
go rill a be ing b ot h c hinl ess an d i mme n sely
p ower ful T h e t ee t h however are h uma n
be yon d q ues tion an d can be matc h ed o r
perh aps eve n in re spect to c ert ain marks of
pri mi t i ven ess o ut matc hed am ongs t a n ci e nt
skull s of th e Nea n derth al o rder if not al s o
am ongs t m odern on es fr o m Aus t rali a
W e ma y n e xt c on s i der th e Nea n dert hal
gr o up of skull s s o n amed a ft er t he rs t of th at
type fo und in 1 8 5 6 in t h e Nean derthal vall e y
close to D ussel d o rf in th e Rhin e bas in A
n arr ow h ead w i th low an d ret reating fore head
an d a thi ck proj ecting brow ri d ge y et with at
l eas t twi ce t he brain capacity of any go rill a
se t t he l earn e d wo rl d di sputing wh e th er t hi s
,

ANTHR OPOLO GY

78

an ape a no rmal man o r an i di ot It

unfo rt un at e t h at there w ere no proo fs to
h an d of t he age of these reli cs Aft er a whil e
however s i mi l ar speci me n s be gan to c o me in
Th us in 1 8 6 6 t he j aw of a wo man di sp l aying a
te n de n c y to c hinl e ssn e ss c o mb in ed Wi th great
s t re ngth w as foun d in t h e C ave of La Nau
l ett e in Be lgi um ass oc i at ed with m o re o r l ess
dat eab l e remains of th e mamm oth woolly
rhinocero s an d re in deer A fe w y ears earli er
tho ugh its i mp o rt an ce w as not appreci at ed
at the m o me nt there h ad bee n di sc o vered
n ea r Fo rbes q uarry at Gi bra l t ar th e famo us
G i braltar skul l now to be see n in the M useum
of t h e Roy al Coll eg e of S urge on s in L on d on
An y vi s ito r will no ti ce a t t h e rs t gl an ce tha t
thi s i s no man of to da y Th ere are the n arrow
h ead low cro wn a n d pro min e nt brow ri d g e
supp l ement ed b y th e m o s t e xt ra
as be fo re
o rdin ary e ye hol es th at w ere ever see n vas t
ci rcl es wi de ly separat ed f ro m eac h other An d
other peculi ar features will reveal t h emse l ves
on a c lo se in spection ; fo r in s ta n ce the ho rse
s ho e fo rm in whi c h ape fas hion t h e t eeth are
arran ged an d th e mu zzl e li ke s h ape of th e
face due to th e abse n ce of th e depress ion s t hat
in o ur own case run d own on eac h s i de fro m
j us t o u ts i de th e no s t ril s towards the c o rn ers
of the m outh
An d now at th e present ti me we ha ve twen ty

was
was

RA C E

79

o r m o re in di vi dual s of thi s Nean dertha l type

to c ompare T h e l at es t d i sc overi es are per
h aps t h e m os t i n t eres ting because in two an d
perh aps oth er cases t h e ma n h as been properly
buri ed T h us at L a Chapell e aux S aints in
th e Fre n c h depart ment of Co rr ez e a ske l eton
whi c h in i t s h e ad fo rm c lo sely recall s the
G i braltar e x amp l e w as fou n d in a p i t du g in
th e oo r of a low gr otto It la y on its back
h ead to th e wes t wi t h on e arm bent t owards
th e h ead th e oth er o u t s t ret c hed an d t h e l e gs
drawn up So me b i s on b on es l a y in th e grave
as if a food offeri n g h ad bee n made
Hard
b y were in t i mp l emen t s of a we ll marked
Mous t eri an type I n th e s h elt er of Le Mou
s ti er it self a s i mil ar buri al w as d i sc overed
Th e b o d y l a y on it s right s i de with th e right
arm be nt s o as to supp o rt t h e h ead up on a
care fully arranged p illow of in ts ; whil s t th e
l e ft arm w as s t ret ch ed out s o that t he h an d
might be n ear a mag ni cen t oval s t on e weap on
chi ppe d on b oth faces evi dently l ai d t h e re b y
design So muc h fo r t h ese men of the Nean
de rt hal t y pe de n ize n s of t h e m i d pal aeoli t hi c
worl d at th e ver y l at es t A pe li ke th e y
d oub t l ess are in th ei r head fo rm up to a c ertain
p oint thou gh al m o s t all th ei r separat e fea
tures occur here a n d th ere am ongs t m odern
Aus t rali an n ati ves An d y et the y were men
e nough h ad brains e nough to be li eve in a
.

ANTHROP O L O GY

80

l ife after death There is s omet hi ng to think

ab out in that
Without go in g o ut s i de E uro pe w e h ave
howe ver to re ck on with at l eas t two other
typ e s of ve ry early he ad fo rm
In on e of th e cave s of M e nton e known as
L a G rott e de s Enfants two s ke le ton s fro m a
low s t r at um w e re of a p ri miti ve typ e but
unli ke th e N e a nd erthal an d have b e e n
thought to s how afniti es to the m o dern
n e gr o As howe ver no oth er P r oto Negr oes
are in d i sput ab ly fo rt hc o ming eithe r fro m
E u ro pe o r f ro m any othe r part of the
wo rl d t here i s littl e at prese nt to b e made
o u t ab ou t thi s inte re s ting r ac i al t y pe
In th e l aye r i mm e di at e ly ab ove the n e groi d
remain s howe ver as we ll as in other cav e s at
M e nton e w e re th e b one s of in di vi dual s of
q u it e another ord er on e b e ing p o s iti vely a
gi ant
T he y a re k nown a s th e C ro M agnon
rac e aft e r a gr oup of them di sc o ve red in a r ock
s h elt e r of th at n ame on th e ba nks of th e
Ve z ere
Th e se pa rti cu l a r p e o p l e can be
s hown to b e Au rign ac i an t hat i s to say to
have li ved j ust after the Mous t eri a n m e n of
the Nean d ertha l head fo rm I f howeve r
the G all e y
as has b ee n a l re ad y su gge s t ed
Hill indi vi dual who s hows afniti es to the
C ro M agnon type really go e s back to the d rift
pe riod then w e can be li eve that fro m very
.

RA CE

81

early ti m es t here co e xi s ted in E uro pe at l east

two va ri eti es ; a n d the se s o di s tin ct that s o me
au tho riti es wo uld t race the o rigin al di verg en c e
be twee n th e m right back t o the ti me s b e fo re
man an d the apes h ad pa rt e d c ompany link
ing th e N e an d erth al rac e with the go ril la an d
th e C ro Magnon rac e with the o rang Th e
C ro M agnon head fo rm is re n e d an d highly
d eve lo ped T he fo re h ead i s high an d the
c hin s hap e ly whil s t n eith er the b row ri d g e
no r the low er j a w p r ot rudes as in the N e a n de r
tha l type Wh eth e r thi s race su rvi ves in
m ode rn E u ro pe is as was sai d in the l ast
c hap ter highly un ce rt ain In c ertain re sp ec ts
fo r ins t an ce in a ce rt ain s h o rtn e ss of fac e
these pe o p l e p res e nt ex cep tion al fe at u res ;
though s o me thi n k th e y can s till n d me n of
this ty pe i n th e D o rd ogn e di s t ri ct Perhaps
th e c han ces a re howe ver c ons i d ering how
sku ll s of the n e olithi c p eriod p ro ve to b e any
thi ng but unifo rm an d sugge s t c ro ss ings
betw ee n differe nt s tock s th at w e ma y c l ai m
kins hi p to so m e e xt ent with th e m ore good
loo ki ng of t he two main ty pes of p a lwo ht hic
man always sup pos ing th at he ad fo rm ca n
be take n as a gui d e B ut c an it ? The
Pygmi es of the Congo re gion h a ve m e d i um
he ads ; the Bus hmen of South Afri ca usually
rega rded as akin in race hav e long heads
The Am eri ca n I n di an s ge nerally supp o se d to
-

ANTHR OPO L OGY

82

b e all o r n ea rly all of on e rac i al t yp e show

c on s i d erab l e d i ffe re n ces of h e ad fo rm ; an d s o
on I t n eed not b e rep e ated that any race
m ark i s li ab l e to dece i ve
,

We h ave su f ci e ntly c on s i de red t he use to

whi c h the pa rti cu la r rac e mark of head fo rm
has bee n put in th e att e mp ted c l ass ication of
th e v e ry early me n who h av e l e ft thei r b on e s
b e hin d th e m Le t us now t u rn to another
race mark n ame ly c olou r ; b e cause thou gh it
ma y really b e l e ss sati s facto ry than oth ers
fo r in s t an c e ha i r th at i s t he on e to whi c h
o rdin ary pe o p l e n at u r ally t u rn wh en the y
seek to c l ass ify b y races t he p resent i nh ab it
ant s o f th e e a rth
Whe n Linnaeus in p re D arwini an da y s
di s tingui s he d fou r va ri e ti e s of ma n the white
E u r o pea n the re d Am eri can the y ellow
As i a ti c an d the b l ack A fr i can he di d not
d re am of p ro vi di ng th e bas i s of an ything m o re
th an an a rti ci al c l ass ication He pro bab ly
would h av e agreed wi th B u ffon in sa ying th at
in eve ry case it was on e a n d the sam e kin d of
man only d ye d d iffere ntly b y the di ffe re nt
c li mat e s B ut th e D a rwini a n i s searc hing fo r
a n at u ral c l ass i cation H e wants to di s
t in gui sh m e n acc o rd ing to the i r act ua l descent
N ow rac e an d desc ent m e an fo r hi m th e sam e
thing He n ce a race mark if on e i s to be
-

RA C E

88

fo un d mus t s t an d fo r b y co exi s ting with

the whol e mass of p r op erti es that fo rm the
inh er ita n ce C an c olo u r s erve fo r a race mark
in thi s p rofo un d s e nse ? Th at i s th e onl y
q ues tion he re
Fir s t of all what i s th e use of be ing
c olo ure d on e w a y o r th e other ? D o es it make
any diff ere n c e
Is it s o m ethi ng lik e th e
heart lin e of th e h an d th at ma y go along with
use ful q ualiti e s bu t in it s e lf s eems to b e a
m e an ingl e ss acc i d e nt
W e ll as s om e un
fo rt u n at e pe o p l e wil l be ab l e to te ll you
c olour is s till a for mi dab l e h an di cap in th e
st r u ggl e fo r e xi s t en c e N ot to c on s i d er th e
c olour p re jud i c e in oth e r aspect s there is no
g ain saying th e pa rt it p l a y s in s e xual se l ec tion
at thi s ho u r Th e lower a ni mal s appear to
be gui de d in th e c hoi ce of a mat e b y e xt ern al s
of a s tr i king an d o bvious s o rt An d m e n an d
wo men to thi s da y marry m ore with th ei r e y es
th an with th e i r h eads
Th e c olo r ation of ma n however thou gh it
may h av e c o m e to subs er ve th e purp o s e s of
mating d oes not seem in it s o rigin to have
bee n li ke th e b r ight c olor ation of th e mal e b i r d
It was not s o mething wholly u se l e ss sav e as a
m ean s of se xual attr ac tion thou gh in suc h a
cap ac ity useful because a mark of vit al v igour
Colour al m o s t cert ainly develo p e d in s t ri ct
rel ati on to cli mat e Ri ght aw ay in th e bac k
-

A NTHROPO L O G Y

84

a ges w e mu s t p l ace wh at B age hot has call ed

the r ace making e p o c h wh e n the c hi e f bo d il y
di ffere n ces in c l ud ing differe n c e s of c olo ur
ar o s e am ong s t m en I n t ho s e day s w e m a y
supp o s e n at ur al s e l e c tion ac t e d l ar gely on th e
b o d y becaus e m in d had not y et b ec o me th e
pri m e c on di tion of su r vi val T he re s t is a
q u es tion of p re hi s tor i c g e ogr ap hy Within
th e t r o p i cs th e h ab it at of th e man li ke ap e s
an d p re sumab ly of th e ea r li e s t men a b l ack
ski n p r ot ec t s a gain s t sunlight A whi t e skin
on the oth er h an d tho ugh thi s is m ore
d o ub tful p er h aps e c onom iz es su n he at in
c ol d er l atit ud es
B rown ye llow an d the so
call e d re d are inter m e d i at e tint s su it ab l e to
int e rm e d i at e re gion s It i s not h ar d to p lot
o ut in th e p r e hi s to r i c map of th e wor l d ge o
gr aphi cal p r o vin c e s o r are as of c harac t e riza

tion wher e ac e s of d iffere nt s h ades c o rr e

Sp o n din g to d i ffere n c e s in th e c li mat e m ight
d e velo p in an i s ol ation m ore o r l e ss c o mp l et e
suc h as mus t te n d to r e infor ce th e p r o cess of
differe nti ation
L et it not be fo rgott en however th at in di
vi du al p l as ti c ity p l ay s it s part too in th e d et er
mi n ation of h uman c olou r T h e An glo In di a n
p l ant e r i s ap t to ret u rn fr o m a long s oj o urn
in th e E as t with his skin c h ar ge d with a dark
p igm e nt whi c h no am ou nt of Pe ars s o ap will
rem o ve duri ng th e res t of his life It wou l d b e
-

RA C E

85

in te res ti ng to c on duc t e xperi ment s on th e

lin es of thos e of Pr of e ss o r B o as alre ad y m e n
tion ed with th e o bj ec t of di sc o ve ring in wh at
de gr ee the same capac ity for amass ing p r o
te ct ive p igment d e c l are s it s e lf in c hil dr en of
E ur o pean pare nt ag e b o rn in th e tr op i cs or
t ran sp l ant ed thi ther dur ing infan c y
Co rr e
s p o n din gl
y th e t en d e n c y of da r k stocks to
b l e ac h in c ol d c o unt ri es n eeds to be s t udi ed
In the backgr o un d too l u r ks th e q u es tion
wheth er suc h e ffe ct s of in di vi dual p l astic ity
can be t ransmitt e d to offsp r ing an d bec o me
part of the inh er it a n c e
O n e m ore remar k up on the subj ec t of c olo ur
N ow a days c i viliz ed p e o p l es as we ll as many
of th e ru der rac e s t hat th e fo r me r go vern w ear
c lothes
I n oth er wor ds th e y h ave d od g ed
th e s un b y develop ing with th e a i d of min d
a c o mpl e x s oc i ety th at in cl ud e s th e mak ers
of whit e drill sui t s an d s ol ar hel met s B ut
un der suc h c on dition s th e c olo ur of on e s s k in
be co mes m or e o r l e ss of a l ux u ry P r ot ecti ve
p i gment at any rat e now a day s c o unt s fo r
littl e as c ompar ed with capac ity fo r s oc i al
servi ce Colo ur in s ho rt i s r ap i dly lo s ing it s
vi tal fun ction Will it therefo r e t en d to
di sappear
In the long ru n it woul d s eem
perhaps onl y in the very long ru nit w ill
be c om e di ss oc i at ed from th at ge ne r al tn ess
to survive unde r particul ar clim a ti c co ndi ti o ns
,

ANTHROPOLOGY

86

of whi c h it was on ce th e inn at e mark Be thi s

as it may race p re ju di ce th at i s s o l a rge ly
fou n d e d on s heer c on s i d er ation s of c olo u r is
b ou n d to decay if an d wh en th e races o f
dark er c olo ur succ ee d in d i sp l aying on th e
aver a ge suc h q ualiti e s of m in d a s will e n ab l e
the m to c o mp et e with th e whit e s on e q ua l
t erms in a worl d whi c h i s c o ming m o r e a n d
m ore to in c l ude al l c li mat es
.

Thus w e ar e l ed on to di sc uss race in it s

m ent al asp ec t H er e m ore th a n e ver w e a re
all at se a for w ant of a p r o p er c rit er ion Wh at
is t o be th e t es t of min d 1
In d ee d min d an d
p l as ti c ity are al m o s t th e sam e thi ng Ra ce
th er efore a s being th e s tiffe ning in th e e v o lu
tion of lif e m ight seem b y it s v er y n at ur e
O pp o se d to m in d as a li m iting o r o bs t ruc ting
f or ce Are we th en going to ret u rn to th e
ol d p r e sc ie nt ic notion of s o ul a s s o m et hi ng
ali e n to b o d y an d th er e b y s i mp ly c logge d
thwart e d an d dragged d own ? Th at woul d
n e ver d o B o d y an d s o ul ar e for th e working
pu r p o ses of sc i en ce to b e c on c e i ve d as in
p erf e ct acc or d as c o hel pers in th e wo rk of
lif e an d as suc h subj e ct to a c o mm on d e velo p
ment H er ed ity th en mus t be assumed to
apply to b oth e q ually I n pr o p ortion as ther e
is p l as ti c mi n d th ere will be p l as ti c b od y
U nfo rt una tely th e m o st pl as ti c part of b o dy
.

RA C E

87

i s li kewi se t h e har des t to observe at any rat e

whil s t it i s ali ve n am e ly th e b r ain N o c e r
t ain cr it er ion of h ere dity then i s lik ely to be
avail abl e fr o m t hi s q uart er Yo u will s ee it
st at ed for in s t an c e th at th e s iz e of th e b rain
cavity will s er ve to mar k off on e rac e f r o m
anoth er Thi s is e xt r em ely d o ub tfu l to put
it mil dly N o d o ub t th e average E ur o p e an
s hows s o m e advant age in thi s re spec t as c o m
pa re d s a y with th e B us hman But then you
have to wr it e off s o muc h for the i r r e sp ecti ve
ty pes of b o dy a b igger b o d y going in ge n e ral
with a b igger he ad th at in the e n d yo u n d
you rs elf c ompar ing mer e abst r action s Again
the E ur o p e an may b e the rs t to c ry off on
th e gr ou n d that c o mpar i s on s ar e o dious ; fo r
s o m e sp ec i me n s of N ean d erth al man in s heer
s iz e of the b r ain cavity ar e sa i d to gi ve p oint s
to any of o ur m o der n p o et s an d p oliti c i an s
Cl early th en s o methin g i s wr ong with thi s
t e s t N or if th e b r ain it s elf b e e x am in e d aft er
d e ath an d th e for m an d n umb er of it s c on
vol ution s c o mpar ed is thi s c r it er ion of h eredi
t ary b r ain p ower any m ore sati s f acto r y It
might be p o ss i b l e in thi s way to d et e ct th e
d ifferen ce b etw ee n an i d iot an d a p er s on of
normal int ellig en c e but not th e di fferen ce
b etw een a fool an d a g eni us
W e c r o ss t he un c ert ain lin e th at d i vi d e s th e
b o dily f r o m th e ment al whe n we subj e ct the
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

88

me pr o bl em of h e re d it ary m e nt al en d ow
me nt to th e metho ds of wh at i s known as
e x p er i ment al ps yc hology T hus acu t e n ess of
s ight h ear ing t as t e smell an d f eeling are
me asu re d b y various ing enious devi ces S ee
in g wh at s to ri e s t r ave ll e rs bring back wi th
the m ab ou t th e h awk li ke vi s ion of hu nting
races on e might supp o se th at suc h c o mpari
s on s wo u l d be all in the ir f av our Th e
C amb ri d ge Ex p e dition to T orres St ra it s h ow
of whi c h D r H add on was the l eade r
e ve r
in c l uded s e v er a l w e ll t r a in ed ps yc hologi s t s
who d e v ot ed sp ec i al att ention to thi s subj ec t ;
an d th e i r resu lt s s how th at th e se n s o ry p ow ers
of th ese ru de fol k wer e on th e ave rage m uc h
th e same as tho s e of E ur o p e an s It is th e
hu nt er s e x p eri e n c e only that en ab l es hi m
to s ight the g am e at a n i mm e n se di s t an ce
Th er e ar e a great many m ore c o mp li cat ed
t es t s of th e same type d e s ign e d to es ti mate
th e force of m e m o r y a tt e ntion ass oc i ation
re as oning an d oth er faculti e s th at m o s t pe o p l e
wo ul d r eg ar d as pu re ly m e nt al ; whil s t anothe r
se t
of suc h t e s t s d e al s with reaction to
s ti mu lus c o o rdi n ation b e tw e e n h a n d an d e ye
f atigu e t rem o r an d m o s t inge nious perh aps
of a ll e m otion al e x c it em e nt as s hown thr ou gh
th e r e sp i r ation p he nom en a whi c h a r e as it
w e re m e nt al a n d b o d ily at on c e a n d togeth er
Unfo rt un at e ly ps y c hology ca n n ot di s tingui s h
sa

R A CE

80

ch cases be tw ee n th e e e ct s of h ere dit y

an d tho se of in d i v i dua l e x p eri e n ce wh eth e r
it take the fo rm of high cu ltu re o r of a d i ss i
pat e d life I n d e ed th e pure ly t e mp o rary
c on d ition of b o d y an d min d i s ap t to in uen c e
th e resu lt s A ma n h as b ee n up l at e l e t us
say o r h as b ee n fo r a long wa lk o r h as mi ssed
a meal ; obvious ly hi s reaction tim e s hi s
r ec o r d fo r mem o ry an d s o on will s how a
d iff er en ce fo r th e wor s e O r aga in the su b
j e c t may c onf r ont th e e xper i me nt in v ery
var ious m oo ds At on e m ome nt h e may be
fu ll of vanity anxious to s how wh at supe rio r
qualiti e s h e p o ssesses ; whil s t at another t im e
h e will be b o re d N ot to l ab ou r th e p oint
furth er th e s e metho ds wh at e v er th e y ma y
b e c o m e in th e fu tu re are at p resent u n ab l e to
affo rd a ny c r iterion wh at e v er of the m e nta l
ab ility th at goes wi th r ac e T he y a re fertil e
in st ati s ti cs ; bu t a n int e rp ret ation of the se
st atist i cs t hat furthe rs ou r pu rp o se is s till to
seek
Bu t sure ly it will b e sai d w e can t e ll an
in stin ct wh e n w e c om e ac ro ss it s o u niform as
it i s an d s o in d e p en d e nt of th e re s t of t he
s y st e m N ot at all Fo r on e thing th e i d e a
th at a n in s tin ct is a p i e ce of mec h a nism as
It is
xed as f at e i s q u it e ou t of f as hion
now kn own to b e highly p l asti c in many cases
t o v ary co nsid erab l y in indi vi dual s and to
in

su

ANTHR O PO LOGY

90

i n v ol ve c on sc ious pro cesses thou ght fe e li n g

a n d will at a ny rat e of a n e l em e nt a ry k in d
A g a in how are you going to i s ol at e a n in s tin c t ?
T ho se f e w auto mati c re sp on s e s to s timul ation
th at appear s ho rtly aft er b irth as for in
s t an c e suck in g may p erh aps b e re c o gnized
s in c e pare nt a l t r aining an d e x pe ri e n c e in
g e n e r a l a r e o u t of th e q u e s tion h ere B u t
wh at ab ou t th e in s tin ct o r gr oup of ins tin c t s
a n s w er ing to se x ? T hi s i s l at ent u ntil a
s t ag e of lif e wh e n e x p eri e n c e i s a l re ad y in f u ll
s wing I n dee d ps y c hologi s t s a re st ill bus y
di scuss ing wh eth er man h as ve ry f ew in s tin ct s
or wh eth er on th e c ont rar y h e appears to
h ave f ew b e caus e h e re a lly h as s o ma ny th at
in p racti ce th e y ke e p inte rf ering with on e
a noth er all th e time I n supp o rt of the l att er
it h as b ee n r e ce ntly su gg e s t e d b y M r
V i ew
M c D o u gall th at th e b e s t t es t of th e ins t in c t s
th at w e h av e i s to be fou n d in th e spec i c
em otion s H e b e li eves th at e v ery in s t in ct i v e
p r oc e ss c on s i s t s of a n a ff ere nt part o r messa ge
a ce nt r a l part an d a n e ffere nt part or dis
c h ar ge At it s two e n ds th e p r o cess is highl y
p l as ti c M e ssag e an d d i sc h ar ge to whi c h
thou ght an d will c o rre sp on d ar e m od i ed
in the i r typ e as e x p eri en c e mature s T h e
c e nt r a l pa rt on th e other h an d to whi c h em o
tion an s w e r s on th e s i d e of c on sc ious n e ss
rem ains fo r e v er m uc h t h e sam e T o f ear to
,

RA C E

91

won de r to b e an gry o r d i s gu st ed to be pu ffed

up o r cas t d own o r to b e a ffe c t e d with t e n der
n ess all the s e f ee ling s ar gu e s M r M c D o u g a ll
a n d var ious m o re c o mp li cat e d e m otion s ar i s ing
ou t of th e i r c o mb in ation s W ith e ac h other a re
c o mm on to a ll m e n an d b e sp eak in th e m d ee p
s e at e d t e n d e n c i e s to r e ac t on s ti mu l ation in
re l ati ve ly parti cu l a r a n d d e nit e w a y s An d
th ere i s muc h I thi nk to be sa i d in f av o ur of
thi s c ont e ntion
Y et gr anting thi s d o w e thus r eac h a
c r it er ion wh ere b y th e d iffere nt r ac e s of me n
ar e to b e d i stingu i s h e d
F a r f r o m it Nay
on th e c ontr ar y as jud ge d s i mp ly b y hi s
em otion s ma n i s v er y muc h a lik e e v er ywhere
f r o m Chin a to P eru T h e y a re a ll th ere in
germ thou gh d ifferent custo ms an d gr ad e s
of cu lt u re t e n d to b r ing S p e c i al ty p e s of f ee ling
to the fo re
I n d ee d a certa in pa rad ox i s to b e not e d
h e re Th e Ne gr o on e wo u l d n atu rally say
i s in ge n eral m o re e m otion al than th e whit e
man Yet s o me e xpe ri ment s c on duct e d b y
Mi ss K ello r of C hi cago on n e gre ss e s an d whit e
wo me n b y m e an s of the t e s t of the e ffe ct s
of e m otion on re spi ration b rou ght out the
fo rm er as d e c i d e d ly th e m o re s toli d of th e two
An d wh at e ve r b e thou ght of th e val u e of
suc h metho ds of p roof c ert ain it i s th at th e
o bserve rs of rud e races in c lin e to put d ow n
,

ANTHR O PO LOGY

92

m o s t o f th em as apa theti c wh e n not t un ed

up to c on c ert p it c h b y a dan ce o r othe r s oci al
e ve nt I t ma y we ll be th en that it is not
th e hered it a ry t e mp erame nt of t he Negro so
muc h as th e habit whi c h h e s h ares with othe r
p e o p l es at th e same l e ve l of cult u re of li vi ng
a n d acting in a c rowd th at ac c o unts fo r hi s
appare nt e x c it ab ility B ut a ft e r a ll ma i c k
ing i s not un k nown in c i vi lized c o unt ri es
T hus the q u e s t fo r a rac e mark of a menta l
kin d i s barre n on ce m o re
,

W hat then yo u e x c l ai m i s the o ut c o me of

thi s c hapt e r of n e g ati ves ? Is it dri ving at
t he u ni v ersal e q ua lity a n d b r othe rhood of
m an
O r on th e c ont ra ry d oes it hint at
the n eed of a s t e rn s ys t em of eu ge ni cs ? I
offer nothing in th e w ay of a p r ac ti cal sugge s
tion I am m erely t rying to s how that c on
side re d a n t hrOp o lo gic allyth at is to s a y
in
t e rms of pu re the o ry rac e o r b re ed remain s
s o mething whi c h we can not at p re s e nt i s o lat e
thou gh w e b e li e v e it to be there P ract i ce
mean whil e mus t wait on the o ry ; m e re pre
j udi c es bad a s th e y a re are ha rdly wo rse
gui des to action th an premat ure ex p loitation s
of sci en ce
As re gards th e uni ve rsal b roth erh ood of
m an th e m os t th at can be sai d i s thi s : Th e
and
d
a
id
a
b
o
u
t
ra
c
e
m
e
t
h
i
n
h
rd
l
as
so
eas
g
o
,

RA CE

98

fas t fo r all ti m e are di s ti n ctly o n th e decline

P l as ti c ity o r in oth er wo rds th e power of
adap t ati on to en vi ron me nt ha s to be admi tted
to a grea te r s h are in th e m o ul di ng of m in d
an d e ve n of b od y tha n e ver b e fo re B ut how
p l as ti c ity i s re l at e d to race we d o not ye t know
I t ma y be th at u se inh erita n c e s o me how in c o r
ra t e s its e ffe c ts in th e offsp r ing of th e p l as ti c
o
p
pa re nts Or it may b e s i mp ly that p l as ti c ity
in c re ases with inte r b ree d ing on a wi der bas i s
Th ese p rob l e ms have s till to b e s ol ve d
As regards e uge ni cs there is n o d o ub t th at
a vas t an d pe rs i s t e nt e li min ation of li ves goes
on eve n in c i viliz e d c ou nt ri e s I t has been
ca l cu la te d tha t of e very hun d re d Engli s h
b o rn ali v e fty d o not surv i ve to b re ed an d
of the re maind er ha lf p r oduce th r ee q ua rte rs
of th e n e xt ge n er ation B ut i s the e li min ation
s e l e c ti ve ? We ca n hardl y d o ub t that it is
to s om e exte nt But wh at it s re s ul ts are
whether it mainly fav o u rs i mmunity f ro m
c ert ain d i seases o r the capac ity fo r a sed ent a ry
life in a town at m o sp here o r int e lli ge n ce an d
capacity fo r s o ci al s ervi c eis l arge ly matter of
gu e ss wo rk
H ow then ca n w e sa y wh at i s
the type to bre e d fr o m e ve n if we c on n e o ur
atte ntion to on e c o unt ry
I f on th e other
h an d w e loo k fa rthe r a el d a n d s tud y t he

resu lt s of race m ixt u re o r mi s c egen ation

we but en c o unte r fres h p uz zl es Th at the half
.

ANTHR O P OL O GY

94

b ree d is a n un sa ti s facto ry pers on ma y b e t rue ;

an d yet until the c on di tion s of hi s upb ringing
are s o me how d i sc o u nt e d th e rac e p ro b l em
remain s e xac tly wh ere it was O r again it
ma y be t rue th at mi sce ge na tion in c re as e s
human fe rtility a s s o me hol d ; but u ntil it is
s hown that the in c re ase of fertility d o es not
mere ly resu lt in oo di ng th e wo rl d with
infe rio r types w e a re no n ea re r to a s ol utio n
I f th en the re is a p r acti ca l m o ral to thi s
c h ap te r it is me re ly thi s : to en c ou rage
a nth ro p ologi s t s to p re ss fo rward with the i r
s tud y of race ; an d in t he me anti m e to d o
n othing r as h
,

CHAPTER

IV

E NV I R ON M E NT

WH E N a c hil d is b o rn it h as bee n subj ec t ed

fo r s o m e th ree quart e rs of a ye a r al read y to
th e in u e n c e s of e n vi ron m ent It s race
in dee d was x ed on ce fo r all at the m o ment
of c on cep tion Y et th at sup eradd e d meas ure
of p l as ti c ity whi c h has to b e t reat e d as s o me
thing apart f ro m the raci al f ac to r en ab l es it
to re sp on d fo r goo d o r fo r evil to the pre
n atal th at i s to sa y matern ale nvi ron ment
Th us we may eas ily fall into the mi s take of
-

E N V IRON MENT

95

supp o s ing our race to b e degen e rat e when

p oo r fe edi ng an d ex p o su re to unhe althy su r
r o und ings o n the pa rt of the m oth e rs are re a lly
resp ons i b l e fo r th e c ro p of we aklings that we
dep lo re A n d in s o fa r as it t u rn s out to be
s o s oc i al refo rm ers oug ht to he ave a sigh of
re li e f Why
B e caus e to i mp rove th e rac e
b y wa y of e u ge ni cs thou gh d o ubtl e ss fe as i b l e
within li m it s re main s an un re alized p o ss i b ility
th rou gh o u r w ant of knowl e dge O n the
othe r han d to i mp ro ve the p hys i cal e n vi ron
ment i s fai rly s t raight ahe ad wo rk on c e we
can awak e the pub li c c on sc i en c e to the n ee d
of un d ert ak ing thi s t ask fo r the b en e t of
all c l ass e s of the c o mmuni ty a lik e If civi
li ze d man wi s he s to b oas t of being c l ea rly
sup erio r to t h e re s t of hi s kin d it mus t be
mainly in re spec t to hi s c ont rol o ve r the
p hys i ca l envi r on m ent Wh at e ver may hav e
b ee n th e cas e in the pas t it s ee ms as t rue
now a da y s to s a y that man mak e s hi s p hys i ca l
e n vi ron ment as th at hi s p hy si cal e n vi ronm ent
make s hi m
E ve n if thi s b e grant e d howe ve r it re main s
the f act tha t o u r mat eri al ci rcums ta n ce s in
the wi d e s t s en s e of the t erm p l a y a very
d e ci s i v e part in the s h ap ing of o ur li ve s
He nce the i mp ort an c e of ge ogr ap hi cal s tud i e s
Fro m the
as th e y b e a r on th e subj e c t of man
m o ment tha t a c hil d i s c o nce i ve d it i s sub
,

ANTHR OPOL OG Y

96

t h e fas hion to cal l a

j ec te d to wh at it is now

ge ogr ap hi c c ont rol

Take the case of
th e c hild of Engl i s h pare nts bo rn in I n d i a
Cl early sever al fac to rs will c on sp i re to d e ter
m in e whe ther it li ves o r di es Fo r sim
p lic it y s sak e l e t us t reat th e m as th re e
Fi rs t of a ll th e re i s th e f ac t tha t the c hil d
be longs to a pa rti cu l a r cult ur al group ; i n
other wo rds that it has be e n b o rn with a
pi ece of pape r in its m o u th rep resenting on e
s ha re in the B riti s h E mp i re S e con d ly there
is it s r ac e inv ol ving l e t us sa y b l u e e y es
an d light h ai r an d a c o rre sp on ding c on s ti
Thi rd ly there is th e cli mat e an d all
t utio n
tha t goes with it Thou gh in the rs t of thes e
res pec ts th e whit e c hil d i s li kely to be supe rio r
to th e n ati ve in asmuc h as it will be t e n d e d
with m o re ca re fu l re ga rd to the l aws of he alth ;
y et suc h d i s ha rm ony p re vail s be tween the
oth er two fac to rs of race a n d c li ma te that it
will al mo s t cert ainly d i e if it i s not re m oved
at a cert ain age fr o m th e c o un t ry Po ssi b ly
the Engli s h cou l d acc li matize the ms e l ve s in
I nd i a at the p ri ce of an i mm e n se toll of infant
li ve s ; but it i s a p ri ce whi c h the y s how no
s ign s of being willing to pa y
Wh at then a re the li m it s of the ge ographi c
c ont r ol
Wh ere d oes its in uen ce be gin an d
e nd
Sit uation race an d cu lt ure to reduce
i t to a p ro b l em of t hree terms o nl yw hi c h
.

E NVIRONMENT

97

of the th ree if an y i n th e lo ng run c ontrols

th e rest
Remembe r th at th e anth ro pologi st
is t rying to be th e hi s to ri a n of long perspec ti ve
Hi s to ry whi c h c ount s b y ye a rs p roto hi s to ry
whi c h c ou nt s b y c ent uri es p re hi s to ry whi ch
c ount s b y mill enni ums he s ee ks to embrace
the m all He sees the Engli s h in In d i a o n
th e on e han d an d in Aust rali a o n the other
Will the on e invas ion p ro ve an in c i dent he
asks an d the othe r a n e vent as j udged b y a
hi s to ry of long p ersp ec ti ve
O r again there
are whi tes an d b l acks an d reds ki ns i n t he
s outhern p o rtion of the Unite d Stat e s o f
Am e ri ca having at p rese nt littl e i n c o mmon
sav e a c o mm on c li mate D i fferent races d iffer
ent culture s a c o mm on ge ograp hi cal s itua tio n
wh a t n e t re sul t wi ll these yi el d fo r t h e
hi s to ri an of pati ent far seeing anthrop ologi cal
outloo k
Cl ea rly th ere i s here s o mething
wo rth the pu zzling o ut B ut we cann ot e xpe ct
to puzzl e it out a ll a t on ce
In the se days ge ogr ap hy in the form known
as a nth r o p o g e og r ap hy i s pu tting fo rth c l ai m s
to b e the l eading b ran c h of a nthr o p ology
An d d o ubtl ess a tho r ough gr oun ding in g eo
grap hy must h en c e fo rth b e part of th e a nthr o
1
T
h
e
s
c
hool
s
of
R
a
t
z
e
l
l
o gist s e q u i pme nt
o
p
,

Thus the reade r o r the p rese nt wo rk should not fail

to study also Dr Mar ion Ne wb igin s Geograp hy in this

series
.

ANTHRO POL O GY

98

in Germ an y an d L e P l ay in Fr an ce are how

ever f ertil e in g en er alization s that are f ar too
p r etty to b e t rue L i ke other sp e c i ali st s the y
e x aggerat e th e i mp o rt an ce of the ir parti cu l a r
b r an d of wo r k T h e f ull m e aning of lif e can
n ever be e x p r ess e d in t er ms of it s mat eri al
c on di tion s I c onf e ss th at I am not d e ep ly
m o ved whe n Rat ze l anno un c e s th at man i s a
p i ece of the ea rth Or wh e n hi s adm i r er s
an xio us to i mp r o ve on thi s aft er d i stingui s hing
the at m o sp h er e o r ai r th e hy d r o sp h ere o r
wat er the litho sp h er e o r c rus t an d th e c e nt r o
sp h er e o r int er io r mass p r o c ee d to add th at
m an i s th e m os t ac ti ve p o rtion of a n int er
mitt ent b io sp h ere or li ving e n velo pe of o ur
p l an et I cannot f e e l th at th e l ast word h as
b ee n sai d ab out hi m
O r a ga in li s t e n fo r a m o m e nt to M D em o
lin s au thor of a ver y su gge s ti ve b ook C ommen t
H ow the r oad
la route cr e le typ e s oci a l

creates th e s o c i al ty pe
T her e e xi st s
h e say s in hi s p ref ac e
on th e surf ace of th e
t e rr es tr i al glo b e an innit e vari e ty of p e o p l e s
Wh at is th e caus e th at has cre at e d thi s
v ar i ety
I n ge n er al the re p ly i s Race Bu t
race e x p l ain s nothing ; for it r emain s to di s
c o ver wh at h as p r o duced th e di v e rs i t y of
r aces Race i s not a cause ; it is a co n
Th e r s t an d d e c i s i ve cause of th e
se q ue n ce
di versit y of pe o pl es an d of th e di versi t y of
.

EN VIRO NMENT

99

r aces is th e ro a d th at th e p e o p l es have followe d

It i s th e r o ad th at c reat e s the race an d th at

c re a t es the s o c i al ty pe
An d h e go e s f u rth er :
If th e hi stor y of humanity w ere to r ec o m
m en ce a n d th e surf ac e of the glo b e h ad not
bee n t r an s for m e d thi s hi s to ry woul d re pea t
its elf in it s ma in lin es Th er e might we ll be
s ec on dary differe n c e s fo r e x amp l e in cert ain
manif e s t ation s of pub li c lif e in p oliti cal r e v o
l ution s to whi c h w e ass ign f ar too gre at an
imp o rt an c e ; but th e sam e r o ads wo ul d r epr o
duc e th e same s o c i al ty pes an d woul d i mp ose

on the m the sam e e ss enti al c h ar ac t ers

Th ere i s no c ont e n di ng with a p ious o p inion
espec i ally when it t ak es th e fo rm of an un
ve ri ab l e p r o p he c y Let th e l evel he ade d
anthr o p ologi s t b e w ar e howe ver l e st he put
all hi s e ggs into on e bask e t Le t hi m se ek
to gi ve eac h f ac to r in th e p r o b l em it s due
Race mus t c o unt for s o methi ng o r why d o
not th e oth er ani mal s take a l eaf o ut of o ur
b oo k an d bu il d up ri val c i vilization s on sui tab l e
s it e s
Why d o m en h er d ca ttl e in st ead of
the cattl e her d ing th e m e n
W e ar e ration al
be ings in other wor ds bec aus e w e h ave it in
A gain cult ure wit h
u s to be r ation al b e ings
th e int elligen c e an d c hoic e it in v ol v e s co u nt s
for s o methi ng too I t is e as y to ar gue th at
s in ce th ere wer e th e As i ati c s tep p e s wit h th e
wil d hor ses r ead y to h an d in t hem man was
.

ANTHROPO LO GY

1 00

b ou nd s oon er or l at er to t ame th e horse

an d develo p th e c har act er i sti c cult u re of th e
n omad ty p e Y es but why d i d ma n t am e th e
h or se l at e r r athe r tha n s oon er
An d why d i d
th e Am er i can re ds kin s n ever t am e th e b i s on
an d ad o p t a pas tor al lif e in their vast p r air i e s
O r why d o m o dern b l ack fol k an d whit e fol k
alike in Afri ca f a il to utili ze the el ep hant ?
I s it because th e se t hi ng s cannot b e d on e o r
b ecause m an ha s not fo un d o ut how to d o
th em
Wh e n all all ow an ces however are m ade
f or th e e x agger ation s al m o s t par d on ab l e in
a bran c h of sc i e n c e s till e ngaged in pus hing
it s w a y to th e fr ont a nthr o p o ge ogr ap hy
remain s a f ar r eac hing m etho d of hi sto ri c al
s t ud y whi c h th e anthr o p ologi s t ha s to l e arn
h ow to use T o pu t it c rude ly h e must l earn
h ow to wor k all th e time with a map of th e
ea rth at his el b ow
Fi rs t of all l e t hi m i ma gin e hi s wo rl d of
m an s tation a ry Le t hi m p lot o ut in t u rn
t h e di s t ri bution of h eat of m oi s ture of dis
eases of vege t ation of food ani mal s of the
p hy s i cal t ypes of man of de n s i ty of p o p u
l ation of in dus t ri es of fo rms of govern ment
of religion s of l anguages an d so on an d so
fo rth
H ow f ar d o thes e d iffere nt dist ri
H e wi l l n d
bution s bear eac h other ou t
a num ber of thi n gs t hat go tog e th er i n wha t
.

ENVIRO NMENT

1 01

all along the e q uato r whe ther in Af ri c a o r

South Ame ri ca o r B o rn e o h e will n d th em
knocking off wo rk in the mi ddle of th e da y
in o rde r to t ake a s i e s t a O n th e other h an d
other thin gs will not agr ee so we ll T h us
tho ugh all will be da rk s kinn e d th e South
Am eri can s wi ll be c opp ery the Afri can s b l ac k
an d the me n of B o rn e o y e llow
Led on b y suc h d isc re pan c i es per h aps h e
will w a nt n e xt to s e t h is wo rl d of ma n in
m o ve m e nt He wil l thereup on p e rc e i ve a
c ircul ation s o to speak am ong s t the vario us
p e o p l es su gges ti ve of int e rre l ation s of a n e w
type N ow s o long as h e i s d e aling in de
s c rip t io n s of a de t ac h ed k in d c on c e r ning no t
mere ly the p hy s i ca l e n v ir onm e nt but lik e wise
the s oc i a l adjus t me nt s m or e imm e d i ate ly
c orr e sp on d ing th er eto h e will be work ing at
the ge ogr ap hi ca l l e ve l D irectly it c o m es how
e ver to a g e ner a lized d e sc r iption o r hi sto ri cal
e x p l an ation as whe n h e seek s to s how th at
here rath er tha n th ere a c i viliz ation i s lik e ly
to ar ise g e ogr ap hi ca l c on s i d er ation s p r o p e r
will n ot su f c e D i st r ibu tion i s mere ly on e
asp ect of e v ol ution Ye t that it is a very
imp o rt a nt asp e c t will now be s hown b y a
h as ty su rve y of the wo r l d acco rding t o
ge ographical reg io ns
,

ANTHR O POL OGY

1 02

b e gi n wit h Eur ope so as t o p roc eed

gradually fr o m th e m ore kno wn to the l ess
kno wn L e ck y h as sp ok e n of th e E ur o p e a n

e p o c h of th e huma n m in d
Wh at is th e
ge ograp hi cal an d p hy s i cal theat re of th at
e p oc h ? W e may di stingu i s h I b orr ow th e
su gge stion fr om Pr ofe ss o r Myr es thre e st ages
in it s d e velo pm e nt Fir stly there was the
ri ve r p h as e ; n e xt the M e d it err an e a n p h ase ;
l as tly the p re s e nt da y Atl a nti c p h ase Thus
to be gin with th e va ll ey s of the N il e a n d
E uphrat e s w ere e ac h th e home of c i vi lizations
b oth ma gnic e nt a n d e n during T he y d i d
n ot spring up sp ont ane ous ly howe ver I f
the ri ve rs h e l p e d man ma n a l s o hel ped th e
ri vers b y in ve nting s y s t ems of irrigation
N e xt fr o m Mino a n day s right on to th e e n d
of th e Mi ddl e A ges the M e dit erra n ea n bas in
was th e focus of all th e high er life in the wo r l d
if w e pu t out of s ight th e c i v iliz ation s of In dia
an d Chin a togethe r with th e l e sse r cu ltures of
Peru an d M e xi c o I will c on s i d er thi s sec on d
p h ase e spec i all y because it i s parti cu l ar ly
in st ructive fr o m th e g e ograp hi ca l s ta n dp oint
Fi n ally s in ce th e time of th e di sc o very of
Am e ri ca th e se a t rade rst ca ll e d into exi s t
e n c e as a c i v ilizing a ge nt b y M e d it erra n ea n
con d ition s has s hift ed it s bas e to th e A tl an ti c
c o ast a n d esp e c i ally to th at l an d of n atu ra l
harb ours t h e B rit is h Isl es We mu st gi ve
Le t

us

ENVIRON MENT

1 08

up th ink ing i n t erm s of an Eas t ern a n d Wes tern

Hem i sp h er e T h e t ru e d i s tin ction as app li c
ab l e to m o d e rn ti mes i s b etween a l an d
h em i sp here with th e Atl anti c c o as t of E u ro pe
a s it s ce nt re
a n d a sea h e m i sp h ere r oughly
c oin c i ding wi th th e P ac i c T h e P ac i c is
t ru ly an o c e an ; but th e Atl anti c i s bec o min g
m ore of a h err ing p on d e v ery da y
Fi xing our e y e s th e n on th e M e d it erra n e a n
bas in with it s B l ack S ea ext e n s ion it i s e as y
to p er c e i ve th at we h ave h e re a w e ll de n e d
ge o grap hi ca l pro v in ce capab l e of acting as a n
area of c haract e r iz ation as p er h aps no oth er
in th e worl d on c e it s various p e o p l es h ad th e
t ast e a n d inge nu ity to int erm ingl e fr ee ly b y
w a y of th e s e a T h e rs t f act to not e i s th e
c o mp l et e n e ss of the r ing fe n c e th at s hu t s it in
F r o m th e P yre n ee s r ight along to Ararat ru n s
th e g reat Al p in e fol d lik e a r i d ge i n a cru mp l ed
t ab l e cloth ; the S pani s h Si e rr as an d the Atl as
c ontin u e th e c i rc l e to th e s o uth we s t ; an d
th e re s t is d e sert N e xt th e c ongur ation
of th e c o ast s makes fo r int erc o urs e b y sea
espec i ally on th e no rth ern s i d e with it s p enin
sul as an d i sl an ds th e r emain s of a fou n d er ed
an d d r own e d m ou nt ain c ou nt ry Thi s same
c ongur ation c on s i d ere d in c onn ec tion with
th e o r a an d f aun a that are f av ou re d b y th e
c li mat e go es far to ex pl a in th at di sc ontinu ity
of t h e p oli tic al l ife which enc o urage d inde
.

ANTHROPO LO G Y

1 04

whil s t it p reven t ed self sufcie nc y

Th e fo res t be lt owi ng to th e dry summer
l a y tow ar ds th e s now lin e a n d be low it a
scrub belt yi el d ing p oor hu nt ing dr o ve men
to gr ow th e ir c o rn a n d oli ves an d vin es in th e
l eas t s wamp y of the lowl an ds scatt er ed li k e
m er e o ases am ong st th e hills and p ro mo n
t ori es
Fo r a l on g t ime t h en m an a long th e
n ort h c o as t s mus t h ave bee n o pp r essed rather
t h an assi st ed b y hi s e n vi r onm ent It made
m ass m oveme nt s i mp oss i b l e G re at wave s of
mi gration f r o m th e s t e ppe l an d to th e no rth
eas t o r fr o m the fore st l an d to th e no rth wes t
woul d thu n d er on th e long m ou nt a in barr i e r
only to t ri ckl e acr o ss in r i vul et s an d form littl e
p ool s of humanity h ere an d th er e P etty f euds
b etw ee n p l a in s hor e a n d m ou nt ain as in
a n c i e nt Atti ca woul d bu t acce nt uat e th e p re
v aili ng di vi s ion Cont ra riwi s e on the s outhern
wh er e th ere was
si de of th e M e d it err an ean
c o unt ry there woul d
O pe n i f l a r g e ly d e se rt
b e roo m un der prim iti ve c on d ition s for a ho m o
n
e
u
s
e
o
rac
e
to
mu
lti
p
ly
I
t
i
s
in
N
o
r
th
A
f
r
i
ca
g
th at w e must pr o bab ly p l ace the o rigin al hot
bed of th at M ed it erran e an race s light a n d
d ark with o val h eads an d fac e s who dur ing
the n e olithi c pe rio d c oloniz ed th e o pp os ite
si d e of th e M edi t e rr an ean an d t hre w o ut a
win g al on g t h e w arm Atl ant ic co ast as f ar
pen dence

ENVIR O NME NT

1 05

n ort h as Sc otl an d a s well as eastwards to the

Up per D an ub e ; whil s t b y wa y of s o uth an d
east the y cert ainly o verra n Egypt Ar ab i a an d
Somalil an d with p r o bab l e r amication s s till
farth er in b oth di re ctio ns At l as t howe ver
in the eas te rn Me dit e rr ane an was l ea rnt the
l ess on of the p r ot s att en ding the s e a going
life an d th er e began t h e t rue M e di t err an ean
p has e whi c h i s e ss enti ally an er a of s e a b o rn e
c o mm erce T he n wa s the c han ce for the
no rthern s ho re with it s peni n su l a r c o n gu ra
tion C arthage on the s o uth s hore mus t be
reg arded as a b ol d ex p er i ment that di d not
an s wer Th e m o r al then wo ul d s ee m to be
that th e M edi t err an ean bas in p r o ved an i d e al
n ur sery for s eam en ; but only as s oon a s m e n
w ere b r ave an d c l e ver e nough to t ak e to the
sea Th e g eogr ap hi cal factor is at l eas t partl y
c on se q uen ce a s well as cause
,

pr o ceed fa rthe r no rth into wh at

wa s for th e earli er M e d it e rran e an fol k th e
b re eding gr o un d of ba rbaro us o utl an ders
fo rming th e c hi ef men ac e to th ei r c i rcu it of
settl e d c i vi c l ife It is n ec e ssar y to rega r d
northern E ur o pe an d norther n As i a as fo rm ing
on e ge ogr ap hi c p r o vin c e As i a Mino r togethe r
with th e E up h rat es vall e y an d with Arab ia
in a l ess er d egr e e b elongs to th e M ed it err an ean
area I ndi a an d Chi na wit h the s outh ea st ern
N ow l et

us

ANTHRO P O LO G Y

1 06

co rn er of As i a th at li es betw een t h em f orm

anoth er s y st em th at will be c ons i d ere d sep ar
at ely l at er on
T h e E uras i an northl an d c on s i st s n at urally
th at i s to s a y where c ulti vation ha s not
int r o duc e d c h ange s of fo u r b elt s Fi rst to
th e s o uthwar d c o m e th e m ou nt ain ranges
pass ing eas twar ds into high p l at e au T h en
n orth of thi s lin e fr o m th e Lower D an ube
as fa r as Chi n a s t re tc h e s a b e lt of g r ass l an d
o r st eppe c ou nt r y at a lower l eve l a b e lt whi c h
during th e m il d er per iods of th e i ce a g e a n d
i mm e d i at e ly aft er it must h ave reac he d a s
f ar as th e Atl anti c The n w e n d s till f arth er
to th e no rth a fo res t b e lt we ll deve lo ped in

the Si b er i a of to day L as tly on th e verg e

of th e Arc ti c s e a s t ret c he s the t un dr a the
f r oze n s oil of whi c h i s f ertil e in littl e e l s e than
th e li c hen known as r e in deer m o ss whil s t to
the wes t as fo r in s t an ce in o ur i s l an ds
m oors a n d b ogs r ep r ese nt thi s zon e of barre n
l an ds in a m il de r for m
T h e m ou nt ain b e lt is th ro ugho u t its en ti re
l e ngth th e ho me of ro un d he ad e d peo p l es the
Al p in e race whi c h i s g e n erally
so call e d
supp os e d to have o rigin ally c o me f ro m the
high p l at e au c ou nt ry of As i a T h ese r o un d
h e ad e d me n in we s t ern E u ro p e appea r whe re
e ve r there a re hill s th r owing out offs hoots b y
way o f th e hig hl an ds of ce nt ral Fra n c e in to
,

ENVIR ONME NT

1 07

B ri tta ny an d even reac hing the B ritis h Is l es

Here the y int r oduc e d th e u e of b ro nz e (an
in ve ntion p o ss i b ly ac qui red b y c ont ac t with
Egyp tia ns in t he n e ar E as t ) though without
l e aving any marked traces of themse l ves
am ongs t the perman e nt p o pulation At t h e
oth e r en d of E u ro pe the y a ffe ct e d G ree ce b y
w ay of a s t ead y thou gh li mi t e d inltration ;
whils t in As i a Mino r th e y i ssue d fo rth fro m th ei r
hills as the fo rmi dab l e Hittit es the pe o p l e
b y the w a y to who m th e J e ws are sa i d to
owe thei r c ha rac t e ri s ti c ye t non S e miti c
n os es B u t a re th ese ro un d he ads a ll of on e
race ? P rofe ss o r Ri d gew a y ha s put fo rw ar d a
rather pa rad oxical the o ry to the e ffe ct that
j us t as the long fac e d Bo e r ho rs e s oon
ev ol ve d in th e m ounta in s of B asuto l an d into
a ro un d h ead e d p ony so it is in a fe w gen era
tion s with h uman m o untain e ers i rre sp e cti ve
of the i r b ree d Thi s is al m o s t certainly to
o ve rrate the e ffe c ts of e n vi ronment At the
same ti me in th e present s tat e of ou r know
l ed ge it wo ul d be p re mat ure e ithe r to af rm
o r d e ny that in the ve ry long run roun d
head e dn e ss go es with a m o unta in life
Th e grass l an d n e xt c l ai ms o u r at tention
Here i s th e paradi se of the ho rs e an d c o ns e
q ue ntly of the ho rs e b re ake r Hen c e the re
fo re cam e the c h argi ng mu ltit ud e s of As i ati c
marauders who afte r many repulses broke
,

ANT HR O POLO GY

1 08

th rough t he M e di terran ean c o rd on and es tab

lishe d th emse l ves as t h e m o d e rn Tu rk s ; whil s t
at th e oth e r en d of the i r beat the y p o ure d into
C hina whi c h no great w all c o ul d avail to sa v e
an d es tab li s hed the M an c hu d o mi n ation
Gi ve n th e s t epp e c o u nt ry an d a ho rse taming
peo p l e w e m ight se ek with the anth ro po
ge ograp h ers of th e b ol der s o rt to deduc e th e
whol e wa y o f l ife th e n o mad i sm the amw
e
food inc l ud ing the mil k d i et inf ant s n eed an d
n d so h ard to o b t ai n f arther s outh th e
the pat ri arc h al t yp e of
c o mmu n al s y s t em
autho rity th e ca ravan s y st e m th at can se t
the whol e ho rd e m ovi ng along li ke a s warm
of lo cus t s an d so on But as h as bee n al read y
p oint e d out th e ho rse h ad to be t amed rs t
P al aeolithi c man in w es t e rn E uro pe h ad ho rse
meat i n abun dan c e At Solut re a littl e no rth
of L yon s a heap of food re fus e 1 00 y ards
long an d 1 0 fee t hi gh l arge ly c on s i s t s o f th e
b on es of ho rses m o s t of th em you ng an d
te n der T hi s s hows th at th e ol d h unters
kn ew how to e nj oy th e pass ing hour in th e i r
i mp ro vi dent w ay li ke th e e qu ally rec kl e ss
Bus h m e n who have l e ft s i mi la r Golgothas
be hin d the m in Sou th A fri ca Yet appare ntly
pal aeolithi c man d i d no t tame th e ho rse
En vi r on ment in fac t can only gi ve t h e hint ;
an d man may not be read y to take it
T he fo res t la nd of th e n o rth afford s fair
,

ENVIR O NME NT

1 09

h un ti ng i n its wa y but it is d oubtfu l i f it i s

tted to rea r a C op io us b roo d of m en at an y
r ate so long as s ton e we ap on s ar e alone avail
ab l e whe re with to mas t er the vege tation an d
e ffe ct c l earings whil s t bu rning the b rus hwood
d own i s p re c l ud e d b y the damp Where the
o riginal ho me ma y h ave b ee n of th e so calle d
N o rdi c r ac e the l arge li mb e d fai r me n of the
Te utoni c worl d re main s s omethi ng of a
mys t ery ; thou gh it is now the f as hion to
p l ace it in t h e no rth eas t of E u rop e rather
tha n in Asi a an d to supp o s e it to hav e b een
m o re o r l e ss i s ol at ed fro m the re s t of the wo rl d
b y fo rm erly e xi s ting s heet s of w ater Wh e re
ever it was there mus t h ave b ee n gr ass l an d
enou gh to p ermit of pas to r al h ab it s m o di ed
p e rha ps b y s o me hunting on the on e han d an d
b y s o m e p ri miti ve ag ri cu lt ure on the othe r
The Me dite rr an e an me n c o ming fr o m N o rth
Af ri ca an e x c e ll e nt c ount ry fo r the ho rs e
may hav e vi e d with the As i ati cs of th e s t epp e s
in int ro ducing a va ri e d cult u re to the no rth
At any rat e whe n the Ge rman s of Tac it us
eme rge into th e light of hi s to ry the y a re not
me r e fo res te rs but rather woo d l an ders me n of
th e gl ad e s with many s i d e s to thei r life ; in c l ud
ing an ac quaint an c e with the sea an d its w ay s
su rpas s ing b y fa r th at of those ear ly b e ac h
c o mb e rs who se mi s erab l e kit c hen mi dden s ar e
to be fo un d a long the c o as t of D e nmark
,

AN THROPOL OGY

1 10

O f t h e tun dra it is e n o ugh to say t ha t all

depe n ds on th e r e in d e e r Thi s an i mal i s the
Wh e n
b e all a n d e n d a ll of L app e xi s t e n ce
Nan sen a ft e r c ro ss ing G ree nl an d sailed ho me
with hi s two L apps h e call ed thei r att e ntion
to the c r owds of p e o p l e ass e mb l ed to we l c o me

them at the h arb o u r

Ah sai d the e l d er
an d m o re tho ughtfu l of th e pai r if the y were
onl y re in d eer l
Wh e n d o mes ti cat e d th e
re in deer yi e l ds mil k as we ll as food t h ough
l a rg e n umbe rs a re n eeded to keep th e c o m
mu nit y in c o m fo rt O th e rwi se hunting an d
s hing mus t serve to ek e o u t th e l arde r
Mi s erab l e in de e d a re th e t ri bes o r rath er
remn ant s of t ri bes a long th e Si be ri an t un d ra
w h o h ave no re in d e e r O n th e othe r h an d i f
there a re p l e nty of wil d re in dee r as am ongs t
th e Ko ry aks a n d s o me of t h e C h uk c hi s
hu nting b y it se lf su fces
.

Le t us n ow pass on fr om t h e E u r as i an
no rthl an d to what i s zoologi c a lly a l m o st
it s ann e x e N o rth Ameri ca ; it s t u n d ra for
e x amp l e where th e E ski m o li ve be ing s t ri ctly
c ontin u o us with the As i ati c zon e T hough
h aving a very differe nt fau n a a n d o ra So ut h
Am e ri ca presumab ly fo rms pa rt of th e same
ge og rap hi cal p ro vin ce so far as man i s c on
c ern e d thou gh th ere i s evi de n ce fo r thinking
Unti l however
t ha t h e reac hed it very ea r ly
,

EN VIR ONME NT

111

m ore d ata are avail ab l e fo r th e p re hi s to ry of

the Ameri can I n d i an th e gr eat m o ul d ing fo rces
ge ograp hi ca l o r oth er mus t be m ere ly gue ss e d
at M uc h t u rn s on th e p eriod ass i gn e d to th e
rs t appea r an ce of man in thi s region ; fo r
th at h e is in di ge no us i s highly i mp robab l e
if onl y because no anthro p oi d ap e s a re found
h ere Th e rac i al typ e whi c h with the e x
c e p t io n of th e E ski m o
an d p o ss i b ly of the
sal m on shi n g t ri b e s along the no rt h we s t
c oas t i s on e fo r the whol e c ontin e nt has a
rath er di s tant resemb l a n ce to that of th e
As i ati c Mongol s N o r i s the re any difcu lty
in n ding th e i mmigr ants a me an s of t r ans it
fr o m no rthern As i a
E ve n if it b e he l d that
the l an d b ri d g e b y way of wh at are now the
Al e u ti a n Is l an ds was c lo s e d at too e a rly a da te
fo r man to p r ot b y it th ere is always the
p assa ge ove r th e i ce b y w ay of B eh ring St ra its ;
whi c h if it bo re th e mamm oth as i s p rove d
b y it s remains in Al aska c oul d ce rtainly bear
m an
O n ce man was ac ro ss wh at was the ma nn er
of hi s di s t r i bu tion
O n thi s p oint g eograp hy
can at p res e nt t e ll us littl e M D e mo lin s
it i s t ru e desc ri bes th re e r out es on e along the
Ro cki es th e n e xt d own the c ent ral zon e of
p r ai ri es an d the thi rd a n d m o s t east erly b y
way of th e grea t l akes B ut thi s is pure
hyp ot hes i s N o fact s are addu ced I ndeed
-

ANTHRO PO LOGY

1 12

evi de n ce b eari ng o n di s t ri b ution is v ery h ard

to o b t ain in thi s a rea s in ce th e p hy s i cal ty pe
i s s o unifo rm th ro u ghout T he bes t avail ab l e
c rit erion i s the s o me wh at p oo r on e of th e
d i s t ri bution of th e very va rio us l a ngu ages
So me cu rious lin es of migration a re in d i cat e d
b y the occu rre n c e of th e sa m e type of l angu age
in wi d e ly separat ed region s the m o s t s t ri king
e x amp l e being th e appea r an ce of on e lingu i s ti c
s to ck th e so call e d Ath apasca n a wa y up in
the no rth wes t b y th e Al aska b o un dary ; at
on e o r two p oint s in s ou th we st e m O regon
a nd n o rth w es t e rn C a lifo rni a wh ere an ab s o
l u te medl e y of l angu ages p re va il s ; an d again
in th e s ou thern highl an ds a long th e lin e of
Colora d o a n d Ut ah to th e other s i de of t he
M exi can fr ontie r D o e s it follow fr o m this
d i s tri bution th at th e Apac he s at the s outhern
e n d of th e r ange h ave c o me d own from A l aska
b y w a y of th e Ro ck i es an d the P ac i c s lo pe
to the i r p res ent h ab it at ? It m ight be so in
thi s parti cu l ar cas e ; but there ar e al s o tho se
who think th at th e s ign s in ge n er a l p oint to
a no rthw ar d d i spersa l of t ri bes who be fore
had be e n dri ve n s ou th b y a pe rio d of gla c ia
tion T hus th e rs t thin g to be s ett l e d is
the antiqu ity of the Am e ri ca n type of man
A gl an ce at South Ameri ca mus t su f ce
Ge ogr ap hi cally it c on s i st s of t hree re gion s
W est w ar ds w e h ave the Pac i c li ne of brac ing
,

EN VIR ONME NT

118

highl an ds runnin g d own fr o m Me xi c o as far as

Chil e the ho me of two o r m o re cult ure s of a
rather high or d er
T he n to the east there is
the steaming e q uato ri al fo re st rs t c o vering
a f an of ri ver s the n ri s ing up into he althi er
hill c ou nt ry the whol e in it s wil d sta te h amper
ing to human e nt erp ris e An d b e low it occu rs
the grass l an d of the pampas only nee d ing th e
ho rse to bring out the power s of its na ti ve
occu pants
B efore l eaving thi s subjec t of the do mest i
cat e d ho r s e of whi c h s o muc h use ha s al re ad y
be e n mad e in o rd er to ill us tr at e how ge ograp hi c
o pp o rtu nity an d human c ont ri van c e must he l p
eac h othe r out it i s worth noti c ing how an
in vention can q u i ckly re vol utionize e ve n th at
cu ltu r al life of the rud er r ac e s whi c h i s usually
supp o se d to b e qu it e hi d e b ou n d b y im
m e m o ri a l custom Wh e n the Eu r o p e an s rs t
b r oke in up on the re dski n s of N or th Ameri ca
the y fou n d them a p e o p l e of hu nt ers an d
s he rs it is tru e but with a gri cu ltu re as a
s ec on d s t ring e ver yw here e as t of the Mi ss is
s i pp i as we ll as to the s outh a n d on the whol e
s e d e nt ary with vill age s scatt ere d far apart ;
so th at in p r e Conq u e st day s th e y wou l d s ee m
to h ave b e e n en j oying a l arge m e asu re of
security an d p e ace T he c o m ing of the whit e s
s oon cr owde d the m back up on thems e l ves
disarrangin g the ol d b o un dari e s At the same
,

ANTHROP OL OGY

114

time the

h orse an d t he gu n were i ntro duced

With e xtr a ord in ar y rap i d ity th e In di an
a dapt ed himself to a n e w m ode of e xi s t e n ce
a gr ass l an d life co mp li cat ed b y t he f act th at
t he re l entl ess p re ssure of the in vaders gave
it a pred ato ry tu rn whi c h it might othe rwi se
have l acked Something very s im il ar thou gh
neith er c ond ition s nor c on seq uen ces w er e q u t e
the same o ccu rre d in th e pampas of South
Ameri ca where hor se I n d i an s like the P at a
who
s
e
em
a
t

rs
t
s
ight
th
e
in
g
e
no
us
a
n
s
di
n
i
o
g
o ut cr o p of the ver y s oil ar e rea lly the rece nt
b y p r oduct of an int ru s i ve cult ure
.

l et u s h ark back to s o uth ern As i a

r es er v oi r s of lif e In di a a n d Chi na
and be tw ee n them a ju tting p ro m onto ry
p ointing the w a y to the I n d one s i an arc hi
pel ago a n d the n ce onw ar d f arthe r st ill to
the wi de u n g Aus t r al re gion with it s m yri ad
lan ds ranging in s ize fr o m a c ontin e nt to a
cor al atoll H er e w e have a nurs e ry of sea
m e n on a vas t er scal e th an in the M e dit e r
fo r re memb er th at fr o m thi s p oint
ran e an ;
man sp r ead b y w ay of the sea fr om E as ter
Is l and in th e E as t e rn P ac i c right aw ay to
M ada gascar wh er e w e n d J avan ese immi
a
nt
s
a
n
d
n
e
r
o
es
who
are
p
r
o
bab
ly
P
apua
n
r
g
g
whil st t he l a nguage is o f a Mal ay o P olyn es ian
An d now
with it s two

ENV IRO NME NT

115

In d i a an d Chin a eac h well nigh deserve the

st atus of ge ogr ap hi cal p r o vin c e s on the ir own
acc ou nt E ac h i s an ar ea of s ettl e me nt ; an d
on c e there i s s ettl e me nt there i s a cu ltu ral
in ue n c e whi c h c o op erat e s with the e n v ir on
m e nt to wee d out i mm igr a nt forms ; a s w e se e
for e x amp l e in E gy pt whe re a c harac ter i sti c
p hy s i cal typ e o r rather pai r of typ e s a c oa rs e r
a n d a n er h as appare ntly per s i st e d d e sp it e
the c on s t a nt in u x of other r ac e s fro m the
dawn of it s long hi s tor y In d ia howe ver an d
Chin a have b oth su ffere d so muc h in vas ion
fr o m th e E u r as i an no r thl an d an d at t h e same
tim e ar e of suc h gre at e xte nt a n d c omp r i s e
suc h d iver se p hys i cal c on d ition s that the y
hav e in the c ou r s e of the long y e ars sent fo rt h
very various b r oo ds of me n to s e ek the ir
fo rt u n e s in the s outh e as t
N o r mus t we ignore th e p o ss i b ility of an
ear li er m o vem ent in th e o pp os it e dir ec tion
I n In d on e s i a th e hom e of th e or ang ut an an d
gi bb on not to sp e ak of P ithe canthr o pus man y
author iti e s woul d p l ac e the origin al ho me of
the human r ace It will b e wi se to touc h
lightly on matt er s in v ol ving c on s i d er ation s of
palaeo ge ogr ap hy th at m o s t kal e i d o sc o p i c of
s tudi e s T he submerge d c ontin ent s whi c h it
call s f r o m th e vasty d eep have a hab it of
c r umb ling aw ay aga in Let us th erefore re
fra i n fro m p r o vi din g m an wi th l an d bri dges
-

ANTHR OPOLOGY

116

(draw bri dg es the y m ight al m o s t b e call ed)

wh eth er b etwe en the I n d on es i an i sl an ds ;
or b etw ee n N e w G uin ea Aust r al ia an d Ta s
mani a ; o r b etw ee n In d on es i a an d Afr i ca b y
w ay of th e I n di an Ocean Let the cur io us
f act s ab out th e p r esent di st ri bution of th e
rac i al types speak fo r themsel ves th e diffi c ul
ti e s ab o ut i de ntifying a rac i al type be in g i n
the meantime ever b o rn e in m in d
Mo st s t r i king of all i s th e diff us ion of the
N e gr o sto cks with b l ack s kin an d woolly h ai r
T he ir rang e is cert ainl y su gg esti ve of a
b r e e ding gr o un d s omewhere ab out In d on es i a
T o th e e xt r eme w es t are the n e gr oes of Afri ca
to th e e xt r eme eas t th e P a p ua sian s (Papuan s
a n d M el an es i an s ) e xt en di ng fr o m N e w G u in ea
thr o u gh th e o c e ani c i s l an ds as f ar as Fi j i
A seri e s of c onn e c ting lin ks i s a fforded b y th e
small n e gr oes of th e p ygm y typ e the so call e d
Ne grito s It i s not known how f ar the y
rep re s e nt a d i stin c t an d p er h aps e arli er e xp eri
fn e nt in n e gr o making thou gh thi s is th e
preva iling vi e w ; o r wh eth er the n e gr o ty pe
wi th it s te n den c y to inf antil e c h arac t er s due
t o th e early c lo s ing of th e c r ani al sut ures is
a pt to thr ow off d w arf ed forms in a n occas ion al
w a y At an y rat e i n Afri ca th ere are several
g ro ups of p ygm i es i n t h e C on g o re gion as we ll
as th e B us hme n a nd all i ed s to cks in So uth
A fri ca
Th en th e An daman Is l anders t he
-

EN VIR O NME NT
Sem an g

117

of the Mal a y Penin sul a the Ak et of

east ern S umat r a th e now ext in c t Kal angs of
,

m o st ape li ke of human be ings the Aet as of

the Phi li pp in es an d the dwarf s with a
surpri s ingly high cul t ure recently re p o rt e d
fr o m D ut c h N e w G uin e a are li ke so many
scatt er ed p i eces of hu man wrecka ge Fin ally
if we t urn o ur ga ze s o uthwar d we n d t hat
Ne grito s unt il the other da y inhab it ed
Tasmani a ; whil s t in Aus t ral i a a s tr ain of
Negr ito or N e gr o (Papuan ) b lood is li ke wi se
to be d e t ec t e d
Ar e w e he r e on th e t r ack of th e ori gin al
di spe r sal of man ? It is i mp o ss i b l e to sa y
It i s not eve n cert ain thou gh highly p r o bab l e
th at man o rigin at e d in on e sp ot If h e di d
h e mus t have bee n heredit arily en d owe d
alm o st fr o m t h e out set with an adapt ab ility
to differe nt c l imat es quite uniq u e in it s wa y
The tig er is ab l e to r ange fr o m th e hot In di an
j ungl e to th e free zin g Si b eri an t un dra ; but
ma n is th e c o sm o p olit an a nimal be yon d all
other s Som e how on thi s the o ry of a s ingl e
o rigin h e made his way to e ve ry q uart er of
th e glo be ; an d wh en he got th ere thou gh
n eeding time p er h aps to ac q uire th e local
c olo ur man age d in the en d to b e at ho me It
looks a s if b oth r ac e an d a das h of cult ure h ad
a good deal to d o with hi s e xp loit ation of
-

ANTHR O POLOGY

118

ge ograp hi cal o pp o rt u nity H ow di d the Au s

t ra lia n s a n d th e i r N egr ito for er u nn er s in vad e
the i r Aus t r al worl d at s o me p er io d whi c h w e
ca nnot bu t suspec t was i mm e n s e ly r em ot e in
ti me
C e rt a in at l eas t i t i s th at the y c r oss e d
a formi dab l e barr i e r Wh at i s known as
Wa ll ac e s lin e c o rr e sp on ds with the d ee p
c h ann e l ru nning be tw ee n the i s l an ds of B ali
an d Lo mb o k an d c ontin u ing no rthwar ds to
th e w e s t of C el e b e s O n the e ast ern s i d e th e
f au n a are non As i ati c Yet s o m e how into
Aus t r ali a with it s q uee r m onot re mes an d mar
su p ials e nt ered t r i ump h ant man ma n a n d
th e d og with hi m H aeck e l h as su gge st ed th at
m an followed th e d og p l aying as it wer e th e
j ackal to hi m B u t thi s s ou n ds r ath er absur d
I t loo ks a s if man h ad al re ad y ac q u i re d enou gh
seaman s hi p to f err y himself ac r o ss th e zoo
logi cal d i vi d e an d to t ake hi s f aithfu l d og
with him on b o ar d hi s raft o r du g o ut Until
w e hav e f act s whereon to bu il d however it
wo ul d be as u n pard on ab l e to l a y d own th e
l a w on th ese matt er s as it is per mi ss i b l e to
ll up th e b l an k b y guess wor k
I t r e main s to r o un d off ou r o rigin al surve y
b y a wo r d or two m or e ab out th e f a rth er
ext remi ti es west s o uth an d eas t of thi s
v as t s o u th ern wo rl d to whi c h s o u th eas t ern
As i a furn i s hes a n at ural appr oac h Th e
ne gr oes did n ot h ave Af ri ca th at is Afri ca
.

E NVIRO NME NT

119

s out h of the S ah ara all to th emsel ves In

an d n ear the e quato ri al fore s t re gion of the
we s t the pur e type p re va il s di spl a ying agri
c ult ur al pur su it s suc h as the c ul ti vation of
th e ban an a an d farth er north of m ill et
tha t mus t h ave b ee n ac q u ir ed b efor e th e r ac e
was dr i ve n out of th e m o re o pen c ountr y
El s ewher e o cc ur m ixt u re s of e ver y kin d with
int rus i ve pas toral p e o p l e s of the M edi t err an e an
ty p e th e n egr o b loo d however t en di ng to
p re d o min at e ; an d thus w e g et the F ul ah s an d
s i m il ar s to cks to the w e s t along the gr ass
l an d b ordering o u th e des ert ; the N ilo t ic fol k
am ong st th e s wamps of th e Upp er N il e ; an d
thr ou gho ut th e e as t e rn an d s outhern parkl an d
th e vigor ous B ant u p e op l e s who h av e s we pt
th e B us hme n an d th e kin dre d H ott e ntot s
b efore th e m d own into the d e s ert c ount r y in
th e e xt re me s outh we s t It may b e add e d
th at Afr i ca has a r i c h f au n a an d ora muc h
min er al we alth an d a p hy s i cal c ongu r ation
th at in re sp e c t to it s int er ior thou gh not to
it s c oast s i s highly d i vers i ed ; s o that it
ma y b e d oub te d wheth er the n ati v es h ave
reac he d as high a p it c h of in dig enous cult ure
as th e r es o ur ces of th e e n vi r on m e nt c on s i de r ed
b y it s elf m ight s ee m to w arrant If the us e of
i r on w as in v ent e d in Afr i ca as s o m e beli e ve it
wou l d only b e anoth er p r oof th at o pp o rt unity
i s nothing apart from the capac i ty to gr asp it
,

ANTHRO P O L O GY

1 20

O f th e Au s t rali an ab o rigi n es s omethi ng has

bee n sai d al re ad y Apart fr o m th e N e grito
o r N e gr o s t r a in in th e i r b l oo d th e y ar e usua lly
h el d to belong to th at p re D r avi di an s tock
r e p r ese nt ed b y va rious j ungl e t ri bes in
s o uth ern In di a an d b y th e Veddas of C e ylon
c onn ec t ing lin ks b e tween th e two are as b e ing
th e S akai of th e M al a y P e nin s ul a an d E as t
S umat r a an d th e T o al a of C el e be s It ma y
be wo rth o bser ving al s o th at p re hi s tor i c skull s
of th e N e an de rth al ty pe n d th e ir n ear e st
par all el s in m o dern Aus t r ali a We are here
in th e p r es en ce of s o me v er y an c i ent d i sper sal
fr o m wh at c e nt re an d in wh at d irection it is
h ar d to i magin e In Aus t r ali a th ese ea rly
c oloni s t s fo un d pl easant if s o mewhat lightly
f urni s h e d lo d gings I n parti cular th er e wer e
no danger o us b e as t s ; s o tha t hun ting w as
h ardl y cal cul at ed to put a man on hi s mettl e
Is ol ation an d
a s in m o r e e x ac t ing c li mes
th e c on se q uent abse n ce of p r essure fr o m
human int rud e rs i s anoth e r f ac t in th e s it ua
tion Wh at e ver th e caus e s th e n et result
w as th at d e sp it e a ver y f air e n vir on m ent
awa y fr o m th e des ert re gion s of th e int erio r
man on the whol e s t agn at ed In reg ard to
mat eri al c o mfo rt s an d c on veni en c e s th e
rud en e ss of th e i r lif e s ee ms to u s appalling
O n th e oth er h an d now th at w e are c oming
to know s o m ething of the inn er lif e an d
.

EN VIRO NME NT

1 21

m ental hi sto ry of th e Aus t rali ans a so m ewh at

di ffer e nt c o mp l e xion is pu t up on th e s t at e o f
the i r cult u r e With ver y p l a i n li ving we nt
s omethi ng th at app r o ac he d t o high thi n king ;
an d we mus t r ec ognize in t hi s cas e as i n others
wh at might be t e rm e d a d ifferenti al ev ol ution
of cult ur e acc o r di n g to whi c h s o me e l ement s
ma y advan ce whil s t oth er s s t an d st il l o r eve n
d ecay
T o anothe r an d a very di fferent pe o p l e
n amely th e P olyn es i an s th e same n otion of
a di fferenti al ev ol ution may be p r ot ab ly
app li e d T hey w e re i n th e s ton e ag e wh e n
r s t di sc o vere d a n d h a d n o b ow s a n d a rr ow s
O n the oth e r h an d with c o c o n ut b an an as
an d b r ead fru it the y h ad abun dant me an s o f
sus t e nan ce an d wer e tho ro ughly a t h o me in
thei r magni ce nt canoe s Thus thei r i s l an d
life was ri c h in ease an d v ari e ty ; an d whi l s t
rud e in c e rt ain respect s t he y were a l m os t
ci vili zed i n others Th ei r raci al a fni ti es are
s o me wh at c o mp l e x What i s a l m os t ce rtain
i s th at the y only o ccup i ed th e E as t ern P aci c
du ring th e c o u rse of the l as t 1 5 00 y e ars o r s o
Th e y p ro bab ly came fro m In d on e s i a m ixing
to a s light e xt ent with Me l an es i an s on thei r
w ay H ow th e p roto P olyn e s i an s came into
e xi s te n c e in In d on es i a i s mo re p r ob l emati c
P o ss i b ly th e y w ere th e resu lt of a m ix
tu re b etwee n long h eaded i mmigrants fro m
,

AN T HR OPOLOGY

1 22

Indi a,
e a s t ern
fr o m I n d o Chi n a

and roun d headed Mongol s

an d t h e re s t of s outh e as t ern
As i a f ro m who m t h e p resent Mal ays are
d eri ved
-

We h ave c o mp l e ted o ur ve ry rap i d re gion al

su rve y of the wo rl d ; an d what d o w e n d
B y n o m e an s i s it cas e a ft er cas e of on e re gi on
c o rre sp on di ng to on e type of man an d to on e
type of c ul t u re I t m ight be that gi ven
p ers i s te nt p hys i ca l c on dition s of a unifo rm
kin d an d c o mp l et e i s ol ation h uman life wou l d
in th e e n d c onfo rm to the se c on d ition s o r in
other wo rds s t a gn at e N o on e ca n t e ll a n d
n o on e w ant s to k now b ecaus e as a matt e r
of fac t no suc h e n vi ronm e nta l c on dition s occu r
i n thi s wo rl d of ou rs H uman hi s to ry re ve als
it se lf as a b e wil de ring s eri es of in t e rp e n e
Wh at e x cit e s the se m o veme nts
t ra t io n s
Ge og rap hi cal causes sa y th e th e o ri s ts of on e
i d e a N o d o ub t man m o ves fo rw ard pa rtly
b e cause n at u re ki cks hi m be hin d B u t in
the rs t p l ac e s o m e typ e s of a ni ma l life go
fo rw ar d un d er p re ssu re fr o m n at ure whil s t
others li e d own an d d i e I n the s e c on d p l ace
man has an accumul ati v e facu lty a s oc i al
m em o ry where b y h e i s ab l e to ca r ry on to
the c onq u e s t of a n e w e n vi ron m ent wh atever
B ut thi s is as it
ha s se rv e d hi m in the ol d
w ere to c o mpo un d en vi ronment s a p rocess
.

E NVIRO NMENT

1 23

th at e nds b y making t h e e n vi ronm ent c o

e xte ns i v e with the wo rl d I nt e lligent ass i mi
l ation of the n e w b y m e an s of the ol d b re aks
d own th e p ro vin ci a l ba rri ers on e b y on e until
m an th e c osm o p olita n ani mal b y re as on o f
hi s he re dit ary c on s tit ution d e ve lo ps a c osm o
o iita n cu lt ure ; a t rs t al m o s t un c on sc io us ly
p
but l at er on with se lf c on sc ious int e nt b e cause
h e i s n o longer c ont ent to li ve but ins i s ts o n
li vi ng we ll
As a s e q ue l to thi s b ri e f e x amin ation of th e
ge og rap hi c c ont r ol c on s i d ere d b y it se lf it wo u l d
b e interes ting if spac e a llowe d to app e n d a
s t ud y of the d i s t ri bution of th e a rts an d c r afts
of a m o re o bvio us ly ec ono mi c an d utilit a ri a n
typ e I f the p hy s i cal e n vi ron me nt were all
in all we o u ght to n d th e same c on dition s
ev o k ing th e sam e in dus t ri a l app li an c e s eve ry
whe re witho ut the ai d of su gges tion s fr o m
oth e r quart e rs In dee d s o littl e d o w e kn ow
ab o u t th e c ond ition s att e n d ing th e di sc o ve ry
of th e a rt s of life th at gave humanity its all
i mp o rt ant s t a rt th e mak ing of r e th e
taming of ani mal s the s owing of p l ant s an d
s o o n th at it i s only too e as y to mi s re ad o ur
map We kn ow al m o s t nothing of tho se
m oveme nt s of pe o p l e s in th e c ou rse of whi c h
a gi ve n art was b ro ught fr o m on e pa rt of th e
worl d to anothe r Hen c e wh e n we n d the
a rt du ly in s tall ed in a parti c ul ar pl ace and
.

ANTHRO POLOGY

1 24

uti li zi n g th e loc al p r od uc t the bamb oo in t he

s o uth l e t us sa y o r th e b i rc h in th e no rth as
it n at u rally d oes w e eas ily s li p into the erro r
of supp o s ing th at th e loca l p roduc ts of them
se l ve s called th e a rt into e xi s te n ce Si mi l ar
n eed s w e sa y h ave ge n e rat ed s i mil a r e xpedi
e nts N o d oub t there i s s o me t ruth in thi s
prin c i p l e ; bu t I d o ub t if on the whol e hi s to ry
t e n ds to repeat it se lf i n th e case of the g rea t
u se fu l in ve ntions We are all of us b o rn i mi
ta t o rs bu t in ve nti ve g e ni us i s rare
Take th e case of the ea rly pal aeoliths of the
d ri ft type F ro m Egyp t So ma lil an d an d
man y other di s t ant l an ds c o me e x amp l e s whi ch
Si r J ohn E van s n ds
s o i denti cal in fo rm
an d c ha r ac t e r with Briti s h sp e c i men s that
the y might h ave be e n man u fact ured b y th e

same h an ds
An d th r ou gho ut the p a laao lit hic
age in E u ro pe the ver y li mit e d n umbe r an d
re gul ar succes sion of form s t est i es to t he
inn ate co ns er vati sm of man an d the s low
p rogress of in ve ntion A n d yet a s s o me

Ameri ca n w rit er s h ave a r gu e d who d o n ot

n d th at th e d i stin ction b etwee n c hi pped
pal aeolith s a n d p oli s he d ne olith s of an a lto
gether l at er age app li es eq ually we ll t o the
N ew Wo rl d it wa s just as eas y to h ave got
an ed ge b y rubb ing as b y ak ing T h e f act
rema in s that in the O l d Worl d huma n inv e n
t ive ne ss m o ve d alo ng on e c hann e l rather t ha n
,

ENVIR O NME NT

1 25

an other an d fo r a n immen se l apse of tim e no

on e was fou n d to s tri ke ou t a n e w l in e Th e re
was p l e nty of san d a n d w ate r fo r p oli s h
ing bu t it di d not occur to the ir min ds to
us e it
T o win d up thi s c hap te r h owever I s h all
gl an ce at the di st ri bu tion not of a ny imp le
me nt c onne ct e d d ire c tly a n d o bvious ly with
the u ti liz ation of n atu r al p r o duc t s but of a
d own right o dd ity s om ething that m ight e as ily
be in ve nt ed on ce only a n d a l m o s t i mmed i at e ly
dro pp e d aga in A n d yet here it i s all o ver the
wo rl d going back we may c on j e c t ure to ve ry
an c i e nt times an d i mp lying int erpen et r ation s
of b ygon e p e o p l e s of who s e w an der ings per
haps w e may n e ve r u nfol d the sec ret I t i s

ca ll e d th e bu ll r o are r an d is s imp ly a s l at
of wood on the e n d of a s tr ing whi c h whe n
whir l ed r ou n d p r o duces a rather u n e a rthl y
humm ing s ou n d Will th e anthr op o ge o
grap he r a fte r s tu d ying th e di s tr i bu tion of
wood an d st ringy subs t an ces ro u n d the glo b e
if man li ve d his
v e nture to p r o p h es y th at
half a mill ion y e ar s o r so o ver aga in th e
bull r o arer wou l d be fou n d spread ab out ve ry
muc h where it i s to da y
Bu ll r o arer is
just on e of our lo cal n ames for wh at su rvi ves
now a day s as a toy in many an ol d f as hion ed
c o rn er of th e B riti s h Is l es whe re it i s a l s o
kn own as b oom er b uzzer whi zzer s wi sh
,

AN TH ROPO LO G Y

1 26

an d so on Withou t going f arthe r ae l d we

can get a hint of the two main fun ct ion s whi ch
it s ee ms to h ave fulll ed am ongs t ruder
pe o p l e s I n S c otl a n d it is on the on e han d

s o m etime s us e d to
ca the cattl e hame
A her d b oy h as b ee n see n to s wing a bu ll
ro arer of hi s own mak ing with the re su lt th at
the beas t s wer e s oon ru nning fr anti ca lly to
w ar ds the b yre O n the othe r h an d it is
s o m et imes re g ar de d there as a
t hu n n e r

S p e ll
a c h a r m a g a in s t th u n d e r
the super
st it io n b e ing th at l ike cu re s lik e a n d wh at eve r
mak e s a noi s e li ke thu n d er will b e on goo d
t e rms so to S p e ak with the real thu n d er
A S re gar ds it s us e s in th e re s t of the wo rl d
it ma y b e sa i d at on c e th at h ere an d there in
G ali c i a i n E u r o p e in th e M a l ay P e nin su l a in
As i a an d am ong st th e B us h me n in Af ri ca
it i s us e d to d r i ve o r sca re a ni mal s wheth er
t ame o r wil d A n d thi s to mak e a m e re
gue ss ma y h ave b ee n it s earli e st use if u tili
ta ri an c ont ri va n ces ca n g e n er ally c l a i m
hi sto ri c a l p re c e d e n c e as i s b y no me an s
cert a in As long as man hu nt ed with ve ry
infe rio r w e ap on s h e mus t h av e d e p e n d e d a
goo d deal on dr i ves that e ither for ced th e
game into a p itf all o r r ou n ded them up so
as to e n ab l e a c on cert ed att ack to be made
b y the human pack N o won d e r th at th e
b ull r o arer is so m etim e s used to b ring l uck in
.

E N V I R ONME NT

1 27

m y sti c w a y t o hu nt e rs More c omm onl y

howeve r at the p re s e nt day the bu ll r o are r
s e rv e s another typ e of m y sti c pu r p o se it s
noi se whi c h is so su gge sti ve of thu n d er or
win d with a sup er add e d touc h of we ir dn e ss
an d g en er a l m y st ery tting it to p l a y a l e ad ing
part in r a in mak ing cere m oni e s Fr o m the se
not imp r o bab ly h ave develo ped a ll s o rt s of
other ce rem oni e s c onn ect e d with mak ing
veg et ation an d the c r ops gr ow an d with
mak ing th e b oy s gr ow into men as i s d on e at
the initi ation rit e s It i s not s urp ri s ing ther e
fo re to n d a carv e d human fac e appearin g
on the bu ll r o arer in N ew Gu inea an d aga in
awa y in N o rth Am eri ca whil st in We s t Afri ca
it i s he l d to c ont ain th e v oi c e of a very god
In Aust r ali a too all the ir highe r notion s ab ou t
a ben ev ol e nt d e ity a n d ab out r e ligious matt er s
in gen er al se e m t o c on c e ntrat e on thi s st range
s ymb ol o utwar dly the fr ail e st of toy s ye t to
the sp i rit ual e ye of thes e s i mp l e folk a ver itab l e
holy of holi e s
An d now fo r th e m ere s t S k et c h of it s dist ri
b ut io n th e d e ta il s of whi c h a re to be l ea rnt
fr o m D r Hadd on s val uab l e pap er in The
Engla n d S c otl an d Ire l an d
S tudy of M an
an d Wal e s ha ve it I t ca n be t r acked a long
c e nt ral E u ro pe thro ugh Switz e rl an d Ge rmany
an d P ol an d b e yon d th e C a rpathi an s where
up on an c i ent G re ec e with it s Dio nysi ac

ANTHR OP O LO G Y

1 28

m y s t e ri es t akes u p the t al e In Am e ri ca
it i s fou n d am ongs t the E ski m o i s scatt ere d
o ver the no rthern pa rt of th e c ontin e nt d own
to the M e xi ca n fronti er an d the n t urn s up
af res h in c e nt r al B ra zil
A g ain f ro m the
M al ay P en in sul a an d S umat r a it e xt e n ds o ve r
th e gr eat fan of darke r pe o p l es fro m A f ri ca
w e s t an d s o uth to N e w G u in ea M el an e s i a
an d Aus t r ali a togeth er with Ne w ! e al an d
a lon e of P olyn es i an i s l an ds a f ac t p o ss i b ly
s howing it to h ave be longed to s o me e a rli e r
rac e of c oloni s ts Th us in all of the g reat
ge ograp hi cal are as th e b ull r o are r is fo u n d
an d that witho ut re ck oning in an alogo us

i mp l e me nts li ke the s o call e d bu zz whi c h

c o ve r furth er gr o u n d fo r in s t an ce th e eas t ern
c o as tl an ds of As i a
Are w e to p o s t ulat e
many in dep e n de nt o rigin s o r e l se fa r re ac hing
t r an sp o rt ation s b y mig rato ry p e op l es b y the
Am eri can In d i an s an d th e n eg r oes fo r e x
amp l e
N o attemp t can be mad e he re to
an s wer thes e q ues tion s It i s e no ugh to h ave
s hown b y th e use of a s ingl e ill us t ration how
th e s t ud y of th e ge ograp hi ca l d i s t ri bu tion of
in v e ntion s rai ses as many d if culti es as it
s ol ve s
Ou r c on c l us ion then mus t be th at the
an th ro po logi s t whil s t c on s t antly con s ulting
hi s p hy si cal map of the wo rl d mus t not
s u pp ose th at b y so d oi n g he will b e saved all
.

'

E NVIR ONME NT

1 29

furth e r t roub l e Geogr ap hi cal facts represent

a pass i ve c on dition whi c h life s o me thing b y
its very na t u re ac ti ve o be ys ye t in o be ying
c onq ue rs
We ca nnot ge t awa y fr o m th e fact
tha t we a re p hy s i cally det ermin ed Ye t
p hy s i cal det ermin ation s have bee n surm oun t ed
b y human n at ure in a wa y to whi c h the re s t
of the ani mal wo r l d a ffo rds no pa r all e l T hus
m an as the ol d sa ying has it makes love all
th e ye ar ro un d S eas on a l c h anges of c o urse
a ffe ct hi m ye t h e i s no s l ave of the seas on s
An d so it i s with th e many other e l eme nts

in vol ve d in the g e ogr aphi c c ont rol

The

c
road
fo r ins ta n e tha t i s to sa y a ny
n atural aven ue of migration o r c o mmuni
ca tion whe th e r b y l an d over bri dg es a n d
t hro u gh passes o r b y se a betwee n h arb o urs
an d wi th t r ad e wi n ds to s we ll th e sail s takes
a han d in th e g ame of life an d on e tha t hol ds
many t r umps ; but so again d oes the non
geog rap hi ca l f ac t th at yo ur t rave lling mac hin e
may b e yo u r pai r of l e gs o r a ho rse o r a b o at
o r a railwa y o r an ai rs hi p Le t us be m o de rate
in all thi n gs the n e ve n in o u r re fe re n ces to
th e fo rce of c ir cums t an ces Ci rcu ms ta n ces
can unmake ; but of thems e l ves the y n ever
ye t made man no r any other fo rm of l i fe
.

ANTHROPOLOGY

1 30

C H APT ER

LA N G UA GE

d iffe re nti a of ma n th e q uality th at

marks hi m off f r o m the other ani mal kin ds
i s u n d o ub t edly the p owe r of arti cu l at e spe e c h
T here b y hi s m in d it s e lf b e c o m e s arti cu l at e
If l anguag e i s u lti mat e ly a c re ation of t he
inte ll e ct y et h ar dly l e ss fu n dam e nt a lly is th e
int e ll ect a cre a tion of l anguag e A s e s h
d epe n ds on b on e so d o e s th e li v ing ti ssue of
our sp ir itual life d e p e n d on it s supp o rting
fr ame wo rk of s t e ad fas t v er bal fo rms T h e
ge ni us the he ave n b o rn b e n e f acto r of huma n
ity i s esse nti a lly h e who w restl e s with

thou ght s too d e ep for wor ds u nt il at l as t

h e ass im il at e s the m to th e sc h eme of mea ning s
emb o d ie d in hi s m othe r tongu e an d thus
ra i s e s them d e n it e ly ab o ve th e th re s hol d of
th e c o mm on c on sc ious n ess whi c h i s likewi se
the th res hol d of the c o mm on cu lt ure
T her e i s goo d reas on the n fo r p re xin g
a s ho rt c hapt er on l a ng uag e to a n acc o u nt
of tho se f ac to r s in th e life of man t h at
together s t an d on th e whol e for the p r in
c ip le of free d o mo f rat ion a l s e lf d ir e c tion
H ere d ity a n d e n v i r onm e nt d o not in d ee d
li e u tt erly b e yon d the r ange of o ur c ont rol
As th e y are vi ew ed f ro m th e s t a n dp oint of
THE

,
.

LAN GUAG E

1 31

human hi st o ry as a whol e they s how eac h

in it s own fas hion a cert ain capac ity to m eet
th e n eeds an d p urp o s e s of th e life fo rce h alf
w ay Re gard e d abs tr actly however the y
m ay c on ve n i e ntly b e tr e ate d as p ure ly pass i ve
a n d lim iting c on d ition s He re we are with
a c on stitu tion not of ou r c hoo s ing a n d in a
worl d not of ou r c hoo s ing G i ve n thi s
inh erit a n c e a n d thi s e n vi r on m e nt how are we
b y tak ing thou ght a n d tak ing risks to
ac hi eve th e best u n der th e c irc um st an c e s
S uc h i s the vit al p r o b l em a s it prese nt s it s e lf
t o any parti cul a r ge n er ation of me n
T h e e n vir onme nt i s as it were the e n em y
We are o ut to c onqu er a n d e n s l ave it Our
inh e rita n ce on th e oth er h an d i s th e imp e lling
fo rce w e o be y in s etting forth to ght ; it tingl es
i n our b lood an d n erv e s the musc l es of o ur
arm T hi s forc e of hered ity however a b
Yet co rp o ra te ly
st ract ly con s i de r ed is b lin d
an d in divi dually we ht with e yes that se e
Thi s superve ning facul
then of utilizing
th e light of e x peri e n ce re prese nt s a thir d
e l eme nt in th e s it uation ; an d fr o m th e s ta n d
p o int of m an s des i re to know himself the
su p rem e e l em ent
T he e nvir onm ent in as
much as un der thi s con ce p tion are i n cl ude d
all other fo rm s of lif e e x cep t man can muste r
o n it s s i de a ce rt a in am ou nt of int e llige n ce of
But ma n s prer o gati ve is to
a low o rder
,

ANTHROPO L OG Y

1 82

d omin ate his world by t he aid of in tellige nce

of a high or der Wh en h e deed the i ce a ge
b y the u se of re whe n he o utfaced a n d
ou tl ive d the mamm oth a n d the cave b e ar
h e was alread y th e ration al a ni mal homo
In hi s w ay h e thou ght e ve n in tho se
s a p iens
f ar o ff d ay s A n d therefo re we may assume
u ntil d irect ev i den c e is forthc om ing to the
c ont rary th at h e l ike wi se h ad l angua ge of a n
arti cu l at e kin d H e tr i ed to make a speec h
we ma y al m o st say as s oon as he ha d l earn e d
t o st an d up o n his hi nd l egs
Unfo rtu n at e ly w e e nt i re ly l ack t he m ean s
of carrying back th e h i story of human speec h
to it s rst be ginnin gs I n the l att e r ha lf of
th e l as t centur y whil st th e fe rme nt of D arwi n
is m was fr eshl y see t h in g a ll s ort s of specu l a
tion s w e re rife c on cern ing th e o rigin o f
l angu a ge O n e sc hool s ou ght the s ou r ce of
the ear lie st wo rd s in im it ati ve s ou n ds of th e
ty pe of b ow wow ; a nother in int erj ectional
e x press ion s of t he t ype o f t ut t ut Or ag a in
as w as n atu ral in E ur o pe wh ere
wi th th e
ex c e p tion of Bas que in a co rn er of the w es t
an d o f cert ai n As i ati c l an gu ages Turki s h
Hu ngari an and Fi nn i s h on the eas t ern b o rder
a ll sp oke n ton gues p rese nt cert a in o bviou s
a f nities the co mparat i ve philologi st u nder
t oo k to c on st ruct su n d ry gre at f am il i es of
s p eec h ; and it wa s ho n e d th at soo ner or
-

,
,

LAN GUAGE

1 83

l at er b y working back to som e li ngui sti c

p arting of the w a y s th e centra l pr o b l e m wou l d
be s ol ved of the di spersal of the wor l d s races
T hese pa int ed bubb l es have b urst T h e
furth e r e x amin ation of th e fo rm s of speech
c urrent am ong s t peo p l es of ru de c ul t ure has
not reveal e d a c on sp i cu ous w eal t h e it h er of
imi t ati ve o r of int er j ec tion al s oun ds O n
th e oth er h an d th e c omparati ve s t ud y of
th e E ur o p e an o r as th e y mus t b e t ermed i n
virt ue of th e b r an c h s t ret c hing thr ou gh P ers i a
into In di a th e I n d o E uropean sto ck of
l anguag es carr i e s u s b ack three o r four
thousan d y ears at m o st a m ere n ot hing in
terms of a nthr o p ologi cal ti me Moreo ver a
m or e ext en d e d searc h thr ou gh th e worl d
whi c h in many of it s l ess cult ured p art s
furni s h e s n o lit e r ar y remain s th at m a y s e rve
to ill us t rat e lingui sti c evol ution s how s en dl ess
d i vers ity of tongues in p l ace of th e ho ped
fo r s y s t e m of a f e w f am ili es ; so t h at h alf a
hun dred apparently in d e p e n d ent typ es mus t
be di s tingui s he d in N o rth Amer i ca alon e
Fo r the r est it has bec o me in c re as ingly c l ear
th at race an d l angu ag e n eed not go togeth er
at all Wh at p hilologi s t fo r in s t an ce c oul d
eve r di sc o ve r if h e h ad no hi sto ry t o h el p
him but mu st rely wholly o n th e ex amin ation
of m od ern Fre n c h th at th e b ul k o f th e
s co nn e cte d by w a y o f
i
o
pul
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
F
ra
nc
e
p
,

ANTHROPO L O G Y

1 34

b loo d wit h an c i ent Gaul s w h o sp ok e C el t ic

u ntil t he Roma n c onquest cause d the m t o
ad o p t a vulg ar f o r m of L atin i n it s p l ac e
T h e C elti c tongue in it s t u rn h ad do ubtl ess
not so ver y long b e fo re o us t e d s o me earli er
ty pe of l anguag e p er h aps on e all i e d to th e
s till su r vi ving B as q u e ; thou gh it i s not in th e
l eas t n e c e ssar y ther e fo re to supp o se th at th e
C elti c sp e ak ing in vader s wi p e d o u t th e p r e vi
o u s inh ab it a nt s of th e l a n d to a c o rr esp on d ing
e xt e nt R ac e s in s ho rt m ix re ad ily ; l an
guage s e x c e p t in v er y spec i al c i r c u ms t anc es
h ar dly at all
D i sapp oint ed in it s ho p e of p re s i di ng o ve r
th e r ec on s t r uction of th e d i st ant p ast o f man
th e s t ud y of l angu ag e h as in r e c e nt ye ars
t en d e d s o mewh a t to renou n ce th e hi stori cal
th at i s to say anthr o p ologi cal method
al tog eth er
T h e a lt ern ati ve is a pur ely fo rmal
t r e at ment of th e subj e ct T hus wher eas
v o cabul ar i es seem ho p e l e ss ly d i verg ent in
th e ir spec i a l c ont ent s th e g en er al apparat us
of v o c al ex press ion i s b r o ad ly th e sam e e very
wh ere
T h at all m e n ali ke c o mmu ni cat e
b y t al k ing oth er s ymb ol s a n d c odes into whi c h
thou ght s c a n be t r a n s l at ed suc h as ges t ur es
th e var io us kin ds of wr iting d rum t aps
sm o ke s ign al s an d so on b e ing in th e ma in
bu t s e c on dary an d d e ri vati ve i s a f act of
w hi c h th e very uni versal it y may eas il y blin d
,

LA N GUAGE

1 35

to it s p r of ou n d s igni can ce Meanw hil e

th e sc i e n c e of p hon eti cs h avi ng lo s t th at
gui d c on c e it of it self whi c h on ce l ed i t to
di scuss at l arge whether th e art of t al king
evol ved at a s ingl e geogr ap hi cal ce nt r e o r at
many cent re s owing to s i mil ar capac iti es of
b od y an d m in d c ont e nt s it s elf now a day s
fo r th e m o st pa rt with c on ducting a n a n alyti c
surv ey of th e m o d e s of v o c al e x pre ss io n as
c o rre l at e d with th e o bs erved t e n d en c i e s of th e
human sp ee c h or g an s An d wh at is t rue of
p hon eti cs in parti c ul ar i s h ar dly l e ss t r ue of
c o mpar ati ve p hilology as a whol e It s p re sent
p r oc e dure i s in th e main an alyti c or for mal
T hus it s f un dame nt al di s tin ction b etw ee n i s o
l ating aggl utin ati ve an d in e ct io n al l anguag es
is arr i ve d at s i mpl y b y c ont r as ting th e d iffer
e nt w a ys in whi c h wor ds ar e a ffect e d b y b e ing
put tog eth er into a s e nt en ce N o att e mp t i s
made to s how th at on e type of a rr ange ment
no rmally p r eced e s anoth e r in tim e o r th at it

a
ny
w
a
y
m
o
r
e
r
ud
i
m
e
nt
a
r
y
th at i s to
i
n
is
s ay l ess adap t e d to th e n eeds of huma n int er
c ourse I t i s not eve n p ret e n d e d th at a gi ve n
l anguag e i s b oun d to e x e mp lify on e a n d on e
alon e of th e s e thr e e ty p e s ; thou gh th e p r o c e ss
known as an alogy th at i s th e regu l ar izing of
e x c e ption s b y t re ating th e unli ke as if it wer e
li ke will alway s b e ap t to es t ab li s h o n e s ys t em
at th e e x pe n se of th e res t
us

ANTHRO P O LO GY

1 88

If t hen the st ud y of l angu age is to rec o ver

it s ol d p re emin en ce am ong s t anthr o p ologi cal
s tu d i es it l oo ks as if a n ew di r ection mus t be
gi ve n t o it s inq u i ri es An d th ere i s muc h
to be said fo r a ny c h ang e th at wo ul d brin g
ab o u t t hi s r e sult Witho ut c on s t ant h el p
fr o m the p hilologi s t anthr o p ology i s b o un d
to l angu i s h T o tho r o ughly u n d er s t an d th e
S pee c h of t h e peo p l e un d e r in vestig atio n is
the e ld work er s mas t er ke y ; so muc h s o
t h at th e cri ti c s rs t q ues tion in d et erm ining
t h e v al ue o f an ethn ogr ap hi cal work must
alway s b e Co ul d th e author t al k fr eely wit h
th e n at i ves in th e i r own tong ue
But how
is th e s t ud y of parti cu l ar l anguag es to b e
p ursued succ e ss fu lly if it l ack th e stimu l us
an d in sp i ration whi c h only the sear c h fo r
g en er al p rin c i p l es can i mpart to any bran c h
of sc i en ce
T o reli e ve th e h ack work of
c omp ilin g v ocab ul ari es an d grammar s th ere
m us t b e p resent a se n se of wi der i ssues in
v ol ve d an d suc h i ss u es as m ay di rectly int er
es t a s t ud e nt dev ot ed to l angu ag e fo r it s ow n
sake T h e fo r mal method of in v e stigatin g
l an gu age i n th e meanti me can h ardl y supp ly
t h e n eede d s pur An al ys i s i s all very w e ll
so long as i t s u lti mat e pur p o se is to sub serve
g en es i st h at is to s ay ev ol ution ar y hi sto ry
If h ow ev er it t ri es to se t up o n it s own
acc ount it is i n dan g er of deg enerat in g in to
,

LAN GUAGE

1 87

s h eer fu tilit y O ut of t im e and hist o ry is

in the long ru n o ut of meaning and use
T h e p hilologi st then if h e i s to h el p anthr o
p o lo gy mus t hi ms e lf be an a nthr o p ologi s t
with a f u ll app r ec i ation of th e imp o rt an ce o f
the hi s to ri cal metho d H e mus t be ab l e to se t
eac h l anguag e o r gr oup of l angu ag e s th at
h e s t udi e s in it s hi s tor i cal setting H e m us t
seek to s how how it ha s evol ved in rel atio n
to th e n eeds of a gi ve n ti me I n s ho rt h e
mus t c o rre l at e wo r ds with thou ght s ; mus t
t reat l an gu age as a fun c tio n o f th e s oc i al l if e
.

H ere h owever i t is n ot p oss ibl e to at tempt

an y but th e m o s t g en eral c h aract eriz ation o f
pri mi ti ve l anguage as i t thr ow s light on th e
workings of th e prim iti ve int ellig en ce Fo r
on e reas on th e subj e c t is highly t ec hni cal ;
fo r an other r eas on o ur knowl ed ge ab o u t m os t
ty pes of savage speec h is backward i n th e
e xt reme ; w hil s t fo r a thi rd an d m o st f ar
reac hing reas o n of all many pe o p l es as we h ave
s e en are not speaki ng the l angua ge t rul y n ati ve
to the ir p ow ers an d h ab it s of min d bu t are
e x press ing th emsel ves in t erms imp o rt ed fr o m
another s to ck who se sp i r it ual evol utio n has
b ee n l argely di ffer ent T hus it is at m o s t
po ss i bl e to c ont r as t ver y br o adly an d ge ner
ally the m ore ru di ment ary with th e m or e
ad van ced m etho ds th at m ankind emplo ys
,

ANTHROP O L OG Y

1 38

f o r t h e p urp o se of putt i n g it s ex peri en ce

into wor ds H app ily th e car eful att e nt ion
d e vot e d b y Am er i can p hilologi st s to th e
ab or igin al l anguag e s o f th e ir c ontin e n t ha s
r e sult e d i n th e d i sc o ve ry of cert ain p r in c i p l es
whi c h th e res t of o ur e vi de n ce s o f ar a s i t
goes wo ul d se e m to s t amp a s of worl d wi d e
app li cation T h e reader i s advi sed to s t ud y
th e m o s t s ti mul ating if per h aps s o me wh at
sp e cul ati ve pag es on l a nguag e in th e sec on d
v ol ume of E J P a yn e s H istory of the New
Wor ld ca lle d A meri ca ; or if h e can wrestl e
with th e Fr en c h tongue to c o mpare th e c on
el us ion s h ere r e ac h ed with tho se to whi c h
P r of ess o r Levy B ru hl is l ed l ar gely b y th e
c on s i d er ation of thi s same Am e r i can gr o up of
l angu ages in hi s re c e nt wo rk L es F o u ett o ns
M enta l
M e n ta le s da n s le s S o cits I n fmeures
E m otion s in th e L ow e r So ci eti es
I f th e averag e man who h ad not l oo k e d
i nto th e matt e r at all were asked to say wh at
s o rt of l angu ag e h e i ma gin ed a savag e to h ave
h e wo ul d be p r etty sure to rep ly th at i n the
r s t p l ace th e v o cabu l ar y wo ul d be v er y
small an d in th e sec on d p l ace th at it wo u l d
c on s i s t of ve r y s hort c ompreh e n s i v e t er ms

r oot s in f act suc h as man

bear

eat
k ill
an d s o on N othing of th e
s o rt is actually th e case Tak e th e inh ab it ant s
of t h at c h eerl e ss sp ot T i err a d e l F u ego
.

'

'

LA N GUAGE

1 39

who se c ult u r e is as rude as th at of a n y pe o p l e

on earth A sc hol ar who t r i ed to pu t tog ether
a di ction ar y of the ir l anguag e fo un d th at h e
h ad got to reck on with m o re th an thir ty
tho usan d wo rds e ve n aft er supp r ess ing a
l arg e n umber of for ms of l e sser i mp o rt an ce
An d no won der th at th e t ally m ou nt e d up
Fo r th e F ue gi a ns h ad m o re th an twe nty wo rds
s o me c ontaining fo u r s yll ab l e s to e x p re ss wh at
fo r us woul d be eith e r h e o r s h e
th e n
th e y ha d two n ames fo r the sun two fo r th e
m oon an d two m o r e fo r th e full m oon eac h
of th e l as t n amed c ont aining fo u r s yll ab l es
an d h aving no e l e me nt in c o mm on So un ds
in fact a re with th em as c op ious as i deas a re
rare Imp ress ion s on t h e ot h er h an d a re of
c o urse innit e in n umbe r B y mean s of m o re
o r l ess s ignicant s o un ds then Fuegi an
s o c i ety c o mp o u n ds i mp ress ion s an d th at
s o mewh at i mp er fec tly rath e r th an e x c h anges
i deas whi c h a lon e are th e cu rr en c y of t rue
t h ought
Fo r in s t an ce I -cut bea r s l eg at -the j oint
with a i nt now c o rresp on ds fai rly well with
th e tot a l i mp r ess ion p r o duced b y th e par
t icu la r ac t ; tho u gh eve n s o I h ave d o ub tl ess
s e l e c ti ve ly re duc e d th e notion to s o m e thi n g
I can c o m fo rt ab ly t ake in b y l eaving o ut a lot
o f unn ec essa ry d e t ail fo r in st a n ce th at I wa s
hung ry in a hu rry d oing i t fo r t h e ben e t
.

ANTHR O P O LO G Y

1 40

of oth ers as wel l as m y self a n d so on We ll

Am er i can l angu ag es of th e ru der s o rt b y
running a gre at n umber of s ou n ds o r s yll ab l es
toge th er man age to u tt er a p o rt manteau
wo rd
holo p h r ase is th e t e c hni cal n ame
fo r itinto whi c h is packe d a w a y e nou gh
su gges ti on s to rep r oduce th e s ituation in a ll
its d e t ail th e cu tting th e fac t th a t I di d it
th e o bj ec t th e in s t rume nt th e ti me of th e
cu tting an d wh o know s wh at bes i des Amus
i ng e x amp l es of suc h p o rt man t eau wo rds
m ee t on e in all th e t e xt b o oks T o go bac k
t o th e Fhi e gian s th e i r e x p ress ion mamihla
to look a t eac h
pi n ata p az is sai d to mean
oth er hop ing th at e it h er will offer to d o
s o methi ng whi c h b oth pa rti es des i re bu t are
un wil ling to d o
N ow s in ce ex ac tly the same
s it uation n ever recurs but i s pa rtly th e same
an d partly d iffere nt it is c l ear th at if th e
h olop h r ase re ally t ri ed to hit off in eac h case
th e wh ol e o u ts ta n d ing i mp ress ion t ha t a
gi ve n s it uation p r o v o ked the n th e same
c o mb in atio n of s o u n ds wo u l d n ever recu r
e i the r ; o n e c o ul d n ever o pe n on e s m o u th
wi th o u t c oining a n e w wo rd Ri d i cul o us as
thi s n otion s o un ds it ma y serve to mark a
d own ward li mit f ro m w hi c h th e ru des t typ es
of hu man speec h are n ot so very f ar rem oved
T hei r w e ll k n own t e n de n c y to al ter th ei r
whole c haracte r in t w en t y y ea rs o r l ess i s
.

'

LAN G UAGE

1 41

du e large ly t o th e ui d n at ure of p rimiti v e

utt eran ce ; it being fo un d h a r d to det ac h
p o rt i on s capab l e of re pea ted use i n an
un c ha ng e d fo r m f ro m th e c o mp o s it e v ocab l es
wherein the y regi s ter th ei r highly c on c re te
e x p e ri en c e s
Th us in th e ol d H uron Iroq u oi s l anguag e
es cho irhon
mean s
I have bee n to th e

wa ter sets a n ha Go to th e wat e r on de

i
u
o
T
h
ere
s
w
a
t
er
in
th
e
bucke
t
h
a
q
There i s water in th e
da us ta ntewac haret

p ot
I n thi s cas e th ere i s sai d to h ave be e n

a c o mmo n wo r d fo r wat e r a wen whi c h

m o re o ver i s s o mehow su gges t ed to an a h
o rigin al ear as a n e l ement c ont ain e d in eac h
of the se longer fo r ms In ma ny oth er cases
th e di fcu lty of i s ol ating th e c o mmon meaning
a n d xing i t b y a c o mm on t e r m has p ro ved
too muc h a ltoge the r fo r a pri miti ve l a nguag e
Y o u ca n e x p ress twenty d iffe re nt kin ds of
cutting ; but yo u s i mp ly can not s ay cut
at all N o won de r th at a l arg e v ocab ul ary
i s fo un d n e cessa ry wh en as in ! ul u
my

fa th er
thy father
his o r h e r fathe r
are separat e p oly s yll ab l es witho ut an y el ement
in c o mmon
T he e v ol ution of l angu age th e n on thi s
vi e w ma y b e re garded as a m o vement o ut
of a n d awa y f ro m th e holo ph ras ti c in th e
Whe n every pie ce
di recti on o f t he a n alyti c
,

ANTHR O PO L O GY

1 42

i n your p l ay b ox of verbal b ri c ks ca n be
dealt with s epa r at ely because it i s not j oi ned
on in all s o rt s of w ay s to the othe r p i e ces the n
onl y can yo u c o mp o se n e w c on s t ruc tion s to
you r li king O rd er a n d emp ha s i s as i s s hown
b y Engli s h an d s till m o re c on sp i cu ous ly b y
Chin e s e su fce fo r s e nt e n ce buil d i ng Idea lly
wo rds s ho u l d be in di vi dual an d ato mi c
E very m o d i cation th e y su ffe r b y int e rn al
c ha ng e of s o un d o r b y ha ving p re x es o r
su fx e s t acke d on to them in v ol ves a c urt ail
m e nt of th ei r free us e a n d a sac rice of
di s tin c tn ess I t i s q u it e eas y of c o urse to
thin k c on fused ly e ve n whil s t e mp loying th e
c l eare s t typ e of l a nguag e ; thou gh in suc h a
cas e it i s ve r y h ar d to d o s o witho ut being
q u i ck ly b ro u ght to b ook O n th e oth er h an d
it i s not f eas i b l e to a tt ain to a high deg ree of
c l e ar thin king wh en th e only metho d of
S p e ec h avail ab l e i s on e th at t e n ds towa rds
wo rd l e ss n ess t ha t i s to sa y is rel ati ve ly
d e c i e nt i n ve rbal fo rms th at p reserve the i r
i de ntity in all c ont e xt s Wo rd l ess thin king
is not in th e s t ri c t e s t se n se i mp o ss i b l e ; bu t its
s o mewha t res t ri c t e d o pp o rt u niti es li e al mo s t
wholly o n th e fart her s i d e as it w ere of a
c l ea n cut v ocabul ary Fo r th e very f ac t
tha t the wo rds are c ry s t al li ze d i n to perma n ent
s ha pe in ves t s t hem with a su gges tio n of
i nterrup ted c o nti nui t y an o verto n e of un
-

-w

LAN GUA G E

1 43

u tiliz e d s igni ca n ce th at of it self in vi t es th e

m in d to p l a y with the c o rre sp on d ing fring e
of m e a ning att ac hing to th e c on cep t s th at
t h e wo rds emb od y
I t wo ul d p r o v e a n en d l ess t as k if I were to
t r y h e re to ill us t r at e at a ll e xt e n s i v e ly the
s ti c kin e ss as on e might al m o s t call it of
p ri miti ve m o d e s of spe e c h Pers on n umbe r
case t e n se moo d an d ge n de r all these ev en
in th e re l ati ve ly an alyt i ca l p h r aseology of
th e m o s t cu lt u re d pe op l e s a re ap t to i mp re ss
th e ms e l ve s on the ver y b o d y of th e wo rds
of whi c h the y q ualify th e s e n se B ut th e
mea gre li s t of det e r min ation s thus p r oduc e d
in an evol ved ty pe of l anguage can yi e l d on e
n o i d e a of th e vas t med l e y of c o mp li cat e d
fo rms th at se r ve the same e n ds at th e lower
l evel s of human e x p eri e n c e Mo re ove r there
ar e many oth e r s had e s of sec on da ry an d
c i rcums t anti al me a ning whi c h in adva n ced
l anguages are in va ri ab ly re pres e nte d b y dis
tin ct wo rds s o th at whe n not w ant ed th e y ca n
b e l e ft o ut bu t in a m o re p ri miti ve tongue
are ap t to ru n right th rou gh th e ver y grammar
of the s e nt e n c e thus mi xing the ms e l ve s up
in e xt ri cab ly with the re ally subs t anti al e l e
me nt s in th e tho u ght to be c on ve yed Fo r
in s t an ce in s o me Am eri can l angu age s things
are e ither ani mat e o r in ani mat e an d mus t
b e di s ti ngui s h e d acc o rdingly b y acc ompa ny
,

ANTHROPO L OGY

1 44

ing p arti cl es
O r again t h ey are cl asse d
b y si mil ar mean s as rational o r i rrational ;
wo men b y th e b ye be ing des ign ated am on gs t
t h e Chiq uito s b y th e i rration al s ign Re v er
e nt ial parti c l es a g a in a re used to di s tingu i s h
wha t i s high o r low in the t ri bal es ti matio n ;
and we g et in thi s c onn ec tio n suc h o ddi ti es
as
th e Tamil p r ac ti ce of res t ri c ting th e
pri vil ege of h avi ng a p l u ral to high cas t e
names suc h as tho se ap p li ed to gods an d
human be ings as d i s tingui s hed fro m th e

beas t s whi c h a r e me r e cas t e l ess things

Or o nce m o re m y t ra n s fe rab l e b e longings

my spea r o r my cano e un d ergo ve rbal

m odi cation s whi c h a re d e ni ed to non t r ans
fe ra b le p o ssess ion s suc h as my h a n d
my

c hil d
be it o b serv ed falli ng wi thi n t he
l att e r c l ass
Mo s t inte res ting of al l are di s tin c tion s of
pers o n Th ese cannot b u t b it e into th e
fo rms of speec h s in ce th e n ati ve min d is
tak e n u p m o s tly with th e pe rs on al aspec t
of things attaining to th e c on c e p tion of a
b lood l ess s y s t em of its with the greates t
di fcult y if a t all E ve n th e t hi r d pers on
whi c h is n at u rally th e m o s t c olou rl e ss because
e x c l u d ed fr o m a di re c t pa rt of th e c on versa
tio na l g ame u n d ergo es mu ltit ud ino us le ave n
ing in t h e light of c o n dition s whi c h t he
p ri mi ti v e mind reg ar ds as highly impo rtant
.

LAN GUAGE

1 45

whereas we slfo uld bani s h them fro m ou r

th ou ghts as so muc h i rr e l eva nt acc i de nt

T hus the Ab ip o n e s i n th e r s t p la c e dis

en cha
a nd
t in guis he d
he p re se nt
s he

present a naha f ro m he abs e nt an d she

abse nt
B ut prese n ce b y itse lf gave too
li ttl e of th e s peak er s i mp re ss ion So if h e
o r she we re s itting it was n ecessary to sa y
if th e y were walking
himha an d ha n e ha
an d in s ight eha ha a n d ahaha but if w al king
an d o u t of s ight eka ha an d aka ha if the y
were lying d own hiriha an d ha ra ha an d so
on Moreo ve r these were all
c oll ec ti ve
fo rms i mp lying th at th ere we re othe rs in

v ol ve d as we ll I f
he
or
s he
we re
al on e in the ma tt er a n enti re ly di ffe r ent se t
he s itting (alon e )
of wo rds was n eeded
bec o ming ymtara an d so fo rth T h e m odes t
re qui reme nt s of Fu e gi an inte rc o urse have
call ed m o re th an twenty suc h separat e pro
no uns into bei n g
Wi th o ut attemp ti ng to go tho rou ghl y into
th e e ffo rt s of p ri mi ti ve sp ee c h to cu rt a il its
interes t i n th e pers onn e l of it s wo rl d b y
grad ually ac qui ring a s to ck of d e in di vi dua l
ize d wo rds l e t u s gl an ce at anoth er asp e ct of
th e subjec t because it he l ps to b ring out th e
fundam e n tal fac t th at l angu ag e i s a s o ci a l
p roduct a m ean s of int ersubjecti ve int er
course d evel oped wi t hin a s o c i ety t ha t ha n ds
.

'

AN THR O P OL OG Y

1 46

o n to a n ew ge n e ration th e verbal e xperiment s

th at a re fo u n d to succ ee d b e s t P a yn e s how s
reas on fo r b e li e v ing th at the c oll e cti ve w e
pr ec e d e s
I
in the o rd er of lingu i s ti c
evol u tion T o b e gin with in Am e ri ca an d
e l s e where
w e ma y be in c l us i ve a n d mea n

all o f us o r sel e cti v e m e an ing s o m e o f u s

only
H e n ce w e a re tol d a m i ss ion a ry mus t
be ve ry carefu l a n d if h e i s p reac hing mus t
use th e in c l us i ve w e in sa ying we ha v e

s inn ed
l es t th e c ongre gation assume tha t
only the c l er gy hav e s inne d ; whereas in

p r aying h e mus t us e th e s e l e cti ve w e o r

G o d wou l d be in c l ud e d in th e li s t of s inn ers
Si m il ar ly
I has a c oll ecti ve fo rm am ong s t
s o me Am er i ca n l anguage s a n d thi s is o r di
where as th e c o rre sp on ding
n a rily e mp loy e d
sel ecti ve fo rm i s us e d only in S pec i a l cas e s

T hus if th e q u e stion b e Who will he l p ?

I am ongs t others
the Apac h e will rep ly

I for on e ; but if h e w ere re c ou nting his

own per s on al e x p loit s h e say s s hee da h I b y

m y se lf to S how th at the y w ere wholly hi s

own H er e w e seem to h av e gr oup c on sc io us
n e ss hol di ng it s own again st in d i vi dual se lf
c on sc ious n e ss as b e ing fo r p r i m iti ve fol k on
th e whol e th e m ore no rmal attit ud e of m i nd
Another ill us t r ation of the s o c i a lity e n
grain e d in p ri m iti ve sp ee c h i s to be fo un d
in the t erms emp loy ed to d en ot e re l atio ns hi p
.

LAN G UA GE
My m oth er

1 47

to th e c hil d of n ature is s o me
t hi ng m o re th an an or d in a ry m othe r li ke
yours Th us as we h av e a l re ad y s een there
ma y be a sp e c i al parti c l e app lying to b loo d
re l ation s as non t ran s fer ab l e p o ss e ss ion s O r
a ga in on e Austr ali an l anguag e has sp e c i al

dual s
on e to b e us e d b etwe e n
we two
re l ation s ge n er ally another b etwee n f ather
an d c hil d only O r an Ameri ca n l anguage
supp li e s on e kin d of p l u ra l su fx for b loo d
rel ation s anoth er fo r the re s t of huma n
b e ings Th e s e lingui s ti c c on c retion s are e nou gh
to S how how h ar d it i s for p ri m iti ve thou ght
to di sj oin wh at i s j oin e d f as t in th e wo rl d of
e v er yda y e x p er i e n c e
N o won d er th at it is usu ally fou n d im
practi cab l e b y th e E u r o p e an tr ave ll er who
l acks a n anthr o p ologi ca l t ra ining to e xtr a ct
fr o m n ati ve s any c ohere nt acc ou nt of the ir
s y s t em of rel ation s hi ps ; for his q u e s tion s are
ap t to t ak e the fo rm of C a n a man marry

hi s deceas ed wife s s i s t er ? o r wh at not

S uc h ge n era liti es d o not e nt e r at all into the
highl y c on c re t e sc heme of vi ewi ng th e custo ms
of hi s t ri b e i mp o sed o n the savage ali ke b y
hi s mann er of lif e an d b y th e very fo rms
of hi s speec h T he so call e d
ge n ea logi ca l
method initi at ed b y D r Ri vers whi c h th e
sc i e n ti c exp lorer now in vari ab ly e mp lo ys
res t s mainl y on th e u se o f a con cret e t ype of
-

AN TH ROPO LOG Y

1 48

proce dure co rr e sp on din g to t h e m e nt al habit s

of th e s i mp l e fol k u n de r in ve stigation J ohn
who m you addre ss h e re ca n t e ll you e x actl y
whether h e may o r ma y not marry M ary
A nn e o ver th ere ; a l s o h e ca n p oint ou t his
m other a n d t e ll you h er n ame an d th e n ames
of hi s brothers a n d s i s t ers Y ou wo rk ro u n d
the whol e group it very p o ss i b ly c ont a in s
no m or e tha n a fe w hu n d re d members at
m os t an d int err ogat e the m on e a n d a ll ab ou t
the ir re l ation s hi ps to thi s an d that in d i vi dual
who m you n ame In c o urse of time yo u h ave
a sc h e me whi c h yo u ca n t re at in yo ur own
a n alyti c wa y to your h e art s c onte nt ; whil st
a ga in st your s y st em of reck oning afnit y
you can se t up b y w a y of c ontras t the n ati ve
s y st e m ; whi ch can al way s be o b t a in ed b y
asking e ac h info rmant what re l atio n s hi p
t erms h e wou l d app ly to th e d iffer ent member s
of hi s p e d igree an d r e c i procally w hat t erms
the y wo u l d e ac h app ly to him
,

B e fore c lo s ing t hi s altoget her ina d eq uate

s ket c h of a vas t an d intri cate subject I
wou l d s ay jus t on e wo rd ab o u t th e e xpress io n
of i d e as of n umb e r It i s q u it e a m i s take
to supp o se th at sava ges h ave no se n se of
n umb er b e caus e th e s imp l e min de d Euro p ean
t r ave ll er c o mp iling a s ho rt v oca bul ary i n
the us u al w a y c an get n o eq u i val e nt fo r ou r
,

LAN GUAGE

umerals say fro m 5 to 1 0 Th e f act is

t hat th e n umeri cal int ere s t h as take n a
di fferent t urn in c or p orating it s e lf with other
in teres ts of a m ore c on c ret e kin d i n lingui sti c
fo rms to whi c h our own typ e of l anguag e
a ffords no ke y at all T hus in th e i s l an d of
Kiwai at th e m o uth of th e Fly Ri ver in N e w
G uin ea th e C amb r i d g e Ex ped ition foun d a
whol e se t of p hrases in v ogue where b y th e
num ber of subj ec t s acting on th e n umb e r of
o bj ec t s at a gi ve n m o ment c oul d be c on c ret ely
s pec i ed T o in di cat e th e action of two on
m any in the pas t th e y sai d rudo in th e p re se nt
durudo of many on many in th e pas t rumo
in th e pre se nt du rumo of two o n two in th e
p ast amarudo in the p r es ent amadu ru do
of m an y on two in th e pas t a marumo ; of
m any on three i n th e pas t ib idu rumo of many
on three in th e prese nt i b iduru do of thr ee on
two in th e present amab i du rumo of th re e
on t wo i n t h e pas t amab zrumo an d s o on
M eanwhi l e words to serve t h e pur p o se of
p ure c ount in g are all th e scar cer because
han ds an d f ee t s u pp ly i n th ems e l ves a n
e x ce ll ent m ean s not only of cal cul at ing but
It is
li kewis e of c ommu ni cating a n umber
th e on e case in whi c h gest ur e l angu age can
cl aim s omet hing l i ke an in d e pe n dent s t atus
by t h e s ide of s peec h
For t h e rest i t d oes n ot foll ow t hat t he min d
n

ANTHRO PO LOG Y

1 50

f ail s to ap prec i at e n um er i cal rel atio ns be ca use

th e tongue h alt s i n th e m att e r of s ym b olizin g
the m abs t r actly A c ert ain high o f c i al whe n
p r es i di ng o ver th e In d i an cen sus w as info rm ed
b y a sub o rdi n at e th at it w as imp o ss i b l e to
eli c it fr o m a cert a in j ungl e t r i be any acc ou nt
of th e n umbe r of th e ir hut s fo r the s i mp l e
a n d sufc i e nt reas on th at th e y c oul d not c ou nt
ab o ve three
T h e d ire cto r who h appe n ed
to be a man of kee n anthr o p ologi cal in s ight
h ad ther efore hims e lf to c o me to th e rescue
Assemb ling the t ri bal el d e rs h e p l aced a
s ton e on th e gr ou n d saying to on e T hi s is

yo ur hut
an d to an other
Thi s is your

hut
h e p l ace d a sec on d s to n e a littl e
as
w a y f r o m th e rst
An d now wh ere is

yo urs ? h e asked a thir d T h e n ati ves at

on ce e nt er ed i nto th e sp i r it of th e g ame a n d
in a s ho rt ti me th er e w as p lott ed o u t a p l a n
of th e whol e settl ement whi c h subse q ue nt
v eri cation pr o ved to be b oth g eogr ap hi cally
an d n umeri cally c orr ec t an d c o mp l et e T hi s
stor y ma y se rve to s how how n at ure supp li e s
man with a re ad y r eck on er in hi s f acu lty of
perception whi c h su fc e s w ell enou gh fo r
th e a ffai rs of th e s i mp l er s ort of lif e O n e
know s how a s he p h er d c an t ake in th e numbers
of a o c k at a gl an ce Fo r th e highe r ight s
o f exp eri en ce however espec i ally wh en the
un seen an d m erel y p oss i b l e has t o b e deal t
,

,
.

LAN GUAGE

1 51

wi th pe rce pt s mus t gi ve w a y to c once pt s ;

m ass i ve c on sc ious n e ss mus t gi ve wa y to
t hinki ng b y mean s of rep r ese nt ation s p i e ce d
tog eth er o ut of el e m e nt s re n d er ed di stin c t
b y p r evio us d i ss ec tion of th e tot al i mp re ss ion ;
i n s hort a c on c re te mus t gi ve w a y to a n
an alyti c wa y of gr asp ing th e meaning of
thin gs Mor e o ver s in c e thin king is littl e
m or e or l ess t h an a s Pl ato put it a s il e nt
c on versation wi th on ese lf to p oss e ss a n
a n alyti c l angu ag e i s to be m o re th an h alf wa y
on th e r o ad to th e an alyti c m o de of int ellige n ce
th e mo de of thi n king b y di stin ct c on c e p t s
If th ere i s a m or al t o thi s c h ap t er it mus t
be th at wh ereas it is the duty of th e c i vilize d
o verlor ds of p ri miti v e fol k to l eave t he m thei r
ol d in s tit ution s so f ar as th e y ar e not d ir ectly
p r ej udi c i al to the i r gradual advan cement in
cultur e s in c e to lo se touc h with on e s ho me
worl d is for th e sava ge to lo s e heart al togeth e r
an d di e ; yet thi s c on s i der ation h ardly appli es
at all to th e n ati ve l anguag e I f th e tongue
of an advan c e d pe o p l e ca n be subs tit ut e d it
I t i s rather
is for th e goo d of all c on c ern ed
th e f as hion now a day s am ongs t anthr o
to
l
a
y
it
d
own
as
a
n
a
xio
m
th
a
t
th
e
l
i
t
s
o
o
s
g
p
ty p i cal savag e an d th e typ i cal peasant of
E ur o pe s t an d e x ac tly on a par in respec t to
th e i r p owe r of ge n eral intelligen ce I f b y
p ower w e are to un derst and s h eer p ote nt i al it y
,

,
'

ANTHR O POLOG Y

1 52

I know of n o sui c ie nt e viden c e th at en abl es

u n der i deal c on d ition s
us to s a y wh eth er
th e aver ag e d egr ee o f me nt al ca pac ity woul d
i n th e two cas e s p r o ve th e same o r differe nt
But I am su r e th at th e o r din ar y peasant of
E u r o p e who se s oc i ety pr o vi des him in th e
s hap e of a n an alyti c l anguag e with a read y
made in st rume nt fo r all th e p urp oses of c l ear
thin king s t art s at a n i mm e n se advant ag e
as c o mpar e d with a sava g e who se t radition al
speec h i s holo p hr as ti c Wh at ever be his m ent al
p ower th e for mer ha s a m uc h bett er c han ce
of maki ng th e m o s t of it u n der th e gi ve n
c i r cums t an ces
G i ve th em th e words so

th at th e i deas m ay c o me is a m axi m that

will carr y us f a r ali ke in th e education of
c hil d ren an d in th at of th e pe o p l es of l ower
cu ltur e of wh om w e hav e c har ge
,

CHAPTE R VI
S OCIA L O R GA NI ! A TI ON

an e x p lo r er vi s it s a savage tri be wit h

inte nt to g et at th e t rue m eaning of the ir life
hi s r s t duty as ever y anthr op ologi st will tell
him i s to ac quaint himself thor ou ghly wit h
th e s o c i al organiz ation in a ll it s fo rms Th e
reas on fo r thi s i s s impl y t ha t onl y by st udying
IF

SO C IAL

O RGAN I! ATION

1 53

t he

out sides of ot her p eo pl e can w e h o pe t o

arri ve at wh at is going on in s i de t hem
In
will be foun d a c on veni ent wor d
st it u t io n s
to e x press all the e xt ern al s of the lif e of man
in s oc i ety s o f ar as th e y reec t inte lligen ce
an d p urp o se Si mi l ar ly th e intern al o r sub
j e ct ive s t at es thereto c o rresp on ding ma y b e
c oll ec t i ve l y desc r i be d as
be li e f s
T h us
the e ld wo rk er s cardin al m axim can b e
p hras ed as follows : Work up to t he bel i e f s
b y wa y of the i ns tit ution s
Furth er the re are two wa y s in w hi c h a
gi ven se t of ins tit ution s can be in vestig at ed
an d of th ese on e so f ar as it is practi cab l e
s houl d precede th e oth er Fi r st th e in st it u
tion s s ho ul d be ex am in ed as so many wh ee l s
in a s oc i al mac hin e th at is t aken as if it were
st an ding still You s imply not e th e c har act er
ist ic m ake of eac h an d how it is p l aced in
rel ati o n to th e res t Re g arded in thi s st ati c
w ay th e in st it utions appear as fo rms o f
s oc i al org ani zation
Aft e rw ards th e mac hin e
is sup p o sed to be se t going a n d yo u c onte m
p l at e the part s in m o veme nt
Reg arded
thus dyn am i cally the in s tit ution s ap pear as

custo ms
In thi s c h ap ter th en s omet hin g will b e
said ab o ut th e fo rms of s oc i al o rg anizat i on
prevail ing am ongst peo p l es of th e lower
cult ure Our int eres t will b e c onn ed t o t he
.

ANTHROPOLO G Y

1 54

oci al m o rp h ol ogy In subse qu ent ch ap te rs

we s h all go on to wh at m ight be ca ll ed
b y w a y of c ont r ast th e p hy s iology of so ci al
lif e I n oth er wo r ds we s hall b r i e y c on s i de r
the l e gal an d r eligio us custo ms toge the r
with the ass oc i at ed beli ef s
H ow d o the for ms of s oc i al org aniz ation
c o me into b e ing
D o es s o me on e in ve nt
the m
D o es th e v er y notio n of o rg aniz ation
Or li ke T o ps y d o the y
irn p ly a n o r g aniz e r
s i mp ly gr ow
Ar e th e y n at u r al c ry st alliza
t i on s that t ake p l ace wh en pe o p l e are thr own
togethe r ? Fo r m y own part I thin k th at
s o long a s w e are pursu ing a nthr o p ology a n d
n ot p hilo s o p hy in oth er words are p i ec ing
togeth er eve nt s hi s tor i cally acc or ding as th e y
appear to follow on e another an d are n ot
di scuss ing th e u lti mat e q u e s tion of th e re l a
t ion of m in d to matt e r a n d whi c h of th e two
in th e long r u n go ve r n s whi c h we mus t be
p repared to r ec ogniz e b oth p hy s i cal n ecess ity
an d S p ir it ual fr ee d o m as int er pe n et r ating f ac
tors in human lif e I n th e meantime whe n
c on s i der ing th e subj e c t of s o c i al or ganiza
tion we s h all d o well I thin k to k eep asking
our s el ve s all along H ow f ar d oes fo rce of
c ir cum st an ces an d how f ar d o es th e force
of int elligent pu r p o se acc ou nt for suc h an d
suc h a n et resu lt
If I w ere call e d up on to e xhi b it t h e c hi ef
s

S O C IAL O RGAN I! AT I ON

1 55

d et ermi n ant s of human lif e as a s i n gl e c h ain

of caus e s an d e ffe ct s a s i mp li cation of th e
hi s tori cal p r o b l e m I ma y s a y at on c e whi c h
I s hou l d n e ver dre am of putt ing fo rw ar d
ex c e p t as a c on ve ni ent ction a d e v i ce fo r
making re s e ar c h e as i er b y p r o vi di ng it with
a c entral lin e I s ho ul d d o it thus Working
backwar ds I s houl d sa y th at cult u re d e p e n ds
on s oc i al or ganiz ation ; s o c i al organiz ation o n
numb er s ; n umb er s on foo d ; an d foo d o n
in vention H ere b oth en ds of th e ser i e s ar e
r e p res e nt e d b y sp i r it ua l f acto r s n am ely
cul t ure at th e on e e n d an d in ve ntion at th e
oth er Am ongs t th e int erm e d i at e lin ks foo d
an d n umb er s may b e re ck on e d as p hys i cal
f ac tor s So c i al or ganiz ation how ever s ee ms
to f ac e in b oth di re ction s at on c e an d to be
s o me thing h alf wa y b etwe e n a sp ir it ual a n d
a p hy s i c a l manif e s t ation
In p l ac ing in ve ntion at th e b otto m of th e
scal e of c on d ition s I d e nit ely b re ak with
th e o p inio n th at hum an ev ol utio n i s thr ou gh

o u t a pure ly n atu r al p r o c e ss O f c o u r se

yo u can use the wo r d n atu ral s o wi d e ly

an d vagu ely as to c o v er e verything th at w as
o r i s o r c ou l d b e I f it b e us e d howe ve r

s o as to e x c l ud e th e
a rti c i al then I am
p repa red to sa y that human life i s p re
emin e ntly an a rti c i a l c on s t ruc tio n o r i n
oth e r wo rds a wo rk of art the di stingui s hing
,

ANTHR O POLOGY

1 56

mark of man c on s i s ti ng p re c i se ly i n t h e fac t

tha t h e alo n e of t he ani mal s is capab l e of
art
I t i s w e ll kn own h ow t h e i nv e n tio n of
mac hi ne ry i n t h e m i dd l e of t he eight ee nt h
ce nt u ry b r ou ght ab ou t th at in dus t ri al rev o
lut io n th e s oc i a l a n d p oliti ca l e ffec ts of whi c h
are s till deve lo p ing at thi s hou r Well I
v ent ure to put it fo rw ard as a p ro p o s itio n
whi c h ap p li es to human evol ution so far b ac k
tha t hi s to ry is t h e
as o ur e vi de n ce goes
hi s to ry o f g reat i nve ntions O f c ourse it i s
t rue that c li mat e an d geograp hi cal c on d itio ns
in gene r al hel p to d e termin e th e n at ure an d
ua
n
tity
of
th
e
foo
d
supp
l
y
s
th
a
t
fo
r
o
;
q
i n s ta n ce however muc h v e rsed yo u may b e
in th e art of ag ri cu lt ure you ca n n ot ge t c o rn
to gr ow o n th e s ho res of the A rcti c se a Bu t
gi v en t h e need ful in ve ntio ns supe rio r weap o ns
fo r ins t an ce yo u n e e d never a llow yo urse l ves
to be s ho ved awa y into suc h a n i nho sp it ab l e
re gi on ; to whi c h yo u presumab ly d o n ot
re ti re v ol u ntarily un l ess i ndeed th e s t at e
of you r a rt sfo r i ns t anc e your skill i n hun t

o
r
t
am
i
n
g
th
e
re
i
n
deer
i nc li nes yo u to
ing
make a paradi se of the t un d ra
S upp o se it grant ed then that a give n
pe o p l e s art s an d i nve ntio ns whether d i rectly
are ca pab l e of a
o r i n di re ctl y pr oduc ti ve
it is ce rt ai n
certai n average yi e l d of food
.

S O C IAL ORGAN I! A TION

as

1 57

Malt hus and D arwin wou l d remind

us ,

that h uma n fe rtility ca n be reck o ned o n to

b rin g the numbers up to a li mit bearing a
m o re o r l ess c o ns tan t ratio to t he mea ns o f
subs i s tence
At l e ngt h w e reac h o ur m o re i mmedi at e
s ubj ec tn ame ly s oc i a l o rg ani z a tion
In w h a t
sen s e if any is s o c i al o rg aniz atio n depen de nt
Unfo rt un at e ly it is too l ar ge
o n numb ers
I may h ow
a q ues tio n to th r as h o u t h e r e
e ver re fer th e read e r to th e i n g enio us c l ass i
c a tio n of th e peo p l e s of th e wo rl d b y re fer
e n ce to th e de gr ee of t he i r s oc i al o rg ani za tio n
c ult ure whi c h is att empt e d b y Mr
an d
S utherla n d i n his Origin and Gr owth of the
H e th er e t ri es to s h o w t h a t
M ora l I n stin ct
a cert ai n s iz e o f p o p u l atio n ca n be c o rre l a t e d
wi t h eac h grade i n the scal e of h uman e v o lu
t i o nat an y r at e up to th e p oint at whi c h
fulLb lo wn ci vilizatio n is reac h ed wh e n c ases
li ke that o f Athens un de r P e ri c l es o r Flo ren c e
un der the Med i c i wo ul d pro bab ly cause hi m
s o me t r oub l e Fo r in st an ce h e mak e s o u t
th at t he low es t savages V eddas P ygmi es
an d so o n fo r m g roups of f r o m te n to fo rty ;
whereas tho se who are bu t on e de gree l ess
b ackward suc h as th e Aus t rali an n ati ves
a v e r a ge f ro m fty to tw o h u n dred ; w hi l s t
m o s t of t h e No rth Ameri can t ri bes who rep t e
sent the n ext s t age of g e n era l ad vance run
.

AN THROPO L O GY

1 58

fro m a h un dred up to ve h un dre d At t hi s

p oi nt h e takes l e ave of the p e op l es h e wo u l d

c l ass a s savage the i r l e ad ing c ha ract e ri s ti c

fr o m th e ec o no mi c p oint of V i e w b eing th at
t h e y l e ad th e m o re o r l e ss w a n d ering life of

h unte rs o r of m ere g athe rers

H e th e n
goes o n t o a rrang e s i mil arly in an asce n di ng
se ri e s of th ree d i vi s ion s th e pe o p l e s th at h e

E c ono mi ca lly the y are

te rms barbari an
e ithe r sed e nt a r y wit h a mo re o r l ess deve loped
agri cul t u re o r if n o mad pursue th e pas to ral
m o de of life H is lowe s t ty pe of g ro up
whi c h i n c l ud e s th e I roqu oi s M a o ri s an d so
fo rth r ange s fro m on e thousan d to ve thou
san d ; n e xt c o me loosely o rgani ze d s t at es
suc h as D aho me y o r As h anti whe re th e
n umbers ma y re ac h on e hu n d red thousan d ;
whil s t h e mak e s ba rba ri sm c ul min ate i n m o re
rml y c o mp ac t e d c o mmu niti e s suc h as are
to be fo u n d fo r e x amp l e in Ab y ss i ni a o r
M adag asca r th e p o pu l atio n of whi c h h e p l aces
at ab ou t half a million
N ow I am very sc e p ti cal ab ou t Mr S uther
lan d s s t ati s ti cs an d re ga rd hi s b ol d attemp t
to ass ign the wo rl d s pe o p l es eac h to the i r
own run g o n t h e l adder of univ e rsal cult ure
as i n th e p rese nt s t at e of o ur kn owl ed ge n o
m o re tha n a c l ever hyp othe s i s ; w hi c h s ome
kee n anthr op ologi st of the fu ture m ight n d
it w ell wo rt h his whil e to p ut tho rou ghly to
.

S O C IAL O R GANI! ATION

1 59

the test At a gu e ss h owever I am di s p o se d

to accept hi s ge n era l p rin c i p l e th at on the
whol e an d i n the lo ng ru n during th e ear lier
s ta ge s of human evol ution th e c o mp l e xity
an d c oheren ce of th e s o c i al or d er follow up o n
the s ize of the gr oup ; whi c h s in ce it s s iz e
in t urn follows up on the m o d e of the ec ono mi c
life may be d esc ri bed as the foo d gro up
B e s i d e s foo d howe ve r there i s a sec o nd
el ement al c on dition whi ch vit ally a ffect s th e
human rac e ; an d that i s se x So c i al o rg ani
za t io n thus c o m e s to h av e a twofol d aspect
O n the on e han d an d p erh aps pri mar ily it
i s an o rganiz ation of th e foo d quest O n th e
other han d h ar d ly l e ss fu n dam e nt ally it is
an organization of marri age I n what follows
the two aspect s will b e c on s i d e red m or e o r
l ess together as to a l arge e xt ent the y o ver
l ap P r imiti ve men li k e other s oc i a l ani mal s
ha ng together natura lly in th e hu nting pack
a n d n o l ess n atu r ally in the family ; an d at
a very rud i m e nt ary st age of ev ol u tio n
the re p ro bab ly is very littl e di stin ct io n
b etwee n th e two Wh e n howe ver for s o me
reas o n o r other whi c h a nthr op ologi st s h ave
still to d i sc o ver ma n t ake s to the in stitu tio n
of e xogam y th e l aw of marrying out whi c h
fo r ce s m e n a n d wo me n to u nit e who are
memb er s of m ore o r l e ss d i s t in ct foo d gr oups
the n as we s h a ll p re s e ntly see th e ma tri
.

ANTHROPO L O GY

1 60

moni al as p e ct of s o c i al organ izatio n t e nd s t o

o vers had ow the p oliti c o ec ono m ic ; if o nly
b ecause the l att er ca n usually t ake care of
it se lf whereas to marry a p e rfect st ranger
is a n e mbarrass ing o peration that m ight be
e x pec t ed t o
req u ire a c e rt ain am ount o f
arran gement o n b ot h s ides
-

T o ill ustrat e th e p re e xogam ic st age of

-

human s o c i ety is n ot so eas y as it may seem ;

f or t h ou gh it i s p o ss ib l e to n d e x amp l es
espec i ally am ongs t N e gr ito s suc h a s the
A ndaman ese o r Bus h me n of pe op l es o f
t he ru dest cu lture a n d li ving i n ve ry small
who a p pare ntly kn ow ne ith er
c o mmu n iti es
e xo gam y n o r wh a t s o oft e n acc ompan i es i t
name ly totem i sm w e can never be certa in
wheth er w e are dea ling in suc h a case with
t h e ge nu i ne l y pr im iti ve o r mere ly wit h th e
dege nerat e Fo r in s t an ce th e c hap ter o n
th e fo rms o f s oc i al o r gan ization in Pr ofess o r
H o b ho u se s M orals i n E volution s t art s o ff
w it h a n a cc ou nt of the s y st e m in v ogue
a m ongs t t he Ved d as of th e C e ylo n ju ngl e
his d e scri p tio n b e in g fou nded on th e e x ce llent
o b serv ation s of th e b r othe rs S aras i n N ow
it is pe rfec tly t rue t h at s ome of the Veddas
ap p ear to a ffo rd a perf e ct in s t an ce of wh at is

so met imes ca ll ed
th e n atural f am ily
A
tract o f a fe w mil es sq uare f o rms the beat o f
,

S O C IAL O R GANI ! ATION

1 61

sm all group of f ami li es four o r ve at m ost

whi c h fo r the m o st part s ingly o r in pai rs
w and e r r ou n d hu nting s hing g atheri ng
hon e y an d digging up the wil d yams ; whil st
the y li kewi se t ake s he lt e r togethe r in s hallo w
caves whe re a roof a p i e ce of skin to li e o u
thou gh t hi s i s n ot ess e nti al an d that m o st
prec ious l u xu ry of all a re rep rese nt apart
fro m foo d the sum tot al of the ir creature
c o mfor t s
N ow u n der th ese c i rcums ta nces it is n ot
perh aps won d e rfu l that the r el atio n shi ps
withi n a gr oup s hou l d b e dec i dedl y clo se
I nd ee d the c o rrect thing is for the c hil dre n
of a b r oth er a n d s i st er to marry ; thou gh
not it wou l d s ee m fo r the c hil dre n of
two b rother s o r of two s i st ers An d y et
the re i s n o app r o ac h to prom i scu ity but o n
th e c ont ra ry a very st ri ct m o nogam y in
de lit ie s be ing as rare as th e y are deep l y
rese nt e d T hat the y h ad c l an s of so m e s o rt
was in d ee d known to P rof e ss o r H o b house a n d
to the autho riti e s who m h e follows ; but these
cl an s ar e di smi ssed as h aving but the s light est
or ganization an d very f e w fu n ction s An
e nti rely new light how e ver has bee n thr own
on th e meani ng of thi s cl an s y st em b y the
recent r esearc h e s of Dr and Mrs S e ligmann
It n ow t ur ns out that s o me of the Ve ddas are
are o b lige d b y
exo gam o us that is to sa y
a

r.

AN THR OP O LOGY

162

cu stom t o marry out s i de th e ir o wn c l an

tho ugh others are n ot T h e q u e st ion the n
aris es Whi c h fo r th e Veddas is the ol der
s y st e m ma rrying ou t o r marr ying in S ee ing
what a m i s e rab l e re m n ant the Veddas are I
ca nnot but beli ev e that we h ave he re the case
of a fo rmer ly e xog am ous p e o p l e groups of
whi c h have bee n fo r c ed to marry in s imp ly
because the alt ern ati ve w as not to marry at
a ll O f c o u rs e it is po ss i b l e to a rgue tha t in
so d oi n g th e y mere ly reve rt e d to wh at was
o n ce ev eryw here th e p ri meval c on ditio n o f
man Bu t at thi s p oint hi s to ri cal sc i en ce
ta il s off i n to mere guess wo rk
.

We reac h re l ati v e ly rm gro un d o n the

oth e r h an d wh e n w e pass on to c on s i der the
s o ci al o rganiza tion of suc h e xog am o us an d
tote mi c peo p l e s as th e n ati ves of Aus t ra li a
Th e only t roub l e here i s th at the subj e c t i s
too vas t an d c o mp li cat e d to p ermit of a h an d
li ng at on ce summa ry an d s i mp l e Pe rh aps
th e m os t us e ful thing th at can b e d on e fo r
th e reader in a s ho rt space i s to p ro vi de him
with a few e l ementa ry di s tin ction s app lyi ng
n ot only to th e Aus t r ali an s but m o re o r l ess
to tot emi c s oc i e ti es i n g en e ra l With the
h e l p of th ese h e may p r oceed to grapp l e fo r
hi mse lf with th e mass of highly i nt eres ting
l
b ut be wil deri ng de t ails co n cerning s o ci a
,

S O C IAL ORG ANI! ATION

1 63

o r ga niza tio n to be fo un d i n an y of the l ead

ing rs t h an d autho r iti e s Fo r i ns t an ce fo r
Aus t rali a he can d o no b ett e r than c on s ul t th e
two f asc in at ing wo rks of M e ss rs S pen ce r an d
G ill en on th e C e nt ra l t ri b e s o r the no l ess ill u
min a t in g v ol um e of H owitt on th e n ati v e s
of the South e as t e rn re gion ; whil s t fo r No rt h
Am eri ca th ere are man y e xc e ll e nt m o n o
gr ap h s to c hoo s e fro m am ong s t tho se i ssue d
b y the Bureau of E thnology of th e S mith s oni a n
I n s tit ution O r if he i s c onte nt to a llow s o m e
on e el s e to c oll e ct the mat er i al fo r hi m hi s
bes t p l a n will be to c on sult Dr F raz er s
m on umenta l t re ati s e Totemzsm an d E xoga my
whi c h ep ito miz e s th e kn own f ac t s fo r th e
whol e wi d e wo rl d as su rv e ye d region b y re gion
T he rs t thing to grasp i s th at fo r pe o p l e s
of thi s type s o c i al o rganiz ation i s p ri ma rily
an d o n the fac e of it i d e nti cal with kin s hi p
o rga niza tion B e fo re p roc ee ding furthe r l et
us s ee wha t ki n s hi p m e an s D i s tingu i s h
Con sangu inity
kin shi p fr o m c o nsangu inity
i s a p hys i cal fact I t d e pen ds on b i rth
an d c ove rs all on e s real b loo d re l atio ns hi ps
wh ether rec ogn ized b y s oc i ety o r not Kin
s hi p o n th e oth er h a n d i s a s o ciologi cal fac t
I t dep en ds o n the c o nvention al s y s tem o f
c o un ti n g d esce nt
T hus it ma y e x c l ude real
re l atio n s hi ps ; w hi l s t c ont ra riwi se it ma y
i ncl ude suc h as are pure ly c titious as whe n
-

ANTHRO P OLOGY

164

me o ne is allowed b y l aw to ad op t a c hild
N ow un de r c i vilize d
as if it w ere hi s own
tho ugh th ere is as we h ave j us t
c on ditions
see n suc h an ins tit utio n a s ad o p tion whil s t
ag ain there is th e case of the ill e giti mate
c hi ld who ca n c l a i m c on sangui nity bu t can
n eve r in E ngli sh l aw at l eas t att ai n to kin
s hi p y e t o u th e whol e w e a re h a rd ly c on sc io us
of t h e differe n ce betwe e n th e ge n uin e b loo d ti e
an d th e s o c i al in s tit ution tha t is m o d e ll e d
m o re o r l e ss c los e ly up o n it I n p ri miti ve
however c on san guinity te n ds to be
s oc i e ty
wi de r th an kin s hi p b y as muc h again I n
other wo r ds in th e r e c ognition of kin s hip on e
e nti re s i de of the f amily i s u sually l e ft c l e an
o u t of acc o u nt A ma n s ki n c o mp ri ses e ither
his m oth e r s pe o p l e o r hi s fath e r s pe o p l e bu t
n ot b oth Re me mbe r th at b y the l aw of
e xogam y the fathe r an d m oth er a re s t ra nge rs
to e ac h othe r Hen ce p ri miti ve s oci e ty as it
w ere i ssues a j ud gment of Solo m on to t he
e ffec t th at s in ce the y are not p re pared to
hal ve the i r chil d it mus t be long b o d y an d
s o ul either to one pa rty o r to the othe r
We ma y n ow go o n to an aly se thi s on e
si d e d ty pe of ki ns hi p o rg a niza tio n a littl e
m o re fully T here are three e l emen tary
p rin c i p l es that c o mb i ne to prod uce i t Th e y
A word
are e xog am y li n ea ge a n d totemi s m

so

must b e

sa id ab o ut each

in turn

S O C IAL O RGANI ! ATION

165

E x og am y

prese nts n o difculty until you

t ry to acc oun t fo r it s o rigi n It s i mp ly mea ns
marryin g o ut in c ont ras t to e n d ogamy o r
marrying in S upp o s e the re we re a vill age c o m
p o sed e nti re ly of Mc In t y re s an d Mc In to shes
an d supp os e th at fas hion c o mpe ll e d e very
M c In t y re to marry a Mc I n t o sh an d e ve ry
Mc I nt o s h a M c In t yr e whil st to marry an
ou t s i der say a M c B e an was bad fo rm for
Mc I n tyr e s an d M c I nt o she s ali k e ; the n th e
two c l an s wou l d be e xo gam ous i n re sp ect to
eac h other where as the vill a ge as a whol e
wou l d be e n d og am ous
Lin e a ge is th e prin c i p l e o f re ck onin g
d e sce nt alo n g on e o r othe r of two li n es
n ame ly th e m other s li ne or the f ather s
T he fo rm e r metho d is te rmed mat rili neal
the l att e r patr ilin eal It s o meti mes but b y
n o mean s in var i ab ly happ e n s whe n desce nt
is cou nted mat rilin e ally th at the wife st ay s
with he r p e op l e an d th e husban d h as th e
stat us of a mere vi s ito r an d ali e n I n such
a case th e marri age i s call e d matrilocal ;
oth erwi se it is patrilo cal A gain whe n the
matr ilo cal typ e of marri a ge p re vail s as like
wise oft e n whe n it d oe s not the wife an d he r
peo p l e rather th an th e f ather an d his pe o p l e
e xerc i se supr e me autho ri t y o ver t he c hil dren
This is kn own as the mat ri p otest al as co n
trast e d with t h e patri p ot es t al ty pe of famil y
.

AN TH ROPOLOGY

1 66

Wh e n the mat ril ineal mat r ilo ca l an d mat ri

p ot es t al c on d ition s are fo un d together we
h ave m oth er r ight a t it s fu ll e st an d s t ronge s t
Whe re we get only two ou t of the thr ee o r
mer e ly the rs t b y it s e lf m o st autho riti es
wou l d still sp e ak of m oth er r ight ; thou gh it
ma y b e q u e s tion ed how f ar th e wo rd m oth e r
right or th e c o rr e sp on d ing n ow al m o s t di s

car ded ex p re ss ion

th e mat ri arc h at e ca n
be saf e ly us e d withou t furth er e xp l an atio n
s in ce it t en ds to i mp ly a right (in the l eg al
se n se ) a n d a n autho rity whi c h i n these c i r
c u mst a n ce s i s oft e n no m o r e th a n no m in al
T ot emi sm in th e sp e ci c fo rm th at ha s to
d o with k in s hi p mean s th at a s o c i al gr oup de
pe nd s fo r it s i de ntity o n a cert a i n in ti mat e an d
e x c l us i ve re l atio n in whi c h it st an ds towards
an a nimal kin d o r a p l ant k in d o r m o re
rare ly a c l ass of in ani mat e o bj e ct s o r v ery
rare ly s o methi ng that is in d i vi dua l an d n ot a
kin d o r c l ass at a ll S uc h a tot e m i n the r s t
p l ace n o rm ally pr o vi des th e s o c i al g roup wit h
its n ame
(T h e B oy S c out s who ca ll the m
se l ves Foxes P e e wit s a n d s o on acc or d ing to
the ir d iffere nt pat rol s h ave thus revert ed to a
very a nc i ent usage ) I n the sec on d p l ac e thi s
n ame te n ds to be th e outwar d a n d vi s ib l e
s ign of a n in ward an d sp i rit ua l grace that
s o meh ow owi ng fr o m the tot em to th e totem
ites sanct ies t heir co mmu ni on Th ey are
,

S O C IAL ORG AN I! A T ION

167

o ne e sh with on e a nother as certain

of the Aus tr ali an s p hr ase it because th e y are
a ll one e sh with the tot em Or again
a man who s e tot e m was ngaui t he sun sai d
th at hi s nam e was ngo ut a nd h e
was
thou gh h e was e q ually rea d y to pu t
nga ui
it in anoth er wa y e x p l aining that nga ui
own ed
hi m If we wi s h to e xpress the
matt er c omp re he n s i vely a n d at the same
time to avoi d l angua ge su ggesti ve of a
m ore advan ced m y st i c i sm we ma y per haps
desc ri be the tot em as fr o m t hi s p oint of

vi ew the totem it e s
luc k
T he re is c on s i d er ab l e vari atio n however
to be fo un d in the p rac ti ces a nd be li e fs of a
m or e or l e ss re ligious kin d that are ass oc i at ed
with thi s fo rm of tot em i sm ; thou gh a lm os t
alwa ys there are s o me So metimes the tot e m
is tho u ght of as a n a n ce s to r o r as th e c o mm o n
fun d of life out of whi c h the tote m it es are
b o rn an d into whi c h the y go back whe n the y
d ie Somet im e s the tot e m is he l d to be a
very p re s e nt hel p in ti me of t roub l e as when
a kangar oo b y hopp ing along i n a spec i al wa y
w arns the kangar oo man of i mp end ing danger
So met ime s o n th e other ha n d the ka ngaroo
ma n thin ks of hims e lf ma inly as the he l per
of the ka ngar o o hol ding c e rem oni es in o rder
th at the ka ngar oos may wa x fat an d multi p ly
Aga in alm o st i nv ari ab ly t h e totemi te s h ows
all -

'

ANTHR O P OLOGY

168

me re sp e ct tow ar ds his tot em re fr aining

fo r in st ance fro m s l aying an d eating the
totem a nimal u nle ss it b e in s o me s pec i all y
s ol e mn an d s ac r ame nt al w ay
The ups hot of th ese c on s i deratio ns is t hat if
the tot em is on the fa ce of it a n ame the sava ge

an s we rs the qu e stion
Wh at s in a n ame ?
b y n d i n g i n th e n ame th at makes him o ne
with hi s brethr e n a w e alth of m y s ti c m e aning
su c h a s deepe ns fo r him th e fee lin g of s oc i al
s oli darity to a n e xt e nt that it takes a great
effo rt o n o ur part to app r ec i at e
Having s e pa r at e ly e x am in ed th e t hree p ri n
we
c ip les of e xog am y lin e a g e an d tote mi sm
mus t n ow t ry to see how the y wo rk to
G
e n e r aliz atio n
e
th
er
i
n
re
g
a
r
d
to
th
e
se
g
matters i s e xt re me ly ri s ky not to sa y ras h ;
neve rth el ess th e following broa d s ta teme nts
may se rve th e reader as work ing hypothe s e s
that h e can go on to tes t fo r hi mse lf b y
looking i nto the f ac t s Fi rs tly exo g am y an d
totemi sm whether th e y be i n o rigin d i s tin c t
o r n ot te nd in p rac ti c e to go p re tty c los e ly
together S e c on dly lin e age o r the one s i ded
s ystem of reck oni ng desce nt i s m o re o r l ess
l
in de pe nde nt of th e oth e r two p rin ci p l es
so

Th at is to say , e ith e r moth e r ri gh t o r fath e r-ri ght in

an y o f th e i r fo rms may e xi st in c o nj un c t i o n wi th e xogamy
an d to te mi sm
It is ce rtai nl y n o t t he fa ct th at, wh e re ve r
to te mism is in a state o f vig our, mot h e r-right is reg ularly
-

SO C IAL O R GANI! ATION

1 69

If i ns tea d o f c o nsulting the e vi dence that

is to h an d a bo ut th e savag e wo r l d as it exi s ts
to da y you read s o me b oo k c rammed full
with the o ri e s ab ou t s oc i al o rigin s yo u p ro b
ab ly c o me away with the i mp ression tha t
totemi c s oc i e ty is e nti re ly an a ffai r of c l an s
So me suc h notion as th e following i s p re c ip i
t ate d i n yo u r min d
Yo u gure to you rs e lf
two small food gr oups who se resp ec ti v e b e ats
are l e t us sa y on eac h s ide of a ri ve r Fo r
s o me u nkn own reas o n the y are tot emi c on e
gro up call ing its elf Coc ka too th e other ca l ling
itse lf C row whil s t eac h fee l s i n c on se q u ence
that its me mb e rs are all on e e sh in so me
mys te rio us an d m ov ing s e n se Again fo i
so me u nknown re as on e ac h is exogam ous
s o tha t mat ri m on i al a lli an c e s are b o u n d t o
take p l ace ac r oss the ri ve r Las tly eac h ha s
m othe r right of the fu ll b lown kin d The
Cockatoo gi r ls an d th e C row gi rls ab i de eac h
o n thei r own si d e of the ri ve r whe re the y a re
vi s ited b y pa rtne rs fr om ac r oss the wa te r ; who;
wheth er the y t en d to st a y an d mak e the m
se lves use fu l o r are mere ly intermitte nt in
thei r a tte ntions re main o uts i ders fro m th e
totemi c p oint of vi e w an d are t re ate d as suc h
,

fo un d

mo st it may b e urge d in fav o ur o f the p ri o ri ty

rig h t t h at if t h e r e is c h an ge , it is invar iab ly

At

mothe r
from mother-right to
of

ab o ut

fathe r rig ht
-

an d ne ver

the

o the r

way

ANTHR OPOLOG Y

NO

Th e c hi l dre n mean whi l e grow u p in

,

t he

C oc katoo

an d C r ow q uarters respective l y as
littl e Cockatoo s o r C rows I f t he y n eed to
be ch as ti sed a Coc katoo han d n ot n ecessaril y
th e m othe r s bu t pe rh aps h e r b rother s
ne ve r the fathe r s howe ve r admi ni s ters th e
s l ap Wh e n th e y g row up the y take th ei r
c h an ces fo r b e tt e r an d worse with the m other s
p e op l e ; ghting wh e n the y ght though it
be a ga in s t th e father s pe op l e ; s hari ng in th e
toil s a n d t h e sp oil s of the c has e ; i nh e riti n g
t h e w e ap on s an d an y othe r p r o pe rty tha t is
h an d e d o n fro m on e g e n er ation to an other ;
and l as t b ut n ot l eas t taki ng part in th e
tot em i c m y s t e ri es th at di sc los e to the el ec t
th e inn e r meaning of b e ing a Coc katoo o r a
Crow as th e cas e ma y be
N ow suc h a p i ct u re o f t h e o ri gi n al c l an
an d of th e o rigin al i nt e r c l an o rgan iza ti on is
v ery p re tty an d e as y to kee p i n on e s head
An d whe n on e i s s i mp ly gu e ssi ng ab o ut t h e
rs t b e ginnings of t hings t here is s o m ethi ng
to b e sai d fo r s t a rting f ro m s o me hi ghly
abs t ract an d s i mp l e c on cep t whi ch is a fter
w ards e l ab o rate d b y addition s an d q ualica
tion s un til the d eve lop e d notio n co mes n ear
to mat ching th e c omp l e xity of th e real f act s
S uc h S p e cul atio ns the n are q uite permi ss i b l e
an d eve n ne cessary i n t hei r p l ace T o d o
j usti c e h owever to t h e f ac ts abo ut to temi c
.

S O C IAL O RGANI! ATION

1 71

s oci et y as kn own to us b y ac t ual observ ation

it remains to n ot e t ha t th e c l an i s b y no me an s
the o nly fo rm of s oc i al o rganiza tio n that it
di sp l ays
Th e cl an it is t rue wh et he r mat rilin ea l
o r pat rilin e al t e n ds at th e totemi c l eve l of
s oc i ety t o ec li ps e the family T h e n at u ral

family of c ours e that is to say the m o re o r

l e ss p erman e nt ass o c i ation of father m oth er
an d c hil d re n i s a lw ays there i n s o m e s hape
an d to s o me e xt e nt But so long as the
o ne s i ded metho d of c ou nting descent prevail s
an d i s re info rc e d b y totemi sm the family
can not att ain to the di gnity of a fo rmally
re c ognized in s tit utio n On t he othe r han d
the totemi c c l an of all the fo rmally re cogni zed
gro up i n gs of s o c i ety to whi c h an in d i vi dual
belongs in virt ue of hi s b i rth an d kins hi p
As th e
is so to speak th e m o s t sp e c i c
Aust r ali a n put s it it mak e s him wh at h e

is
H is s oc i al esse n ce i s to b e a Cockat o o
o r a C r ow Con se q ue ntly hi s rs t duty is
tow ards his c l an an d it s members h uman
an d n ot h uman Wh ere ver ther e are c l an s
an d so long a s ther e i s any tot e m i sm wo rthy
of th e n ame t hi s woul d seem to be the ge n eral
l aw
Bes i des t h e s p ec i c unity however pr o
vide d b y th e c l an th ere ar e wi der an d a s it
wer e m o re gen eri c u ni t i es in to w hi c h a man is
,

ANTHRO POLOGY

1 72

b o rn i n tot emi c s o c i ety of th e c omp l e x ty pe

that i s fo un d in th e ac t ual worl d of to da y
Fi rs t h e b e lon g s to a p hr at ry In Aus
t ralia th e t r i b e a t e rm to be d e n ed p r e
s e n t lyis n e ar ly a lw a y s sp lit up into two
e xog am o us di vi s ion s whi c h it i s usual to c all
1
p hrat ri es
T h en in s om e of th e Aus t r ali an
t ri bes t h e p hr at ry i s subdi vi d ed into two
an d i n oth er s into four p o rtion s b etwee n
whi c h e xog am y t akes p l ac e acc o r di ng to a
curious c r i ss c r o ss sc heme T h e s e e xogam o us
subdi vis ion s whi c h are pec ul i ar to Aust r ali a
are k n own as mat r im oni al c l ass e s D r Fr a zer
thin ks th at the y ar e th e re su lt of d eli b er a te
arr angem ent on th e part of n ati v e st at esme n ;
an d ce rt a inly h e is right in his c ont entio n
th at the r e is a n arti c i al an d man made loo k
ab out th em T h e s y st e m of p hrat ri e s o n
th e othe r h an d wh eth er i t carve s up th e t ri be
into two or a s s o m etimes in N o rth America
an d el s e wher e into m or e th an two pr imar y
d i vi sion s u n d e r whi c h the cl a n s te n d to gr oup
th emsel ves i n a m o r e or l ess o r d erly w a y
h as all th e appear an c e of a n at ura l develo p
m e nt o u t of th e c l an s y s tem Th us to reve rt
to th e ima gin ary cas e of the Co ckatoos an d
C r ows practi s ing e xogam y acr o ss th e ri ver
it seems eas y to u n d er st an d how th e n um bers
,

pplied to

wo rd meani ng
b roth erh ood,
ver y similar inst ituti o n
.

which

S O C IAL O RGANI ! ATION

1 78

b oth s i d e s might in crease un til whilst

remainin g Co ckatoo s an d C r ows for c r oss
ri ve r pu r p o s e s th e y woul d n d it n ec e ssa ry
to ad o p t am ong th ems e l ves sub or d in at e d is
t in c t io n s ; suc h as wo u l d b e su re to m odel
th ems el ves on th e ol d Co ckatoo C r ow p r in c i pl e
of s e par at e tot e m i c bad ge s But w e mus t
n ot w an der off into q u e stion s of origin It
i s enou gh fo r our p r es ent pu r p o s e to h ave
n ot e d the f ac t that within th e t ri be th er e
ar e no rmally oth er fo rms of s oc i al gr oup ing
into whi c h a man is b orn a s well a s the c l an
N ow w e c o me to th e t ri be Thi s may be
descr i b e d as the p oliti cal unit It s c o n st it u
tio n t e n ds to b e l a x an d it s fun c tion s va gu e
O n e wa y of s e izing it s n at ur e is to thin k of
it as th e s o c ial u nion within whi c h e xogam y
t akes p l ace T he int e rmarr yi ng gr oups natu r
ally h ang together an d ar e thus i n the i r
entir ety en d ogam ous i n th e s en se th at
marri age with pur e o ut s i ders is di sallowe d
b y custo m Mor e o ver b y m ingling in thi s
way the y are li kely to att a in to the use of
a c o mm on di al ec t an d a c o mm on n ame
speak ing of thems el ves fo r in s t an ce as th e

men
an d l ump ing the res t of h uman ity

together as for eign ers

T o act togeth er
h owever as for in st an ce in w ar i n order
to rep el in c urs ion s o n th e p art of the sai d
for e ign ers is n ot eas y wi thou t s ome de nit e
on

AN THR OPOL OGY

1 74

org aniz ation In Aus t rali a where th ere i s

ver y littl e w ar thi s or g aniz ation is m o s tly
wanting I n N o rth Am er i ca on th e other
h an d am ong s t th e m ore advan ced an d wa r
li k e t r i b e s we n d re gu l ar t r i bal o fc e rs an d
s o me app r o ac h to a p oliti cal c on s tit ution
Ye t in Aus t r a li a th e r e is at l e as t on e o ccas ion
whe n a s o rt of t r i bal g ather ing t akes p l ace
n am ely wh en the i r el ab or at e ce r em oni e s fo r
the i ni ti ation of the yo uth s i s b e ing he l d
It woul d seem how ever th at these cere
m oni e s are as oft en as not int e rt ri bal rathe r
th an t r i bal So s i mil ar are th e cus to ms an d
b eli ef s o ve r wi d e are as th at gr oups with
appare ntly littl e o r nothing el se in c o mm on
will ass e mb l e togeth er an d t ak e part in
r
o
c
ee
d
ing
s
th
a
t
ar
e
s
o
m
e
thing
li
ke
a
Pa
n
p
Angli can Congr ess a n d a Wo rl d s F ai r r oll e d
into on e T o thi s i n de nit e ty pe of int er
t r i bal ass o c i ation th e t er m n atio n is s o me
ti me s app li ed O nly whe n there i s d e nit e
o rgan iz ation a s n ever in Aus t rali a an d only
occas ion al ly i n N o rth Am er i ca as am ongs t
th e Ir oq u oi s can w e vent ure to descri be i t as

a g en uin e conf eder ac y

N o d oub t th e read e r s h ead is al rea d y in
a whi rl thou gh I h ave per pet rat ed en dl ess
s in s of omi ss io n a n d I d o ub t not of c o mmi s
s ion as w ell i n o r der to s imp lify t h e glo ri ous
c o n fus ion of th e subj ec t of t he s oci al org ani
.

SO C IAL O R GANI! ATION

1 75

p re vaili n g i n wh at i s c onve ni ently bu t

loo se ly l umped together as tot em i c s oc i ety
Th us I have o mitt ed to me ntion tha t s ome
times the tot e ms s ee m to have n othi n g to
d o at all wi th th e s oc i al org aniz ation ; as
fo r e x amp l e am ong st the f am o us Aru nt a
of cent r al Aust r a li a who m Me ss r s S pen ce r
an d G ill e n have s o care fu lly d e sc ri b e d I
h ave aga in r efrain e d fr om p ointing o u t tha t
s o meti mes th er e are exog am ous di vi s ion s
s o m e woul d call th em m oi eti es to di s tingui s h
th em fr o m p hr at ri es whi c h h ave no c l an s
gr o up e d un de r th e m an d on the oth er h and
h ave the ms e l ve s littl e or no res e mb l an c e to
tot em i c c l an s T h ese an d ever s o man y
oth er ex ception al cases I h ave s i mp ly passed
by
An even m ore serious kin d of o mi ss ion is
th e following I h ave thr ou ghou t i d e nti ed
th e s oc i al o rg aniz ation with th e kin s hi p
or g ani z ation n amely th at into whi c h a man
is b orn i n c on s e q ue n ce of th e ma rr i a ge l a w s
an d th e s yst em of reck o ning d e sc e nt But
th ere ar e other sec on dar y f e atu re s of wh at
can onl y b e c l a sse d as s o c i al o rg a niza tion
whi c h h ave n othing to d o with k in s hi p S e x
for in s t an ce has a d i rec t b e a ring on s o c i al
st at us Th e men an d th e wo me n oft e n fo rm
mark ed l y d i stin ct gr oups ; s o th at w e are
al mo st remin ded of th e wa y in whi c h the mal e
zat io n

ANTHR O P OLOGY

1 76

an d t he f emal e lin n et s go ab out in separate

ocks as s oon as the pa ir in g seas o n is o ver
O f c o u r se di sparity of o ccupation ha s s o me
thing to d o with it But fo r th e n ati ve m ind
th e differen ce evi d ently go es f ar deeper th an
th at In s o me part s of Aust r ali a the r e are
ac t u al ly se x tot ems s ignifyi n g th at e ac h se x
i s a ll on e es h a m y s ti c c o rp or at i on
An d
a ll th e savag e worl d o ver th ere is a f ee ling
th at woman i s un ca nny a thing apart whi c h
f ee ling i s p r obab ly resp on s i b l e for m o st of th e
spec i al disab iliti e s an d th e sp e c i al pri vil e ges
that are the lot of woman at the prese nt
day
Ag ai n age li ke wi se has c on s i derab l e in
It is not mere ly a
ue n c e on s o c i al st at us
case of being gr ad e d as a you th un til on ce for

all yo u l e g ally c o me of age an d are enr oll e d

am ongs t th e m en T he gr ading of ages is
fr e qu e ntly m o s t e l ab or at e an d eac h bat c h
m ou nt s th e s oc i al l add e r s t ep b y s t e p J ust
as at th e u ni ve r s ity e ac h y ea r h as app o rtio n ed
to it b y pub li c o p inion th e thi ngs it ma y d o
an d th e t hi ngs it ma y not d o whil s t l at e r o n
th e bac he lo r th e mas t e r a n d the d oc to r
s t an d e ac h a d e gree high er in resp ec t of
acad em i c r an k ; s o in darkes t Aus t r ali a fr om
you th up to m i d dl e age at l e ast a man wi ll
no rmally u n d ergo a p r ogre ss i ve i niti ation
into t h e secret s of lif e acc ompani ed by a
.

S O C IAL O RGANI ! ATION

1 77

st ead y wi dening i n the sp h ere of his s o ci al

duti e s an d right s
Las tly l ocality a ffect s s t atus an d in
c re asin gly as th e w an de r ing lif e gi ve s w ay to
s t ab l e occupation Am ongs t a f ew h u nd re d
pe o p l e who are n ever o u t of to uc h with eac h
oth er th e fo rms of n at al ass oc i atio n hol d the i r
own ag ain s t any th at lo cal ass oc i atio n is
l ik ely to su gge s t i n th ei r place Acc or d ing
to n at al gr oup ing th erefor e i n the b r o ad
sen s e th at in c l udes se x an d age n o l e ss th an
kin s hi p th e m e mb er s of the t r i be camp ght
perfor m magi cal c ere m oni e s p l a y g am e s are
initi at e d ar e marr i ed an d are bur i e d But
l et the t ri be in c re ase in n umb er s an d sp re ad
thr ou gh a c on s i d er ab l e are a o ver th e face
of whi c h c o mmu ni cation s are d if cult an d
pr o p o rtion at ely rar e
I n st antly th e lo cal
gr o up t en ds to b e c o m e all in all Author ity
an d in iti ati ve mus t alway s re s t with the m en
on th e sp ot ; a n d th e ol d n at al c omb in ation s
w eaken ed b y in evit ab l e absent e e i sm at l ast
c e as e to repr es e nt th e t rue fr ame work of
th e s oc i al ord er Th e y t e n d to linger on of
c ourse i n th e s h ape of sub o r di n at e in st it u
tion s For in s t an ce th e tot e mi c gr oups
cease to h ave d ir ec t c onn ec tio n with the mar
an d o n th e s t r ength of th e
ria ge s y s tem
cerem oni es ass oc i ate d with them develo p
i nto wh at are kn own a s secret s oc i et i es Or
.

ANTHROPOLOGY

1 78

gain t h e cl an is graduall y o vers had ow ed by

the fam il y so th at ki n s hi p wi th it s right s an d
duti es bec o mes p r ac ti cally li mited to th e
n ear er b loo d rel ation s ; who m or e o ver be gin
to be t r eat ed for p r ac ti cal pu r p o ses as k in s
men eve n wh e n the y are o n th e s i de of th e
fam ily whi c h lin eag e d o es n ot of c i all y
rec ogni ze T h us the fo r ms of n at al ass o c i a
tion n o longer c on s tit ut e the backb o n e of
the b o d y p oliti c T he ir pub li c imp o rt an ce
H en ceforward th e s oc i al un it i s
has g on e
the lo cal gr oup T h e te rr itorial pri nc i p l e
co mes m o r e an d m o r e to d et er min e afni ti es
an d fun ctio ns Ki ns hi p has dethr on ed it sel f
b y it s v ery succ e ss T ha n ks to t he o rg a nizi n g
p ower of kin s hip pri miti ve s o c i ety has gr own
an d b y gr owing has s tret c h ed th e b irth ti e
un til it s n aps So me r el ation s hi ps bec o me
di s t an t i n a lo cal a n d t err itor i al se n se a n d
th ereup on th e y cease to c o u nt My duty to
wards m y ki n passes i n to my duty towards
m y ne ighb o ur
a

Reas on s of space make it i mp o ss i bl e to sur

v e y the further develo pment s to whi c h s oc i al
o rg aniz atio n is subj ec t u n der th e s wa y of
locality It i s pe r h aps l e ss essenti al to in s i s t
o n them here because wher eas tot emi c s o ci ety
is a thin g w hi c h w e c i viliz ed fol k h a v e t he
very great es t difcul ty in un ders t anding we
.

S O CIAL O RGANI ! ATION

1 79

all h a ve di re ct i n s ight i nto the meaning of a

t err ito r i al arr ang em e nt ; s in c e fr o m the vill age
c o mmu nity up to th e m o d er n s t at e the same
fu n dament al ty p e of s o c i al s t ruct ure ob ta in s
thr ou gho ut
B e si d e s lo cal c ontigu ity howeve r there is
a s ec on d p ri n c i p l e whi c h gr e atly he l ps to
s hape the s o c i al or d er as s oon as s oc i e ty is
su f c i e ntly advan ced in it s a rt s an d in dustr i es
to h ave t ake n r m r oot so to speak on the
e arth s surf ac e Thi s is th e p r in c i p l e of
pri vat e p r o p erty an d esp ec i ally of p r i vat e
p r o p erty in l an d T h e m o st f un dament al
of cl ass di s tin c tion s is that b etween r i c h an d
p oo r T h at b etwe e n free a n d s l ave in c o m
mun it ie s th at h av e s l ave ry is not at rs t
s ight s t r i ctly pa r all el s in ce th e re ma y b e a
c l ass of p oo r fre e me n int e rmed i at e b etw ee n
th e no b l e s an d th e s l ave s ; but it is o bvio us
th at in t hi s cas e too p r i vat e p r o pe rty i s r eally
r esp on s i b l e fo r th e m od e of gr ading Or
s o meti m e s s o c i al p o s itio n ma y seem to d e pen d
p r i marily on in dus t r i al occupation t he In d i an
cas t e s y s t em p r o v i d ing an in s t an ce in p oi nt
S in c e however th e m o s t h on o urab l e o ccupa
tion s in the lon g ru n c oin c i de with tho se th at
pa y bes t we c o m e back on ce ag ai n to pri va te
p r o pe rty as the ulti mat e s ource of s oc i al
ran k un de r an ec on o mi c s y s tem of t he m o re
develo pe d kin d
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

1 80

In th is bri e f sket c h it has bee n imp ossi b l e

to d o m o r e th an hi n t how s oc i al o r g aniz at i o n
is re l ati ve to n umbe r s whi c h in the i r t urn
ar e r e l ati ve to the skill with whi c h the foo d
ues
t
i
s carr i ed on
Bu
t
if
up
to
a
c
e
r
t
a
in
q
p oint it be t rue th at the s t ru c t ure of s oc i ety
depe n ds o n it s mass in a m or e o r l e ss p hy s i cal
w a y the r e i s to be ho m e in mi n d another
aspec t of th e matt e r whi c h al s o has b ee n
hi nt e d at a s we we nt r ap i d ly al ong A goo d
deal of inte lligen ce has th r ou ghou t h el ped
towards th e es t ab li s hi ng of the s oc i al o rder
If s o c i al o rg an iz atio n is i n part a n at ural
result of th e e x pan s ion of th e p o pul ation it
is partly a l s o in th e bes t sen se of th e wo rd
c r eation of the h uman min d
an arti c i al
whi c h h as e x e rt ed it self to devi se m o des of
gr o up ing whe re b y men m ight be e n ab l ed to
work together in l ar ger an d e ve r l ar ger whol es
Reg ar ded however in th e pure ly e xte rn al
w ay whi c h a s t ud y of its me r e s t ruc t u r e
in v ol ves s oc i ety appears as a mac hin e that is
to sa y appears a s th e work of in telligen c e
in deed bu t not as it s e lf i ns ti n c t with in te lli
gen ce I n wha t follow s w e s h all se t the s o c i al
mac hi n e m o ving W e s h all th en h ave a be tter
chan ce of ob t ai ning an in n er vi e w of t h e
dri vi n g p ower W e s ha ll n d th at we have to
aban d o n the n otion t h at s oc i ety is a machin e
It is m ore even t ha n an org an i sm It is a
,

LAW

1 81

c ommu ni on of s oul ss oul s that as so man y

in de pen dent y et inter de pe n dent mani f es t a
tions of the lif e force are press i ng fo rw ard
in the se arch f or in d i vi dualit y an d freed om
,

C HAPTE R

V II

LAW

ge neral p l an of this littl e b oo k b e ing

to st art fr o m the in uen ces th at de term in e
man s destiny in a p hy s i cal ext ern al n e cessary
s ort of w ay an d to wor k up gradually to th e
sp irit ual intern a l v olu nta ry f ac to rs in human
n atureth at st range c o mp ou n d of c l ay an d
ame it seems adv i sab l e to c on s i de r l aw
be fore re ligion an d re ligio n b e fo re m or ality
whether i n its c oll ecti ve or in d i vi dual aspect
for the following reaso n Th ere is m o re s hee r
c on st raint to be di scerned in l aw than i n
religion whi l s t re ligion i n the hi stori cal sen se
whi ch i denties it with org anize d cult i s m o re
coe rc i ve in it s m o d e of re gul ating lif e than
the m or al reas on whi c h co mpe l s b y fo rce of
p e rsuas ion
T o on e who li ves u n der c i vili ze d con d itio ns
the p hr ase
the str ong arm of the l aw
in ev itab ly su ggest s th e p oli c eman Apart
fro m p oli cem e n magis trat es an d the sol di ers
THE
'

ANTHR OPOLOGY

1 82

who in t he l as t re s o rt must be ca ll ed out to

enfo rce the d e cre es of the c o mmu nity it
m ight appear th at l aw c o u l d not e xi st An d
certa inl y it i s h ard to adm it that what is k nown
as m o b l a w i s a ny l a w at a ll
For hi sto ri ca l
purp o ses howev er w e must b e p r epared to
use the e xp ress io n
l aw
rather wi d e ly
We must be read y to s a y th at th ere i s l aw
wh e rever the re i s pu ni s hm e nt on the part of a
h uma n s o c i ety whe the r ac ting in the mass
o r thr ou gh it s re pre s e nt ati ve s
Pu ni s hme nt
mean s the in i ct ion of pa in o n on e who i s
jud ged to h ave br o ke n a s o c i a l ru l e Co n
v e rs e ly th e n a l a w is a ny s o c i a l ru l e to th e
infr in gement of whi c h pu ni s hment is b y usa ge
a ttac hed So lo n g as it i s rec ogniz ed that a
man breaks a s o c i a l ru l e at the r i sk of pa in
a n d th at it i s th e bus i ness of e v eryb o d y o r of
s omeb o d y ar m e d with the c o mm o n author ity
to make that r i sk a re a lity fo r th e offe n d e r
there i s l aw within th e mea ning of the t erm as
it e xi s t s fo r a nthr o p ology
Pu ni s hm e nt howeve r is b y it s very n at ure
It is o nly because
an e x c e p tio n a l measu r e
th e maj o rity a r e c ont e nt to follow a s o c i al
ru l e that l aw a n d pu ni s hm e nt are p o ss i b l e at
all If again every on e h ab it ua lly o bey s the
s oc i al rul es l aw ceas e s to e xi st b e cause it is
u nn ece ssary N ow o n e reas o n why it i s hard
to n d any l aw in primiti ve s oc i ety is beca use
,

LAW

1 88

in a ge n era l way of sp e ak ing n o o ne dreams

of b re ak ing the s o c i a l ru l e s
C us to m i s k ing n a y tyr a nt i n p r im it ive
s o c i ety Wh e n C ap t a i n Cook ask e d the c h i ef s
of Ta hiti why the y at e apart an d alon e they

s i mp ly rep li e d B e caus e it is r ight

An d so
it a lway s i s with th e rud er p e o p l e s
Tis
the custom a n d there s a n e n d on t is t he ir
n otion of a su f c i ent reas on in p oliti cs an d
ethi cs alik e N ow that w a y li e s a rigi d c on
I n the c h apt er o n m o r a lity we
se rv at ism
s h all t r y to d i sc o ver it s inn e r sp r ings it s
ps y c hologi cal c on d ition s For th e p r esent
w e may b e c ont e nt to r egar d custo m f ro m the
o ut s i d e as the s o c i al h ab it of c on servi ng a ll
t r ad ition al p r acti c e s for the ir own sake a n d
re gar d le ss of c on se q u e n ces O f c ours e c hange s
are b ou n d to o ccu r an d d o o ccur But the y
are not supp o s e d to o ccur I n the o ry the
s o c i a l ru l e s of pr i m iti ve s oc i ety are like t he
l aw of the Medes an d Pers i an s whi c h a lt ereth

n ot
T hi s abs ol ut e resp e c t fo r cus to m has it s
goo d a n d it s bad s i de s O n th e o ne h an d it
supp lie s the e l e m e nt of d i sc i p lin e ; without
whi c h any s oc i ety i s b o u n d s oon to fall to
p i eces W e a r e ap t to think of the sava ge a s
a freak i s h creature all m oo d s at on e m o me nt
a fr i e n d at the ne xt m o m e nt a en d So he
mi ght be if it w ere n ot fo r t he s o ci al dr ill
,

ANTHR O P O LO G Y

1 84

i mp o se d b y h i s custo ms So h e is if yo u
de st roy hi s cu s to ms a nd e x p e ct h im n e v e rt he
l ess to be h ave as a n educat e d and reaso nab l e
be ing G i ve n the n a pri m iti ve s o c ie ty in a
h e a lthy a n d un c ont am in at e d c ondi tio n its
members will in vari ab ly be fo u nd to be o n the
avera ge m o re l aw ab i d ing as jud ged f r o m t he
st an dp oint of the ir own l aw t ha n is the cas e
in a n y c i viliz ed s t at e
B u t n ow w e c o me to t h e b ad s i de of custo m
It s co nserv i ng i n ue n ce e xt e n ds to a ll t rad i
t io n al practi ces
however u nre a s on ab l e o r
p erverted In th at amber a ny y i s ap t to
be e n c lo sed H en ce th e whi ms i c al iti es o f
savage custo m In P ri mitive C u lture D r
T ylo r t e ll s a goo d s tor y ab o ut th e D y aks o f
B o rn e o T h e whit e man s w ay of c ho pp i n g
d own a t ree b y not c hi ng o ut V s h aped cut s
was n ot acc o r ding to D y ak cus to m
H e n ce
an y D y ak cau ght i mit ating the E ur o pean
f as hi on was pu ni s h e d b y a n e An d ye t so
well a w are w ere th e y th at thi s meth o d was an
i mpr o veme nt on th ei r own th at whe n th e y
c oul d t rus t e ac h other n ot to te ll the y wo ul d
surreptitio us ly u se it Th ese same D yaks it
ma y be adde d are acc o rdin g to Mr A R
W all ace th e bes t of o bservers
am o n g th e

m o s t p l eas ing of savages

Th e y are goo d
n at ured m il d an d b y n o m e an s b loo dthi rs ty
i n th e o rdi n ary rel at i o n s of l if e Y et t h e y are
.

LAW

1 85

well kn own to be addi cted to t h e h o rri d

prac ti ce of h ead hu nti n g

It was a cus to m
Mr W all ace e x p l ain s
an d as a cus to m was
observ ed bu t it di d n ot imp ly any e xtra

ordi n ary ba rbar i sm or m or al delinquen c y

Th e draw back th en to a re ign of pure
cus to m i s thi s
M e aningl ess in j un ction s
ab o un d s in c e the v al ue of a t r adition al p r ac ti ce
d oes n ot d e pen d o n it s c on se q ue n ces but
s i mp ly on the f ac t th at it i s th e p r acti ce ; an d
thi s el ement of irr atio n ality is en o u gh to
p erp l e x til l it utte rly c onfo un ds th e m in d
capab l e of ri s ing ab o ve r o utin e an d reec ting
o n th e t rue a ims an d e n ds of th e s oc i al lif e

H ow to b r eak thr o u gh
th e cak e of custom
a s Bag e hot has call e d it i s th e h a r d e s t l e ss o n
th at humanity has ever h ad to l earn C u s
to ms h ave oft en bee n br oken up b y th e c l as h
in g of di ffere nt s oc i eti es ; but i n th at cas e th e y
mere ly c ry s t alliz e agai n into n e w s h apes But
to b reak thr ou gh custo m b y th e s h eer for ce
of re ec tion an d so to make ration al pr ogre ss
p oss i b l e was the int ell ec t ual f eat of on e
peo p l e t h e an c i ent Gr eeks ; an d it i s at l e as t
hi ghly d o ub tfu l if witho u t the i r l ead er s hi p
a pr ogr ess i ve c i vilizatio n wo ul d have e xi st ed
to day
It may b e added in parenthe s i s th at cus toms
ma y lin ger on in d e nit ely aft e r l os ing thr ou gh
o n e cause o r an other th e i r p l a ce am ongst th e
-

ANTHR O P OLOGY

1 86

vit al int eres t s of th e c ommu nity T h e y are

o r at any rat e se e m h a rml e ss ; the i r f u n ctio n
is spe nt
H en c e whil s t p er h aps th e h umb l er
fol k s till t ak e the m m o r e o r l e ss s er ious ly th e
l eader s of s oc i ety ar e not at pain s to supp re ss
them N or wo u l d the y a lway s n d it eas y to
d o s o Something of th e p r i m e val man l ur ks

i n u s all ; an d th e se su r v i val s as th e y are

termed b y the anth r o p ologi st ma y oft en i n
l ar ge part c o rre sp on d to i mpu l s e s th at ar e b y
n o m e an s d e ad in us but r ather s l ee p ; an d
are hen c e li ab l e to be re aw ak e n e d if th e
en v ir on me nt h app e n s to supp ly th e appr o
Witn
e
ss
th
e
f
ac
t
th
a
t
su r
ria t e s ti mul us
p
v iv als e sp e c i ally wh e n th e W hi rligig of s o c i a l
c h ange b rings th e u n educat e d t e mp o r ar ily
to th e fo r e h ave a w ay of b lo ss om ing fo rth
i nto r ev i val s ; a n d the s t at e may in c o n se
n c e h ave to u n d er go s o m et hi ng e q u i val e nt
u
e
q
to an o p er ation for app en d i citi s T he s t ud y
of so call e d su r v i val s th erefor e i s a m o s t
i mp ort ant b r an c h of anthr o p ology whi c h can
n ot u nfort u n at ely in thi s h asty sk et c h be gi ve n
It wo u l d s ee m to c oin c i de with the
it s due
c e nt r al int er es t of wh at i s k no wn as fol k lor e
Fol k lo re however t en ds to br o ad en o ut ti ll
i t bec o mes al m o s t in d i s tingu i s h ab l e fr om
g en eral anthr o p ology T h ere ar e at l e as t two
reas o n s for thi s Fi r s tly th e sur vi val s of
cus to m am ongs t advan ced n ation s suc h as
.

LA W

1 87

th e anci ent G reeks o r th e m odern Briti s h are

to be in te r pr et ed mainly b y c o mpar i s on with
th e s imil ar in stit ution s s till o ur i s hi ng am ongst
ruder p eo pl e s S ec on dl y all th ese ruder
pe o p l es th e ms el ves witho ut ex c e ption h ave
the ir survi val s too T he ir customs f all a s
it w ere into two l a y er s O n to p i s the li ve
part of th e r e Un dern e ath ar e sm oul de ring
as hes whi c h thou gh d ying o ut on th e whol e
are y et li ab l e her e an d there to rekin dl e into
am e
So muc h for cus to m a s s o mething o n th e
f ace of it di s tin c t f r o m l aw in asmuc h as it
seems to di spen se wi th pu ni s hm e nt I t re
main s to note howe ve r th at bru t e fo rce l ur ks
b ehin d cus to m i n th e fo rm of wh at Bage hot

has call ed
the p er s e cuting t e n d en c y
J us t
as a b oy a t sc hool who happe n s to offe n d
aga in s t th e u n writt e n c o de h as his lif e made
a bur d en b y th e re s t of hi s mat es s o in th e
p r i m iti ve c o mmu nity th e f e ar of a r ou gh

h an d ling caus e s I must n ot to w ait up o n

I dare not
O n e has onl y to read Mr
An d re w Lang s in st ructi ve sto ry of th e f ate

of Why Why th e rs t Rad i ca l to realize

how am ongst savage s an d i s it so very
different am ongst o u r s e l ve s it pay s muc h
bett er to b e respect ab l e tha n to p l ay the m o ra l
,

ANT HROPOLO G Y

1 88

Let us pass on to e x am in e th e b e ginni n gs o f

pu niti ve l aw Aft e r all eve n u n d er th e s wa y
of cus to m casual o ut b reaks a re li ab l e to
occur So m e on e s pass io n s wi ll pr o ve too
muc h for him a n d th ere will be a n acc i de nt
Wh at h app en s th e n in th e pri m iti ve s o c i ety
Le t us rs t c o n s i der on e of th e very un
o rga nized c o mmu niti es at t he b otto m o f th e
ev ol utio n ary sca l e ; as fo r e xamp l e the littl e
Ne grito s of th e A n dama n Is l an ds T he i r
justi ce e x p l a in s Mr M a n in hi s e xce ll e nt
acc ou nt of these peo p l e i s adm ini s tered b y
the s i mp l e metho d of a llowing th e a ggri eved
party to t ake th e l aw i nto his own h an ds
T hi s h e usually d o es b y inging a bur ning
fa ggot at the offe n der o r b y d i sc h arging a n
a rr ow at hi m thou gh m ore fre q uently n ear
h im M eanwhil e a ll oth ers who ma y be
p rese nt are ap t to beat a speed y ret reat
carryin g off as muc h of th e i r p r o p erty as the ir
h as t e will allow a n d rema i n i n g hi d i n th e
ju ngl e u ntil su f c i e nt ti me has e l aps e d fo r
the q uarre l to h av e b lown o ver So met imes
how ever fr i e n ds int erp o se an d seek to d e pri ve
th e di spu t a nt s of the ir weap o n s Shou l d h ow
ever on e of them kill th e oth er n othin g is
ne cessar ily sa i d or d on e to him b y th e res t
Ye t c o nsc i e n ce mak es cow ards of u s all ; so
th at th e murd erer fr o m p rudenti al m oti v es
will not u nc o mm o nly ab se nt h i mself u nt il h e
.

LAW

1 89

ju dges th at th e in d ign atio n of th e vict im s

fri en ds has su f c i e ntly abat e d
N ow h e re w e see m to n d want of s oc i al
s t ruc ture an d want of l aw going togethe r as
cause an d e ffe ct T he fr i e n ds
of who m
we h ear ne ed to be o rganize d into a p oli ce
fo r ce I f w e n ow t u rn to tot e mi c s o c i ety with
it s el ab o rat e c l an s y s t e m it i s q u ite another
s to ry B loo d re venge r an ks am ong st th e for e
m o s t of the c l an sman s s o c i a l o b ligation s
Over th e wh ol e wor l d it s t an ds out b y it s e lf
as th e ty pe of a ll th at l aw m e an s fo r th e
savage Withi n th e c l a n in de e d th e ma xi m
of b lood for b loo d d o e s not hol d ; thou gh there
ma y be another kin d of pu niti ve l aw put into
forc e b y th e totem it es ag ain st a n err in g
brothe r as fo r in st a n ce if the y s l a y on e of
the ir numb er for d i s re gar d ing the e xogam i c
ru l e a n d c on s orting with a wo man who is
all o ne e sh with him But b etween c l an s of
t he same tr i be th e s y s t em of b loo d r eve nge
req u i r es s tr i c t repr i sal s acc o rdi ng to the
pr in c i p l e that s o me on e o n the other s i de
t ho u gh not n e c e ssar ily th e ac t ual murde re r
mus t di e th e d e ath T hi s i s known as the
pri n c i p l e of coll ecti ve resp o n s i b ility ; a n d on e
int ere sti n g pro b l ems re l ating
o f th e m o st
to th e ev ol u tio n of ear ly l aw i s to wor k
ou t how i ndi vi du al resp on s i b ility gr adually
de ve lop s out of c oll e ctiv e u nt il at l e n gt h,

,
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

1 90

eve n as each man d o e s so li kewise h e

su ffer s
T he c oll ectiv e m etho d of s ettling on e s
gr i e van c e s i s n at u r a l e nou gh whe n m en are
u n it e d into gr oups b o u n d togethe r b y the
c lo s e st of s e ntime nt al ti e s an d on the othe r
h an d ther e i s no c e nt ral a n d i mparti a l
authority to arb it rat e b etwee n the partie s
O n e of our c re w has b e en k ill ed b y on e of yo ur
cre w So a st an d u p ght t ak e s p l ace O f
co urse w e s hou l d li ke to get at the r ight ma n
if we c ou l d ; but fa iling that w e ar e out to
kill s o me on e in ret u rn just to t e ac h you r c re w
a l e ss o n Co mpar ati ve ly e ar ly in t he da y
howe ver it s tr ikes the savage m in d th at there
a r e d e gre e s of r esp on s i b ility For in st an ce
s o me on e h as to call the ave nging party to
gether a n d to l e ad it H e will t e n d to be a
re al b loo d re l ation so n f ather o r b r othe r
T hus h e s t an ds o ut as c hamp ion whil st th e
re st ar e in th e p o s ition of m er e s e c on ds
Co rr esp on dingly the othe r s i de will t e n d to
th rust fo rw ar d th e actual offender into the
ofce of co u nt e r ch amp io n T her e i s d i rect
evi d en ce to s how that am ongs t Aus tra li an s
E skim o a n d so o n whol e gr o ups at o n e t ime
m et in battl e b ut l at er o n w ere re p re se nt e d
b y c ho se n i n di vi dual s i n the p e rs o n s of t h ose
who were p ri n c i pal s i n the a ffai r Th us w e
arri ve at the due l Th e t ran s iti on is see n i n
,

LAW

1 91

suc h a cus to m as th at of th e P o rt Lin c ol n

b l ack fe llows T h e b rot her of the mu rd e re d
man must eng ag e the mu rd erer ; but any on e
o n eith e r s i d e who might ca r e to j oi n in the
fray was at li b erty to d o so He n c e it i s bu t
a s t e p to the fo rma l du e l as foun d fo r ins ta n ce
am ongs t the Apac he s of N o rth Ame ri ca
N ow th e l eg al du e l i s a n advan ce o n t h e
c oll e c ti v e b e a r ght if only b e c ause it b ri n g s
ho me to th e in di vi dual p erp et rato r of t h e
cri me tha t h e will h ave to an s wer fo r it
C r an z the gre at au tho rity on the E s k i m o of
G ree nl an d n aiv e ly remar ks t h at a G r ee n
l an d e r dare n ot mu rd er o r otherwi se wr o n g
anothe r s i n ce it might p o ss i b ly c os t hi m t h e
life of hi s bes t fri e n d D i d t h e G ree n l an der
kn ow th at it wo ul d p ro bab ly c o s t hi m his o wn
life his s en se of re sp on s i b ility we ma y su r
O n th e
mi sc might b e s o me wh at q ui cke n e d
othe r han d du e lling i s not a sati s fac to ry wa y
of red re ss ing the bal an c e s in ce it mere ly gi ves
the p owe rful bully an o pp o rt unity of adding a
sec o nd mu rd er to the rs t He n c e t h e o rdeal
ma rks an advan ce i n l eg al e v ol u ti on A goo d
man y Aus t rali an pe o p l e s fo r e x amp l e h ave
reac he d th e st a ge of re q ui ring th e mu rde rer
to submit to a s hower of sp e ars o r b oo me rangs
at the h an ds of th e agg ri ev e d gr o up o n th e
mut ual unders t an di n g th at th e b lood re ve nge
e n ds h ere
-

ANTHR OPOLOGY

1 92

Luc ki ly h oweve r fo r the mu rderer it o fte n

t akes ti me to b ring hi m to b oo k ; an d an gry
pass ion s are ap t in th e meanwhil e to subs i de
T h e rud er savage s are n ot so b lood t h i rs ty as
w e are ap t to i magi n e W a r has evol ved li k e
ev ery thing e l se ; and with it has e v ol v ed the
man who li kes ghting fo r its own sake So
i n p l ace of a life fo r a life c o mpen satio n

pacation as it i s t ec hn i cally te r med

c o mes to b e rec og nized as a reas o n ab l e qui d
Con s t antly w e n d cus to m at th e
p r o qu o
ha lf wa y s ta ge I f th e murderer is cau ght
s oon h e i s kill e d ; bu t if h e ca n s ta ve off th e
da y of jus ti ce h e escape s with a n e Whe n
p ri vat e p ro pe rty has dev e lo ped the s ys tem of
b loo d n e s bec o mes m o s t e l ab o rat e Am ong s t
th e I roq u oi s the mans l aye r mus t red ee m hi m
se lf fr o m death b y mean s of n o l ess th an s ixty
pres e nt s to th e i nj u red kin ; o n e to d raw t he
ax e o ut of th e wo u nd a sec on d to wi pe
th e b lood a w ay a thi rd to res to re pe ace to
th e l an d an d s o fo rth Acc o rdi n g to the c oll ee
ti ve p rin ci p l e th e c l a n sm en o n on e s i de s h are
t h e p ri ce of aton e m e nt a n d o n the other s i de
mus t t ax th emse l ves in o rd er to make it up
Sh ares a re o n a scal e p r op o rtion at e to d e g rees
of re l ation s hi p O r again fu rth e r ni ce c alcu
la t io n s a re re q u i red if it i s s o u ght to adj us t
th e g r o ss am o u nt of t he pa yment to the d e gree
of guilt He nc e it is n ot surpri s i ng that wh en
,

LAW

1 93

m o re o r l ess b arb ar o us pe o p l e suc h as t h e

Anglo S axons cam e t o re q ui re a w ritte n l aw
it s ho u l d b e a l mo s t e nti re ly take n up b y
re gula tio ns ab ou t b loo d n e s tha t h ad b e c o me
too c o mp li cat e d fo r th e pe o p l e an y lo nge r to
keep in thei r heads
So fa r we have be en c o ns i d e ri ng th e l a w o f
b lood revenge as pu re ly a n a ffai r b etwee n th e
c l ans c on c ern e d ; the re s t of t h e t ri bal pub li c
k eep ing aloof v ery muc h i n th e s tyl e of th e
An daman e se b ys t an de rs who re ti r e i nto th e
j ungl e whe n there i s a p r o spe c t of a row
But wit h th e de v e lo pme nt of a ce nt ral
au tho rity whether in the s h ape of th e ru l e of
many o r of on e th e pub li c c ont r ol of th e b loo d
f eud begin s to ass e rt it s e lf ; fo r th e good re as o n
that en dl ess ven d ett a i s a di ss ol ving fo rce
whi c h the l arger an d m o re s tab l e ty pe o f
s o ci ety ca nn ot a ffo r d to tol era te if i t is to
su rvi ve T h e following a r e a fe w in s tan ces
i ll us t r ati ve of th e t ran s itio n f ro m pri v at e to
ub
li
c
j
u
r
i
sd
i
c
tio
n
I
n
N
o
r
th
Am
er
i
ca
A
f
r
i
ca
p
an d e l s e whe re w e n d the chi e f o r chi e fs
pr onounc ing s e nt en c e but t h e c l a n o r f amil y
l e ft to carry it o ut as bes t the y ca n A gain
the kin ma y b e e nt rus t e d with the fun ctio n of
p u ni s h me nt but ob lige d to ca rry it out i n th e
wa y pre sc ri b e d b y th e autho riti e s ; as fo r
i ns tan ce i n Ab yss i n i a wh ere the n eares t
re l ation e x ecutes t he mans la yer in th e p resence
a

ANTHR OPOLO G Y

1 94

of th e king us i n g e x actly th e same kin d o f

w eap on as th at with whi c h the mu rd e r wa s
c o mmitte d O r th e right of the kin to
p u ni s h d wi n d l es to a m ere fo rm Th us in
A fgh ani s t a n the e l d ers mak e a s how of han d
ing o ve r th e c ri min a l to hi s accuse rs w h o mus t
h owever c o mp ly s t ri ctly wit h the wi s h es of
th e ass e mb ly ; whil st in S am o a th e offe n der
w as b ou n d a n d d e p o s it ed b efo r e the f am ily

as if to s ign ify that h e l a y at the ir m e rc y

a n d th e chi ef saw to the res t Fin ally the
s tat e i n th e pers on of it s e xecu ti ve of cers
b oth c o n v i ct s a n d e x ecut es
Whe n th e st at e is r ep re se nt ed b y a s ingl e
rul e r cri me t e n ds to bec o me a n offe n ce
a ga i nst
th e k i n g s peace o r in th e
l angua ge of Ro ma n l aw
a gain st hi s

maj e s ty
H e n c e forwar d the e as y go ing
s y s t e m of g etting off with a n e i s at a n e n d
a n d murd er is pu ni s h ed with the u t m o s t
st e r nn e ss In suc h a s t ate as D a hom e y in
the ol d day s of it s in d e p e n de n c e the re may
h ave bee n a goo d dea l of bar barity di sp l ay ed
in th e admi n i s tratio n of j usti ce bu t at a ny
r at e human life was n o l ess e ffe c ti ve ly pro
t e c t e d b y th e l a w th a n it was sa y i n medi aev al
E u r op e
,

T he ev ol utio n of the pu n i s hme nt of murder

a ffo r ds th e t yp i cal ins t an ce of the deve lo p
.

LAW

1 95

me nt of a l eg al san ctio n in prim it i ve s o c i ety

O th er fo rms however of the fo rc ib l e re p re s
s ion of wr ong d oing deserve a m o r e o r l e ss
pass ing noti c e
Adu lt er y i s e ve n am ongs t the ruder p e o p l es
a tr an s gre ss ion that i s re ck on e d on ly a de gre e
l e ss grave th an man s l au ght er ; e sp e c i ally as
ma ns l au ght er i s a usual c on seq u e n c e of it
q uarre l s ab out wo m e n c on stit uting on e of th e
c hie f s ou rc e s of tr oub l e in th e savage wo rl d
With a s ingl e int eresting e x c e p tion th e s t age s
in the deve lopment of the l aw aga in s t adu lt e ry
ar e e x actly the same as in the cas e al read y
e x am in e d Whol e k in s ght ab out it Th e n
du e lling i s substit ut e d T he n du e llin g gi ves
w ay to the or d e al T he n aft er th e p e n alty
has long w avere d b e tw ee n d e ath a n d a n e
n es bec om e the ru l e so long as th e k in s are
a llowe d to s ettl e th e matt er If howe ve r the
c ommu nity c omes to tak e c ogn iz an ce of the
offen ce severer measu r es e n sue The on e
n oti ceab l e differe n c e in th e two d e ve lopments
i s the followin g Wh ereas murd er is a n

offe n ce aga i n s t the c hief s maj e sty a n d as

suc h a cri min a l offe n ce adu lt ery li ke the ft
with whi c h pr im itive l aw is wo nt to ass o c i at e
i t as an o ffe n ce a ga in st pr o perty t e nds to
remai n a pu re ly c i v il a ffa ir Ka r l aw fo r
e xamp l e acc o rd ing to M ac l ean draw s t hi s
di s ti n ction ve ry c l ear ly
.

ANTHROPOLOGY

1 96

It

remains to a dd as regards adu lt ery th at

w e h ave only b ee n c on s i der ing th e
so far
pu ni s hme nt th at fa ll s on th e gu ilty ma n
T h e gu ilty wo man s f at e i s a matt er re l ating
to a d i s tin ct depart ment of p r im iti ve l a w
F am ily ju r i sd iction a s w e n d it fo r in s ta n ce
in a n adva n ce d c ommu nity suc h as an c i e nt
Ro m e mea nt th e right of the p a ter famili as
the h e a d of the hous e to subj e ct hi s fami li a
o r h ouse hol d whi c h in c l ud e d hi s wife his
c hil dren (up to a c e rt a in a ge ) an d hi s s l ave s
to suc h d o m e s ti c d i sc i p lin e as h e saw t
S uc h f am ily juri sd i c tion was m o re o r l e ss
co mp l et e ly in d e p e n d e nt of s t at e juri sd i ction ;
an d in d e ed ha s rema i ned so in E uro pe u nt i l
co mpar ati ve ly rec e nt times
Wh at light the n d o es the s tud y of pri m iti ve
s o c i ety th row o n th e rs t b e ginnings of f am ily
l aw as adm in i s t er ed b y the house fathe r
To
an s wer thi s q u e s tio n at all adeq uate ly wou l d
in vol ve th e wr iting of man y page s o n th e
ev ol utio n of the f am ily Fo r our p rese nt
purp o se all turn s on th e d i stin ction b etwee n
the matr i p ot est al an d th e pat ri p ot e st al f am ily
If th e man a n d th e woman w e re l e ft to ght
it out a lo ne the l att er d e sp it e th e s hre wi s h
sa nction th at she p o ssess e s in her tongue
mus t i n evi t ab l y b ow to the p rinc i p l e that
m ight is ri ght But as lon g as marria ge is
mat ril ocalt h at is to sa y a llow s th e wif e to
,

LA W

1 97

remain at ho me am ongst mal e defenders of

her own c l a n she ca n safe ly lord it o ver her
s t ran ge r husban d ; an d there ca n scarce ly b e
adu lt ery on her part s in ce she ca n always
o b ta in di vor ce b y s i mp ly saying G o Thi ngs
gr ow m ore c o mp li cat ed wh e n th e wife li ves
am ongs t he r husband s p e o p l e and n e v e rthe
l ess the s y st em of c ou nting desce nt favours
her s i de of th e fam ily an d not his D oes the
m e re fact th at d e sc e nt is matr ilin eal t en d to
imp ly o n the whol e th at the m other s kin t ake
a m o re ac ti ve i nt eres t i n he r an d a re m o r e
e ffec ti ve in p rot ecting he r fro m h urt whe th er
un d e served o r des erv ed ? I t is no eas y
p ro blem to settl e D r Ste i nmetz however
i n hi s i mp o rtant wo rk o n The E voluti on of
P un ishmen t (i n G e rma n ) seeks to s how tha t
un de r m othe r right i n a ll it s fo rms t ak en
toget he r th e adul teress is m o r e li ke ly to
escape with a light pe n alty o r with n on e at all
th an u nder f athe r right Wha teve r be th e
val ue of the s t ati s ti cal method that he em
p loys at an y rat e it mak e s o u t t he death
pe n alty to b e i ni c t ed i n only a t hird of his
cas e s un de r the fo rmer s ys tem b ut i n ab o ut
half under t he l att er
,

We mus t b e c o nt e nt with a mere gl an c e at

ot her types of wr o ng d oi ng w hi c h w hil s t
s oo n er o r l ater reco gni ze d b y t he la w o f the
-

AN THR OPOL O GY

1 98

c o mmunity a ffec t its mem bers i n t hei r

i nd i vi dua l capac ity The ft an d s l ander are
cases i n p oint
Am o ng s t th e ruder sav ages t here cann ot b e
muc h s te a li ng because the re is ne xt to n ot hin g
to s t e al Neverth e l ess g roups a re ap t to
q uarre l o v e r h u nti ng a n d s hing c l ai ms ;
w hil s t the d i vi s io n of the sp oil s of th e c h ase
may gi v e ri se to d i sput es whi c h call fo r th e
i n te rp o s itio n of l ead i ng men We eve n occa
s io na lly n d am ong s t Aus t r ali a n s t h e fo rma l
due l emp loyed to deci de cases of the vi ol a tio n
of pro pe rty right s N ot however un til t h e
a rt s of life h ave ad va n ced an d wealt h ha s

c re at ed th e two c l asses of h aves an d have

n ot s d oes t h e ft b ec o me a n offe n ce of t h e
rs t ma gnit ud e w hi c h th e ce nt ra l autho rity
pu ni s he s with c o rre sp o nd i ng severity
As re g ar ds s l an de r thou g h it might seem a
s light matter it mus t b e remembe red tha t t h e
savag e cann ot s t an d up fo r a m o ment ag ain s t
an adve rse pub li c o p i nio n ; so th a t to r o b
hi m of his good n ame is to t ake a wa y all th at
makes life wo rth li vin g T o s hout o ut Lo ng
n os e l S u nke n e yes ! o r S ki n an d bo n e ! usu
ally l eads to a ght i n An dama nese c ir c l es
M an info rms u s N o r again is it
as M r
c o n duciv e to peace i n Aus t rali an s oc i ety to
s i n g as follows ab ou t th e s t a yi ng p owers o f
a fe llow t ri b esman t emp o raril y ov ert ake n by
,

LAW

1 99

li q u o r :
S p i rit li k e emuas a
whi rlwin d pursues l ay s viol ent hol d o n
t rav e lling un c l e of min e (t hi s b eing par

l
de
r
i
s
i
ve
ti
red
o
u
t
wit
h
f
a
tig
ue
i
c
u
l
ar
t
)
y

thr ows hi ms e lf d o wn h e l p l ess

Am ongs t
m o re advan ced peo p l es the re fo re s l an d er
an d abuse a re s t ernly c h ecked Th e y c o n
st it ut e a g ro un d fo r a c i vil ac tio n i n Ka r l aw ;
whi ls t w e eve n he a r of a n Afri ca n t ri be the
B a Ngin d o who rej oi ce i n th e spec i a l ins t it u
tio n of a peace make r who se bus i ness is to
c o mp o se t ro ub l es ari s ing f ro m thi s v exa tio us
s o urce
E uro pean

Le t us no w t urn to an other c l ass of offe n ces

such as fr o m th e rs t are reg ard e d as so
prej ud ic i al to th e pub li c int ere s t th at th e
c o mmunity as a whol e mus t fo rc i b ly put t hem
,

C ases of wh at ma y be termed milita ry

di sc i p lin e fall un d er thi s head E ven whe n
the fun ctio n s of th e c o mman de r are un d e
a n a ffai r of arm e d
v e lo p e d a n d w a r is s till

m o bs s hi rking a fo rm of c ri me whi c h to
d o j us ti ce to pri miti v e s oc i ety is rarei s
pro mp tly a nd e ffe c ti ve ly rese nt e d b y th e hos t
Am ongs t Am e ri ca n t ri bes th e c owa rd s a r ms
a re taken awa y fro m hi m ; h e is made to ea t
with the d ogs ; o r pe rhaps a s howe r of a rr ow s

causes hi m to
the g auntl et
The
run
.

AN THROPO L OGY

200

t rai to r on the oth er ha n d is i n e vi ta b l y slain

witho ut merc yti ed to a t ree an d S hot o r it
may be lite rall y hacked to p i e ces Nat u rally
with th e ev ol ution of wa r these S p ontane ous
o u t bu rs ts of wrath an d di s gus t gi ve w ay to a
m o re fo rmal s ys t em of pe n alti es T o t race
o u t thi s deve lo pme nt fully howe ve r wo ul d
e ntail a l e ngthy d i s qu i s itio n on the g r owt h of
ki n gs hi p i n on e of its m os t i mp o rta nt aspect s
I f c o ns ta nt ghting t u rn s the t ri be into s o me
thi ng li ke a s ta n di ng arm y the p o s itio n of
w ar lord as fo r i ns t a n c e am ongs t th e ! ul us
is b ou n d to b ec o me b ot h p er ma n e nt a n d of
all emb rac i ng au tho rity T here is however
an othe r s i de to t he hi s to ry of ki ngshi p as th e
followi n g c o n s i deration s will he l p to mak e
c l e ar
Pub li c sa fety is c on s t rued b y th e rude r
t ype of ma n not so muc h i n t e rms of freed o m
f ro m p hys i ca l danger un l ess suc h a danger
th e on s e t of a nothe r t ri be fo r i n s t an ce is

actually i mm in e nt a s in t e rms of fr eed o m

f r o m S p i rit ual o r m y s ti c danger Th e fear of
ill l uck in othe r wo rds is the b ogy th a t
haun ts hi m night a n d da y He n ce his li f e
is e nm e s h ed as Dr F ra z er pu ts it i n a n e t
wo rk o f tab oo s A tab oo is a nyt hi ng th a t
o n e mus t not d o l es t ill l uck b e fall An d ill
l uc k i s cat c hi n g li ke an infe ctious d i s e ase
If m y n e xt d oo r n eighb o ur brea k s a ta b o o
,

LA W
bri ngs d own a vi s it ati o n o n hi ms el f
dep end up o n it s o me of it s u n p l easan t c o n se
s will be pass e d o n to m e a n d m i n e
n
e
u
e
c
q
Hen ce if s o me o ne ha s c o mmitt e d a n ac t th at
i s not me re ly a c ri me but a sin it is every on e s
c on c ern to wi p e o u t that sin ; whi c h is usually
d on e b y wi p ing o ut th e Si nner Mo bb i s h
fe e li ng alwa y s in c li nes to viol ence I n t h e
m ob as a F re n c h ps yc hologi s t has sai d i d e as
neut raliz e eac h ot her b ut em otion s aggran diz e
each othe r Now war fe e li ng is a m o bb i s h
ex peri ence that I dare say s o m e of m y readers
have t ast e d ; an d we h av e see n h ow it l eads
th e un o rganize d l ev y of a savag e t ri be to mak e
s h o rt wo rk of th e c owa r d an d t rai to r Bu t
war feve r is a mil d va ri ety of m o bb i s h e x
e rie n ce as c o mpa red with pan i c i n a n y fo rm
p
a n d with supe rs titious pani c m os t of all
B eing atta cked i n th e da rk as it were ca uses
th e s t ronge s t to lo se th ei r heads
He n ce it i s n ot h ar d to un d e rs ta n d how it
c om es ab o ut th at the viol ato r of a tab oo is
t he cent ra l obj e c t of c o mmu n a l v engea n ce i n
pri miti ve s oc i ety Th e m o s t s t ri king in s ta n ce
of suc h a t ab oo breake r i s th e man o r wo ma n
who di sregards the prohi b itio n ag ai ns t marri
ag e wi thi n the ki nin oth er wo rds vi ol at es
th e l a w of e xog am y T o be thus guilty of
in ces t is to i n c it e i n t h e c o mmu nity a t l a rg e
a h o rro r w hic h v e nti ng it se l f i n w ha t Ba ge h ot
and

AN THR OPOLO GY

202

c all s a wi l d s p asm of wil d justi ce i nvol v es

c ertai n deat h fo r th e offe nd er T o in terfe re
wit h a grav e to p ry into fo rb i dd en m ys t e ri es
to e a t fo r b i dd en m e a ts a n d so on a re fu rth er
e x amp l es of t ran s gress io n s li ab l e to b e t hus
p u ni s h ed
F alling un de r th e s ame gene ral ca te go ry o f
thou gh d i s ti n ct fro m th e viol atio n of
Si n
tab oo is wi t c hc raft Thi s c o ns i s ts i n t ra fc k
ing o r at an y rat e i n bei ng supp osed to
t r af c wit h p owers of evil fo r s i ni s ter an d
an ti s o c i al e nds W e ha ve only to rememb er
h ow E n gl an d i n th e seve nt ee nt h ce ntu ry
c o u l d wo rk it s e lf up into a f renzy o n thi s
acc ou nt to rea liz e how i n a n A fri can s oc i e ty
eve n of th e be tt e r s o rt the smelling ou t
an d des t roying of a witc h ma y eas ily beco me
a ge n eral pan acea fo r q ui etin g t he pu b li c
nerves
Wh e n c ri m e s an d s i ns a ffai rs of s tat e a n d
a ff ai rs of chu rc h th us overl ap an d c o mmingl e
in p ri miti ve j u ri sprude n ce it i s no won der if
the fu n c tio n s of tho se who admi ni s ter the l a w
s hou l d te n d to d i sp l a y a si mil ar fus io n of
aspec t s T he c hi e f o r king has a di vin e

a n d i s hi ms e lf in on e o r anothe r sen se
ri ght
di vin e even whil s t he ta ke s th e l ead i n re gard
to all suc h matters as are p ri marily s e cul a r
T he ea rli es t writt en c o d e s suc h as the Mosai c
B oo ks of th e La w wit h th ei r s t r ange med l e y
,

LAW

203

o f inj uncti o ns con ce rning t hings pro fa n e an d

sacred acc ura te ly reec t th e politi c o reli gi o us
charac ter of all p ri mi ti v e autho rity
In deed it is only b y an e ffort of abs t rac tio n
th at th e present c hap te r has been c onn ed
to th e subj e c t of l aw as di s tingui s hed fro m
th e subjec t of the followi n g c hap te r n ame ly
re ligion An y cri me as n ot ab ly murd e r a n d
eve n u n d er ce rt ain ci rcums t an ces the ft is
ap t to be vi ewe d b y the ruder pe o p l es either
as a vi ol atio n of t ab oo
o r as s o me c lo se ly
re l at ed fo rm of sin Na y withi n th e li mits of
the c l an l e g al puni s h men t ca n scar ce ly be sai d
to be i n the o ry p ossi b l e ; th e sac red ness of th e
b lood ti e le n d ing to a ny c h as ti seme nt th at
ma y b e i ni ct e d o n an erri ng ki nsman th e
pu rely religio us c o mp l e xio n of a sac ri ce an
ac t of ex c o mmu ni c ation a pe nan ce o r what
n ot Th us al m os t i nse n s i b ly w e are l ed on to
t he subj ect of re ligion fro m th e s t ud y of th e

l eg al san c tion ; thi s very term san ction

whi ch i s d eri ve d fro m Ro man l a w p oi nting i n
th e same d i rec tion S i n ce it o rigin ally s tood
fo r th e cu rse whi c h was appe nded in o rder to
secure th e invi ol ab ility of a l eg al e nact me nt
-

AN THR O PO LOGY

204

CHAPTE R V III
R E LI GI ON

H o w ca n th ere b e

of Religi on s ?
on c e o bj e c ted a Fre n c se n ato r
Fo r e ith er
on e beli eve s i n a religion an d th en eve ryt hi ng
in it appears n at ural ; or on e d oes n ot be li eve
in it a n d t he n ever ythi ng in i t ap p ears
absu r d l
T hi s was sai d s o me thi rty y ears a go whe n
i t was a q ues tio n of fou n ding th e n ow f am ous
c h air of the Ge n er al Hi sto ry of Religio n s at
the Coll eg e de Fr an ce At th at ti me suc h
c h ai rs w er e al m o s t u nh e ard of N ow a da ys
th e m o r e imp o rt an t u n i ver s iti es of th e wo rl d
t o rec k o n th em al o n e ca n S how at l eas t
l Iist o ry

g
i

'

Wh at is th e S i gni can ce of thi s c h an ge

It
mean s th at th e par o chi al vi e w of re ligi on i s
o u t of dat e T h e religio us man has to b e a
man of th e wo rl d a man of th e wi de r wo rl d
a n anthr o p ologi s t H e has to rec ogniz e th at
there i s a s oul o f t ruth in ot her religi o n s
b es i des his own
It will b e rep l i e dan d I ful ly real i ze th e
f orce of the o bjec t i onth at hi story and
t h ere f ore anthr o p ology has n othin g to d o
With trut h o r f al se h oodin a wo rd wit h v al ue
.

RE L I G ION

205

I n s tri c t the ory thi s i s so It s b us in ess is to

desc r i b e a n d gen er aliz e f act ; an d re ligion fr o m
r s t to l as t m ight be pu r e ill us ion o r even
d el us ion a n d it woul d be f ac t n on e th e l ess o n
th at acc o u nt
At the sam e time be in g me n w e all n d i t
h ar d n ay imp o ss i b l e to s t ud y man kin d im
pa rti ally Wh e n w e s ay th at w e ar e going to
p l ay th e hi s to ri an o r th e anthr o p ologi s t a n d
to put as i d e for th e ti me be ing all c on s i der a
tion of the m or al of the s tor y w e S ee k to un fol d
w e ar e m ere ly u n d e rt aking to be a s f ai r all
r oun d as we can Willy n illy howeve r w e
are su r e to c olo ur o ur hi sto ry to th e e xt e nt
at a ny r at e of t aking a ho p ef ul o r a gloo m y
vi ew of man s pas t ac hi e ve m e nt s a s he aring
o n hi s p res e nt c ondi tion an d hi s fu t u r e
pr o sp ect s
In th e same w ay then I d o n ot beli eve
th at w e can h el p thin king to o u r sel ves a ll th e
ti m e wh e n w e are t r ac ing o ut th e hi s to ry of
wor l d r eligion e ith e r th at ther e i s n ot hi n g
in it at all o r th at t h er e i s s o mething in

it wh at e ve r form it as sum e an d wh ethe r it

hol d it se lf to be reve al e d (as it al m o s t alw ay s
d o e s ) o r n ot O n th e l att er est i mat e of
religion h owe ver it i s s till q u it e po ss i b l e to
j ud g e th at on e fo rm of re ligi o n i s innitel y
hi gh er an d b ett e r th an an oth e r Religi on
reg arde d hi s to rically i s in e vol ut i on Th e
.

AN THR OPO L O GY

206

b es t f orm o f religion th at w e c an att ain to is

ine v it ab ly th e bes t for us ; but as a worse
form p re c e ded it s o a bett er fo rm w e mus t
allow a n d even d e s i r e may follow N ow
frank ly I am on e of tho se who t ake t h e m o r e
s y mpathe ti c vi e w of hi s tor i cal re ligio n ; an d
I s ay s o at on ce in case m y int e rp r et ation of
th e f ac t s t urn o u t to b e c oloured b y thi s
sangu i n e assum ptio n
Mo re o ver I thi nk t h at w e may eas ily
e x agger at e th e d iffe re n c e s i n cu lt u r e an d
m o re espec i ally in religious in s ight an d u n der
s t an din g th at e xi s t betwee n the ruder pe o p l es
a n d o urs el ves I n vi ew of ou r c o mm o n ho pe
an d o ur c omm on w ant of k n owl ed ge I wo ul d
rath er i dentify religion wi th a g en er al s t ri vi n g
of h uman it y than with th e e x c l us i ve p r e
t en s io n of an y on e p e o p l e or s ec t Who
kn ows for i n s t an ce th e n al t ruth ab ou t
wh at h appen s to th e s oul at death ? I am
q u it e read y to adm it i n deed th at s ome of
us can see a littl e f a rth er i n to a br i ck w all
th an say Nean derth al man Ye t whe n I
n d f act s th at appear to p r o ve th at Nean der
th al man bur i ed hi s d e ad wit h cer em o n y
a n d to th e b es t of hi s mean s e q ui pped th em
f or a fut ure life I o pe nly c on fess th at I wo ul d
rath er s t ret c h o ut a h an d acr o ss the ages an d
gree t h i m as m y br ot her an d f ellow pilgri m
t han t hr ow i n m y lot wit h th e se l f r ight e o u s
,

RE LI G ION

2 07

fol k who se e m to i ma gin e thi s world an d th e

ne xt to h ave b e e n c re at e d for the i r ex c l us i ve
b en e t
N ow th e t r oub l e with anthr o p ologi st s is to
n d a wor ki ng d e nition of re ligion on whi c h
the y can a gree Chr i s ti anity i s r eligion all
woul d h ave to admit A g ain M a ho me dan ism
i s religion fo r all a nthr o p ologi ca l pu r p o s e s
But whe n a n ak e d savage da n c e s hi s go d
whe n th e sp ok en part of th e rit e s i mp ly c o n
s i s t s as am ong st th e s o uth e ast e m Au st r a
li an s in s ho uting D a ra mulu n ! D a ra mul u n
(th e go d s n ame ) s o th at w e cannot b e su r e
wheth er th e dan cer s are in dul ging in a p r ay e r
o r in an in cant atio n i s th at re ligion
Or
wo rse still supp o se th at n o s ort of p er s on al
go d can be di sc o ver e d at th e back of th e
p e rfo rman ce w hi c h c on s i s t s l et us sa y as
am ongs t th e c ent r a l Aus t r ali an s in s ol e mnl y
rubb ing a bull r o are r on th e s to mac h s o that
it s m y s ti c vi rt ues ma y caus e th e man to

b e c o me goo d an d gl ad an d s t r ong
(for th at i s hi s own w a y of d e sc r i b ing th e
sp ir it ual e ffe ct s ) is th at r e ligion in any
s en se th at can link it hi s tori c al ly with sa y
th e Chri sti an ty p e of r eligion
N o say s o me th e se low c l ass deal ings wit h
the u n se e n are magi c not re ligio n T he rude
fol k i n q u e s tion d o not go th e right w a y ab ou t
pu tting thems e l ves i nto to uc h with t he uns ee n
.

ANTHROPOLO GY

208

Th e y try to p u t pressure o n th e u n see n to

,

c o nt r ol it T hey ou ght to c o n c ili at e it b y

b owi ng to it s will T he i r m et h o ds may be
earne s t but the y ar e not p r op iti atory T here
My will be d o n e
ab out it
is too muc h
all
Unfo rtu n at e ly two can p l ay at thi s game of
T he m or e u n s ympatheti c
e tc pane d e n ition
ty pe of hi s to ri an re l entl e ss ly pursu ing the
c l ue a fforded b y thi s di stin ction b e twe e n
c ontr ol an d c o n c ili atio n pr ofe ss e s hi ms e l f
ab l e to d i sc o ver p l e nty of magi c even in the
T h e r it e as suc h
hi gh er fo rms of re ligion
say c hurchgoing as such appears to be
reck on ed b y s o m e of the d e v ou t as not without

a cert ain int rin s i c e ffi cac y

Very we ll say s
thi s sc hool
the n a go o d deal of a ver age

C hri s ti an ity i s magi c

My own V i e w th e n i s th at t hi s d i s tin ctio n
will onl y l e ad us into t r oub l e A n d to m y
m in d it adds to the c onfus io n if it be fu rther
l a i d d own as s ome wou l d d o th at thi s s ort
of d e aling with th e u n see n whi c h on the f ac e
of it a nd acc o r d i n g to o ur n otion s s e ems
rat her mec h an i cal (be i n g as it we re a n e ffo rt
to get a hol d o n s o me hi dde n fo r c e ) i s so far
f ro m be ing ak i n to re ligion th at it s t rue
T h e n atural
af n ity i s with n at ura l sc i e n ce
sc i enc e of to day I q u it e adm it has i n part
e v ol ve d out o f e xp er iment s with t he occult ;
,

RE L I G ION

209

just as l aw n e art a nd al m os t every ot he r

o ne of o ur higher in teres t s have lik ewi se do ne
B ut just so long an d so f ar as it was occult
sc i en ce I wou l d ma int a in it was n ot n atural
sc i ence at a ll b u t as it w ere rather supe r
n atur al S c i e n ce B es i des muc h of our n a tu r al
sc i e n ce has grown up ou t of s traightfo rw ard
att emp ts to carry o ut mec h an i ca l wo rk o n
i ndus t ri al li n es to sme lt ir o n l et us sa y ;
but s in ce the n as now there were numero us
trade secret s a n atm o sp here of m y st ery was
apt to surr ou nd t he un dertak i ng whi c h hel ped
to gi ve it th e ai r of a t raf cking with t he
un c anny But b e cause sc i e n ce then as eve n
n ow s o me times was thou ght b y the ign orant
to b e s o me how c lo se l y ass oc i ated wit h a ll t he
p owers o f e vil it d oes not fo llow th at then o r
n ow t he t rue af nit y of sc i e nce mus t be with
t h e de vil
M agi c an d re ligio n acc o rd ing to t h e vi e w I
wo ul d sup p o rt b elo ng to t he same d e part ment
of huma n e x peri e nceo n e of th e t wo great
depart me nt s th e two wo r l ds o ne m ight al m o st
call them i nto whi c h huma n e x p e ri e n ce
th ro u ghout its whol e hi s to ry has bee n d i vi ded
T ogether the y be lon g to th e su p e m o rmal
wor l d the zit re gio n of e xperi e n ce the regi o n
of me nt al twilight
Magi c I take to in c l ude all b ad way s a n d
of d ealing wi t h t he
re ligi o n all g oo d wa ys
,

ANTHRO P O LO G Y

21 0
su p e

m o rmalbad a n d goo d of co urse

,

w e ma y h appe n to j u dge th em bu t

n o t as

the
s oc i ety c on cern ed judges them So meti mes
i n dee d th e pe o p l e themse l ves h ard ly know
wh ere to draw th e lin e betw ee n th e two ; a n d
in th at case th e a nthro p ologi st ca nnot w e ll
d o it for th em But ever y pri m iti ve s oc i et y
thinks wit c h craft bad Wit c h craft c on s i s t s
in l ea gu ing on ese lf with su p e m o rmal p ow ers
of ev il in o rder to e ffect se l s h a n d a nti s oc i al
e n ds Wit c h craft th e n i s ge nu in e magi c
b l ack magi c of th e dev il s c olour O n th e
oth er h an d e ver y pr i m iti ve s o c i ety al s o
d i s tingu i s h es cert a in sal ut ary w ay s of dealing
with su p e m o rmal p ow ers All these w a y s
take n together c on s tit ut e re ligion Fo r t h e
res t th ere will a lw ay s be a mass of m o re o r
l ess evap orat ed be li e f s going with practi ces
th at h ave m o re o r l e ss lo st the i r hol d on
th e c ommu n ity
T h ese be long to the fol k
lo re whi c h ever y pe o p l e has Un der thi s o r
s o me c lo se ly re l at ed h ead mus t al s o be se t
d o wn th e mass of mere won der t al es due
to th e p l a y of fan c y a n d withou t d i rect
bear ing on th e ser iou s pursu it s of life
T h e wo rl d to whi c h n e ither ma gi c no r
re ligion belongs but to whi c h p hy s i cal sc i e n ce
th e knowl ed ge of how to deal mec h ani ca lly
with mat eri al thing s d oes belong wholly is
the wor kad ay w o rl d t h e region o f no rmal
,

as

RE LI G I O N

21 1

co mm on p l ace cal cu l ab l e h appe nings With

o ur t e l esco pes a n d m i cro s c o pes w e see farther
a n d deeper in to thing s th a n d o es th e sava ge
Wh at h e
Y e t th e savag e h as e x ce ll e nt e yes
sees h e sees Con se q ue ntly w e must duly
allow for th e fac t th at there i s for him as

we ll as fo r us a n at ural that is to say

no rmal an d workada y wo rl d ; eve n thou gh
it be far n arr ower in e xt e nt th an o urs T h e
savage is not perpe tually sp oo k h au nt ed O n
th e c ontrary wh e n h e i s e ngaged on th e da ily
ro u n d an d all i s going w ell h e i s as care l ess
an d h app y as a c hil d
Bu t savage lif e h as fe w safe guards C ri s i s
i s a fre q ue nt if int erm itt e nt e l ement in it
Hu nger s i ck n ess an d w ar are e x amp l es of
cri s i s B i rth a n d death are cri ses M arri age
i s usually re garded b y humanity as a cri s i s
So i s initi ati o n th e tur ning p oint in on e s
career whe n on e s t eps o ut into th e worl d of
me n Now wh at in terms of min d d o es
cri s i s mea n ? It mea n s th at on e i s at on e s
wit s e n d ; th at th e o rdin ary a n d e x pected
h as bee n rep l aced b y th e e xt r ao rd in ary an d
u n e x pect ed ; th at w e are pr o jec ted into th e
wo rl d of th e u n known A n d in th at worl d
of th e u nk nown w e must m i serab ly ab i de
u ntil s ome how c on de n ce i s res to red
Ps y ch olo gi cally re garded t he n t he fu n c ti on
of re ligion i s to restore me n s c onde n ce whe n
.

ANTHRO POLOG Y

21 2

it i s s h ake n b y cri s i s Me n d o not see k cri si s ;

the y wo u l d alw ay s ru n a w a y fro m it if th e y
c ou l d C ri s i s seeks th em ; a n d wh ereas th e
feeb l er fol k are read y to succumb th e b ol der
sp irit s face it R e ligion i s th e f ac ing o f th e
u n known It i s th e c o urage in it th at bri n gs
l
c om fo rt
We must go o n h ow ever to con s i der re ligi on
s oc iologi cally A religion i s th e e ffo rt to face
cri s i s so f ar as th at e ffort i s orga ni ze d b y
s o c i ety in s o me parti cu l ar w ay A religion is
c ongre g ation al th at i s to sa y ser ves the e n ds
of a number of pers on s s imu lt a n e ous ly It is
t rad ition al th at i s to say h as served th e e n ds
of success i ve ge n eration s of pers on s T h ere
fore inevit ab ly it ha s st a n dard ized a method
It in vol ves a r outin e a r it ual Al s o it in vol ves
s ome s o rt of c on ve ntiona l d oct rin e whi c h is
as it were th e inn er s i de o f th e ritualit s
lining
N ow in wh at follow s I s h all in s i s t in th e rs t
in st a n ce on thi s s oc iologi ca l s i de o f re ligion
Fo r a nthr op ologi cal p urp oses it is th e s ou n der
p l an
W e mus t a ltogeth er esc h e w th at
R o b in s on C rus o e method w hi c h c ons i s t s in
rec on struc tin g th e creed of a s olit ary sa vage
.

c o urage i nvolve d in all live relig i on normally

c oe xis ts wi th a ce rtain mod e s t o r h umi li ty
I ha ve tri ed
y
The

thi s po in t else wh e re in
The B ir th of Humilit y

to

w o rk

o ut

h ort

a s

st udy e nt tle d

RE LI G ION

21 8

who is supp o sed to evol ve his re ligion out of his

inn er c onsc ious n ess
T he m ou nt ain frown s
th ere fore it is alive
I m o ve ab out in m y
dr eams whil s t m y b od y li es st ill th e re fo re I

have a so ul
an d s o on
N o d ou b t s ome
b od y h ad to thin k the s e thin gs fo r the y are
thou ght s B ut h e d i d not t hi nk them at
any rate di d n o t thi n k them o ut alon e Me n
thou ght them o ut t o gether ; n ay whol e ages
o f li ving an d think ing togeth er h ave gon e to
make them wh at the y are So a s oc i al method
is needed to e xp l a in them
T he re ligion of a savage is part of hi s custom ;
n ay rather it is hi s whol e custo m s o f ar as it

appears sacred so far as it coer c es him b y

w ay of his ima gin ation Betwee n him an d
th e u nknown st an ds n o thin g but hi s cust o m
It i s his all in all hi s st an d b y his faith an d
hi s hope B e ing thus the s ol e s ource of hi s
conde nce his custom so f ar as hi s ima gin ati o n

pl ay s ab ou t it beco mes hi s lu ck
We may
s a y th at any a n d every custo m in s o f ar as it
is re g arded as l uck y is a re li gi o us rite
He n ce the c on servatism inh e re nt in re ligion

Nothing say s R o berts on S mith

app e al s
so st rongly as re ligion to th e con serva ti ve

T h e his to ry of religion on c e
in stin ct s
excl aime d Dr Frazer
i s a long attemp t t o
re c on c il e o ld cu s to m with n e w reaso n to n d

At rst
a soun d the o ry fo r a bsur d p racti ce
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

21 4

s ight on e is ap t to see nothing but th e

abs urd iti es in savage cu sto m a n d re li gion
Aft er all th ese are wh at s tr i ke us m o st
be ing th e cur io s ity hu nt ers th at w e all are
But savag e custo m a n d re ligion must be
t ake n as a whol e th e bad s i de with the
goo d
Of c o urse if w e h ave to d o with
a pri miti ve s o c ie ty on th e d own gradea n d

ver y f e w that h ave bee n c ivili za de d as

J ohn S tuart Mill t erms it at the h a n ds of
th e whit e ma n are not on th e d o wn grade
it s d i s or ga niz ed a n d debased cus to m no
longer s e rves a v it al fu n ction B ut a healthy
s o c i e ty i s b ou n d in a who l esal e w ay to
h ave a h ealthy custo m T hou gh it may go
ab ou t th e b u s in ess in a q ueer a n d r ou n dab ou t
fas hion it mus t hit off th e ge n eral re q u i re
me nt s of th e s it uation T h ere fo re I s h all not
w as t e ti me as I m ight eas ily d o in p ilin g

up in s t an ces of ou tl an d i s h
supers tition s
wh ethe r ho rri bl e an d d i s gustin g fro m o ur
m ore advan ced p oint of vi e w o r mere ly droll
a n d s illy O n th e c ont rary I w ou l d rather
make it m y working assump tion th at with
a ll it s appare nt draw backs the re ligion o f a
human s oc ie ty if t he l att er be a going c on ce rn
is alw ay s s omething to be respec ted
I n c on s i dering however the re l ation o f
re ligion to custom w e are met b y th e ap pare n t

Do
difcu lty that wh ereas cust om imp l i es
.

RE LI G ION

21 5

t he

p re v ai lin g not e of primi tiv e re li gion wou l d

seem rath er to c on s i s t in
D o not
But
th ere i s really no antagoni sm between th em
As the ol d Greek pro verb
o n thi s acc o unt
Th ere i s only on e w a y of going right
has it

bu t there are innit e w ay s of go ing wr ong

Hen ce a ni ce o bservan ce of cu s to m of itse lf
in vol ves e ndl ess tab oo s Sin ce a gi ve n lin e of
c on duct i s l u ck y the n thi s o r th at alt ern ati ve
c ou rse of be h avio ur mus t be unl uck y Th ere
i s j us t thi s differe n ce betw ee n p o s iti ve cus to ms
o r rites whi c h cause s omething to be d on e an d
n eg ati ve c us to ms o r rites whi c h cause s o me
thing to be l e ft un don e that th e l att er appeal
m o re ex cl us i ve ly to th e i ma gin ation fo r th ei r
san c tion an d are there fo re m o re c on sp i cuo us ly
an d di rectly a part of re ligi o n
Why s ho ul d

I d o thi s
i s a ns wered we ll nigh su ic ie n t ly
b y sa ying Beca us e it i s th e cus to m because

it i s right
It seems h ard ly n ece s sar y to add

Beca u se it will bring l uck

Why
B ut
shoul d I not d o s o mething e l s e in s tead
mee ts in th e pri mi ti ve s o ci e ty with th e
in vari ab l e an s w er Becaus e if yo u d o s ome

thing awfu l will h app e n to us all

Wh at
preci se s h ape th e ill l uck will take n eed not
b e sp e c i ed
Th e sugges tion rathe r gain s th an
lo se s b y t he in de ni te n es s of i ts appeal to th e
i ma g in ation
.

ANTHR OPOLOGY

21 6

cl early the di ffe ren ce

be twee n n eg ati ve an d p o s iti ve types of cus to m
as ass o c i a ted with re ligion l e t us e x amin e in
s o me det ail an e x amp l e of each I t will be
w e ll to se l ect o ur cases fro m am ongs t those t hat
s how th e cu s to m an d th e re ligion to be q uite
inseparabl eto be in s ho rt b ut t wo aspe cts
of o n e a n d th e same fact Now nothing co ul d
b e m o re c o mm on p l ace a n d secu l ar a cus to m
th an th at of provi ding fo r on e s d inn er Ye t
fo r pri miti v e s oc i e ty thi s cus to m te n ds to b e
a rit e whi c h ma y
however
li ke wi se a rite
be mainly n e gati ve an d pre c aution ary o r
mainly p o s iti ve an d prac ti cal in ch arac ter as
w e s h all now se e
Th e T o das so w e ll descri bed b y D r Ri v ers
are a small co mmu nity l ess th an a tho usan d
all tol d who h ave reti red o ut of th e s t ress of
th e wo rl d into th e fas tn esses of th e Nilgi ri
Hill s in s ou th ern I n d i a wh ere the y spe n d a
saf e b u t dec i dedly li s tl ess life Th e y are in a
bac kw at er a n d are li ke ly to remain there At
any rat e th e i r re ligion i s not suc h as to ma k e
th em m o re e nterpri s ing Go ds th e y may be
sai d to have non e The bare n ames of certa in
de iti es of t he hill to ps are re t ain ed but whe ther
th ese w ere on ce th e hono ured gods of th e
T odas o r as s o me think thos e of a fo rmer
race certa in it is th at th ere i s m o re s h ad ow
th an subs ta n c e ab o u t them now Th e real
To un de rs t an d m o re

RE LIGION

21 7

re li gi on o f the p eo p l e ce n t res round a dairy

ritual F ro m a prac ti cal an d ec ono mi c point
of vi e w th e wo rk of th e dai ry c on s i s ts in co n
verting th e mil k of the i r bu ffaloes into t he
bu tter an d b utt e rn ulk whi c h c ons titu te t hei r
s tap l e di et Fro m a re ligious po int o f vi ew
it cons i s ts in c on ver ting s o mething t h e y dare
not eat into s o me thing th e y can eat
Ma ny thou gh not all of th e i r bu ff alo es are
sacred an d th ei r mil k ma y no t be dru nk
T h e reas on why it may not be drunk a nth ro p o
lo gists may cas t ab o u t to d i sc over bu t t h e
T odas themse l ves d o not know All th at the y
know an d are c on cern ed to know i s that
t hings woul d so me how all go w r ong if any o ne
w ere fooli s h e nou gh t o c o mm it suc h a sin
So in th e T oda t emp l e whi c h i s a dai ry th e
T oda pri est who i s th e dai ryman se ts abo u t
re n dering th e sacred pro duct s h armles s Th e
dai ry h as two c ompart me nt so ne sacred t he
oth er profan e I n th e rst are s to red th e
sac red vesse l s into whi c h th e mi lk i s p l ac ed
wh e n it co mes fro m th e bu ffaloes an d in whi c h
it is turn ed into bu tter an d butt ermil k wit h
th e h e l p of s o me of th e previous bre w thi s
h aving mea nwhil e bee n pu t b y in a n espec i ally
sacred ves se l In th e sec on d c ompart me nt are
profan e vesse l s d e stin ed to rece i ve th e butt er
an d butt erm il k a ft er the y h ave bee n care fully
tr ansferre d fr o m th e sacred vessels with the
.

ANTHR OP O LOGY

21 8

hel p o f an intermed iary vesse l wh i ch s tand s

e x actly on th e lin e be twee n th e two c ompart
me nt s T his t ran s fere n ce be ing carr ied o ut
to the acc ompa nime nt of all s o rt s o f revere nti al
gest ures a n d utt eran ces secures suc h a pr o
fa n at io n of th e sacred sub st an ce as is witho ut
the evil c on se q ue n ces th at wou l d oth erwi se
be e nt a il ed Thu s th e r itual i s esse ntially
precaution ar y A t ab oo is th e hing e of th e
whol e a ffa ir
A n d th e t e n de n c y of suc h a n e g a ti ve type
of re ligion i s to p il e precaution s on precaution s
Thus th e da i r yman in o rd e r to be e qual to hi s
sacred of ce mus t o bserve t ab oo s witho ut
He mu st be celi bat e He mus t av oi d
an d
all c ont act with th e dead He i s lim it ed to
cert a in k in ds of foo d ; whi ch m ore o ver mus t
be prepared in a cert ain w ay an d c on sumed
in a cert a in p l ace Hi s dr in k a ga in is a
spec i al m il k whi c h mus t be p oured o ut with
prescri bed f o rmu l as He i s in access i b l e to
o rd in ary fol k save on cert a in day s an d in
cert ain w ay s th e i r m o de of appr o ac h the ir
sal ut ation s hi s gree ting in rep ly be ing all
re gu l at ed with th e u t m o st ni cety He ca n
only w ear a S pec i al garb He mus t n ever cut
Hi s n ail s must be su ffered to gr ow
hl S h a i r
long An d so on an d s o fo rth S uc h d i s
ab iliti es in deed are wont to c ircumscri be th e
lif e o f all sacred pers on s a n d ca n be mat c he d
,

RE L IGION

21 9

fro m e very part of th e worl d B ut the y may

fa irly be c it ed h ere as h e l p ing to ll in the
p i ct ure of wh at I h ave call ed th e precaution ary
o r neg ati ve type of religio u s r it ual
Fu rth er th ere i s s omethi ng r ott e n in the
st at e of T o da re ligion T h e dair yme n s t ruck
Dr R i vers as very s lo ve nly in th e perfo rm
an ce of th e i r du ti es as we ll as va gue an d
in accurat e in th e i r acc ou nt s of wh at ou ght to
be d on e I n deed it was h ard to n d pers ons
willing to u n dert ake th e o f ce R it ual duti es
in vol ving u n c o m fo rt ab l e t ab oo s w ere ap t t o
be thru st on you ng st ers T h e you ngst ers
being you ngs t ers wou l d pr obab ly v iol at e th e
t ab oo s ; b ut anyw ay th at w as the i r look o ut
Fr om evas ion s to ction s i s bu t a s t ep He n ce
w he n an u n c l ean pers on appro ach ed th e dai ry
man th e l at ter woul d s i mp ly pret e n d not to
Or t he ru l e th at h e mu st not e nt er a
see him
hut if wome n were within wo u l d be c i rcum
ve nt ed b y s i mp ly rem o ving fr om th e d we llin g
th e three emb l ems of woma nhoo d th e p oun der
th e s i eve an d th e sw eeper ; wh ereup on hi s

f ace w as saved
N ow wherefore all thi s
l ack of ear n estness
Dr R i vers thin ks th at
too muc h r it ual w as th e reas o n I agree ; but
wo ul d ve nt ure to add
too much n e gati ve

rit ual
A reli gion that i s all d od ging must
pro du ce a s neak ing kin d of wo rs hi pper
No w l et us t ur n t o an other t y pe o f primitive
.

AN THR O PO L O GY

2 20

re ligion th at i s e q ually i de ntied with th e food

quest but alli ed to it s p o s iti ve a n d acti ve
M essrs
fun ctions whi c h it seeks to h e l p o u t
S pe n cer a n d G ill e n h ave gi ve n u s a m o st
m inut e acc ou nt of cert ain ceremoni es of th e
Aru nt a a pe o p l e of ce nt ral Aust rali a Th ese
cerem oni es th e y h ave n amed I n tichzuma and
t he n ame wil l pro bab ly s ti ck thou gh there i s
reas on to be li eve th at the n ati ve word fo r them
T he i r purp o se
is really s o mething d iffere nt
is to mak e th e foo d a nimal s a n d foo d p l a nt s
mu lti p ly an d pro sper E ac h ani mal o r p l ant
i s att e n ded to b y th e gr oup th at has it for a
totem (Totem i sm am ong s t t hi s very remark
ab l e pe o p l e has nothing to d o e ither wit h
exog am y o r wit h lin ea g e ; bu t th at is a sub
j ec t into whi c h it i s i mp o ss i b l e to go here )
Th e r it es var y c on s i derab ly fro m tot em t o
totem but a typ i cal case o r t wo may be
c ited
Th e wi tc h etty grub me n fo r in st an ce w ant
the grubs to mu lti p ly that there may be p l e nty
fo r the ir fe llow s to eat So the y w e n d the i r
w a y along a cert ain path whi c h trad ition
dec l ares to h ave bee n traverse d b y th e
g reat l eader of th e wit c h e tty g rubs of th e
day s o f long a go (Th ese were grubs tran s
fo rmed into me n who became b y re in carn ation
an c esto rs o f the prese nt totem ites ) Th e p at h
b rings them to a p lac e in th e hi ll s where th ere
,

'

RE L IG IO N

22 1

is

a b ig ston e s urro un ded b y many small

s ton es T h e b ig s ton e i s th e adult ani mal
th e ht t le s to n es are its eggs So rs t the y tap
th e b ig s ton e c ha nting a n in vita tion to it to
l a y eggs T he n the mas t er of th e c erem oni es
rub s the s to mac h of eac h totemi te wi th the
Y o u have eate n
littl e s ton es an d says

muc h fo o d
Or aga in th e Kangaroo me n repai r to a
pl ace called Un dia ra It is a p i ct ures q ue
sp ot B y th e s i de of a w at er hol e tha t is
s h e ltered b y a t a ll gum t ree ri ses a curio us ly
gn arl ed an d weath er beat e n face of q uart zite
r ock A b ou t twe nty fee t fr o m th e base a
l ed g e j ut s o ut Wh e n th e totemites hol d
th e i r cerem ony th e y repai r to thi s l edg e
Fo r h ere in th e da ys of long ago th e an c es to rs
who are no w re in carn at ed in them c oo ked
an d a t e ka ngaro o foo d ; an d h ere m o re over
the ka ng aroo ani mal s of tha t ti me dep os ited
the i r sp i rit part s Fi rs t th e face o f th e r ock
be low th e l ed ge i s dec o rated with lon g s t ri pes
o f red oc h re a n d white gyp sum to represe nt
th e red fur an d whit e b on es of th e kangaroo
It i s in fact on e of tho se ro ck paintings suc h
as th e pal aeolithi c me n o f E uro pe made i n
th ei r caves Th e n a n umbe r o f men sa y
seve n o r eight m o unt up on th e l ed ge an d
whil s t th e res t s ing s ol emn c han ts abo u t the
pro s pe c ti ve in crea se of the kan garoos these
,

AN THR O P OLOGY

2 22

me n Ope n ve in s in th ei r arms s o that th e b lood

ow s d own fre e ly up on th e cerem oni al s ton e
T hi s i s th e rs t part of t he rit e The secon d
part i s no l e s s int eres ting A ft er th e b loo d
l e tting the y h unt u ntil the y kill a kangar oo
T hereup on the ol d me n of the tot em eat a
littl e of th e meat ; th e n th e y smear s o me of
th e fat on th e b o d i es of all th e party ; n ally
the y di vi de th e e s h am ongs t the m A fter
w ards the tot emites paint thei r b odi es with
s t ripes in i mit ation of the des ign up on the ro ck
A sec on d h unt fo llow ed b y a sec on d sacra
ment al meal c on c l u de s th e whol e ceremony
T h at the i r meal i s sac rament al a s o rt of
c ommunion servi ce i s pro ved b y th e fact
th at he n ce fo rth in an o rdin ary w a y the y
allow themse l ves to part ake of kang aroo m e at
at mo s t but very sparingly an d o f cert ain
p o rti o n s of the es h not at a ll
O n e m o re e x amp l e of these rites ma y be
cited in orde r to bring ou t th e earn es tn ess
of thi s type of re ligion whi c h i s c on cern ed
with d oing in s t ead o f mere n o t do in g There
It
is non e of th e T o da perfun c to rin ess here
W i ll be e nou gh to gl a n ce at th e c o mme n ce
me nt of th e ri tual of the hon e y a nt totemites
Th e mas ter of th e cerem oni es p l aces his h an d
an d ga zes
as if he w ere s h ad ing hi s e yes
inte ntly in th e d i rection of th e sacred p l ace
As he
to whi ch th e y are ab o u t to repai r
,

RE LIGION

2 23

the res t kn e el fo rming a s t raight

lin e be hin d him In thi s p o s ition the y re main
fo r s o me ti me whil s t th e l eader c ha nt s in
a s u bdued ton e The n all s tan d up T h e
c ompany mus t now s ta rt T h e l eader who
h as fall e n to th e rear th at h e may mars h al
th e c o l umn in per fect lin e give s th e s ign al
Th e n th e y m ove o ff in s ingl e l e t ak ing a
di rect c o urse to th e holy gr o un d marc hing
in perfect s i le n ce an d with measured s tep
as if s o me thing of th e profo un des t i mp o rt
were ab o ut to t ake p l ac e
I make no ap ology fo r descri b ing th ese
pr oceed ing s at s ome l e n gth I t i s necessary
to my argument to c on ve y th e i mpre ss ion th at
th e e sse nti al s of re ligion are prese nt in th ese
appare ntly god l es s O bserva n ce s of th e ruder
pe o p l es Th e y ari se d i re ctly ou t of cus to m
in thi s case th e hu nting c u sto m Th ei r
i mmediat e des ign i s to pro v i de t h e se pe o p l e
with th e i r daily bread Y e t th e i r appea l to

o
the i magin ati n whi c h in re ligion as in
sc i e n ce art an d p hilo s o p hy i s th e i mpu l se
that pre si d e s o ve r all pro g re ss all creati ve
evo l utio n i s suc h th at th e foo d qu es t i s
c h arged with n ew an d deeper m e aning Not
bread alone bu t s omet hi ng eve n m o re sus
t aining t o th e life of man i s su gges ted b y these
tangl ed an d obscure s ol emniti e s Th e y are
pe n e trated b y q ui cke nings of sacri ce prayer
d oe s

so ,

ANTHR O POLOGY

2 24
an d

c ommunion Th e y bring to bear o n t h e

n eed o f t h e ho ur all th e pro mi se of t h at
mi raculo us pas t whi ch not only cradl ed th e
rac e bu t s till yi elds it th e s to ck of re in carn at ed
If the n
s o ul fo rce th at en ab l es it to surv i ve
t h es e rite s are part an d parce l of mere ma gi c
m ost o r all of wh at th e worl d k now s as
rel i gion mus t be mere magi c B u t it i s bett er
fo r anthr o polog y to c al l thi ngs b y th e n ames
t ha t t he y are known b y in th e worl d of me n
that is in th e wi der wo rl d not in s ome c o rn er
o r c o t er i e o f it
.

,
,

or d er t o bri ng o ut m ore fully th e sec on d

p oint that I h ave bee n t rying to mak e n ame ly
th e c lose int erdepe n de n ce be tw ee n religion
an d custo m i n pr i miti ve s o c i ety l et me be
allowe d to q u ot e on e m ore e x amp l e of th e
An d ag ain l et us
ri t ual of a rude pe o p l e
re s ort to n ati ve Aus t rali a thou gh thi s ti me
t o th e s o u th eas t ern c o rn er of it ; s in ce in
Aust rali a w e h ave a cult ural deve lo pme nt on
t h e whol e ver y low h aving bee n as it w ere
arrest ed thr ou gh i s ol ation y et on e th at t urn s
o ut to be not in c o mpati b l e wi th hi gh religion
i n th e making
Initi ation i n n ati ve Aus t rali a i s t h e e q u iv a
le nt o i wh at i s known am ongs t o ursel ves as
Th e onl y d iffere n ce is
t he hi gh er education
that with th em e very o ne who is n ot j u dge d
In

RE LI G ION

22 5

utt erly unt is duly initi at ed ; wh ereas wi t h

u s th e hi gh er education i s offered t o s o me who
are unt whi l s t many who are t n ever h ave
th e l uck to g et it T h e initi ation custom is
int e n ded to ti de th e b oy s o ver th e dif cult
ti me of puberty an d t ur n th e m into re sp o n
s i b l e me n
Th e whol e of th e adult m al es ass i st
in th e cerem oni es S pec i al me n however are
tol d off to t utor th e you th a l e ngthy bus in ess
s in ce it e nt a il s a re ti reme nt
per h aps fo r s ix
m onth s into th e bus h with th e ir c h arg es wh o
are th ere t au ght t he t r i bal t radition s an d are
g e n erally a dm oni s h ed s o meti mes forc i b ly
fo r th ei r goo d Furth er thi s i s rath er li ke a
reti reme nt into a m on as t er y for th e you ng
me n seeing th at dur ing all th e ti me th e y are
o r in oth er wo rds in a holy
s t ri c tly t ab oo
s t at e th at in v ol ves muc h f as tin g an d mo rt i
cation of th e es h At l as t c omes th e t ime
whe n the ir act u al passag e ac r o ss th e t hres h
ol d of manhoo d has to be cel ebrat ed
The
r it es may be descr i b e d in on e wo rd as im
pr e ss i ve So c ie ty wi s h es to set a s t amp on
th eir c h aract ers an d beli eves in s t amp ing
h a rd P hys i cally th en th e l ads f eel th e fo rce
A t o o th i s knocked out the y are
o f s oc i e ty
to ssed in th e a i r to make th em gr ow t all an d
s o o n rit e s th at whil s t th e y ma y h ave
separate o ccu lt e n ds in vi e w are c omp l e te ly
at on e in be ing highly u n p l easant
,

ANTHRO P O L OG Y

22 6

S pi ri t ual mean s of educat ion how e ver are

alw ay s m o re e ffecti ve th an p hy s i cal if des ign ed
an d app li ed with su f c i e nt wi sd om T h e bul l
r o arer of whi c h s o me thing has bee n al read y
sa i d f urni s h es th e cerem oni es with a back
gr o un d o f awe It ll s th e wood s th at sur
r ou n d th e secre t sp ot wh ere the r it es are h el d
with th e ri se an d fall of it s we i rd mus i c sug
ge st iv e of a m ighty rus hing win d of sp i r it s
in th e a ir N ot u ntil th e b oy s graduate as
me n d o th e y l earn how th e s o u n d i s pr o duced
E ve n wh e n th e y d o l earn thi s th e m y s t ery of
t h e v oi ce speak ing thr o u gh th e c hi p of woo d
merely wing s th e i magin ation for loft i er
ight s Wh at ever el se th e high go d of th ese
m y s t er i es D ara mulun may be for th ese
pe o p l e an d u n d oub t edl y al l s o rt s of t rain s
o f c onfused thin king mee t in th e notion of
him he i s at any rat e th e go d of th e bull
r o arer who h as pu t hi s v oi ce into the sacred
in s t rume nt
B ut D aramulun i s li ke wi se
e n d ow ed wi th a human form ; fo r th e y se t
up an i mag e of hi m rudely s h aped in woo d
an d r ou n d ab o ut it dan ce an d s ho u t hi s n ame
D ara mul un in stit ut ed these r it es as we ll as
all th e oth er i mmem o ri al r it es of th e assembl ed
t ri be o r t ri bes So wh e n o ver th e h eads of
th e b oy s pr o s t rat ed on th e gr ou n d ar e
r e c i ted s ol em nly wh at Mr Lang call s th e

t e n c o mman dme nt s t h at b i d t he m h ono ur

,

RE LI G I O N

227

th e el ders respec t th e marr i age l aw an d so

on th ere looms up before th e i r m in ds th e
gure of th e ulti mat e l aw gi ve r ; whil st hi s
u n earthly v o i ce bec o mes fo r th em th e v oi ce
of th e l aw T hu s i s custo m e x al t ed an d it s
c oerc i ve fo rce amp lied b y th e su gges tion
of a p ower in thi s case a de nit ely pers on al

p ow er th at makes fo r r ight e ous n ess a n d

whil s t b e n e c e n t i s ful l of t err or fo r offe n ders
,

An d now it may seem high ti me to pass on

fr om the s o c iol o gi ca l an d e xt ern al v i e w th at
has hithe rto b e e n t ake n o f pr i m iti ve re ligion
to a ps yc hol o gi cal v i e w o f it on e that s houl d
e n deavour t o d i scl o se th e hi dde n m o ti ves
th e sp i ritual s ou rces of the be li e fs th at u n der
li e an d su s t a in th e customary practi ces But
prec i s e ly at thi s p oint th e a nthr op ologi cal
t reat me nt of re ligion i s ap t to pro ve u n sat is
facto ry H i story ca n rec ord th at su c h an d
such is d on e with far m ore cert ainty tha n th at
suc h a n d suc h a st at e of m in d acco mpani es an d
in sp ires th e d oing Bes i des the sava ge i s no
au tho rity on th e why an d wh ere fore of hi s
customs
H owever e l se wou l d a reas on ab l e
be in g think of acting
i s his su f c i e nt reas on
Not but wh at th e
as w e h ave a l read y s ee n
higher m in ds amo ngst savages reect in th e ir
o wn w a y up on t he meaning of th e i r cust om
B ut mo st of thi s re e ction is no m ore
and rites
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

22 8

th an a n e l ab orat e
jus ti cation after t he

Th e m in d i n ve nt s wh at M r Ki p ling
e ve nt
w oul d ca ll a J u s t so stor y to acco u nt fo r
s omething al read y th ere H ow it m ight h ave
c o me ab o u t not how it d i d c o me ab ou t is all
that th e pr ofessed e x p l a n ation am ou nt s t o
An d wh e n it c omes to c hoo s ing am ong s t mere
po ss i b iliti es th e a nthro p ologi s t in st ead of
th e savage may just as w e ll
c on s ulting
e n deav o ur to d o it fo r hi mse lf
N ow a nthr o p ologi cal th e or i es of th e origin
o f re ligion seem to me to go wr o ng ma inl y
be cause th e y seek to s imp lify too mu c h
Having got d own to wh at the y take to be a
th e y s tra ightw a y pr o cl a im it the
root i dea
I be li eve th at re ligio n ha s j u s t as
root i dea
fe w o r as many r oot s as huma n life an d
mi n d
Th e t he o ry o f the or igin o f reli gion th at
may be sa i d to hol d th e e l d be cause it is
th e vi e w of th e great es t of li vin g ant hro p o lo
gi st s is Dr Ty lo r s the o ry o f anim ism Th e
term ani m ism is der i ved fr o m th e Latin

i
w
hi
c
h
lik e t he c orresp on di ng wo rd
a n ma

u
r
Signie s th e
wh
e
n
e
o
S
p
i
r
it
c
s p i ri tus
breath a n d h e n ce th e s ou l whi c h pr im iti ve
folk t e n d to i de ntify with th e breath Dr
Ty lo r s the o ry of a ni m ism the n as se t fo rth
in his great work P ri mi tive C u lture is th a t
will do as a
the be li e f in S p ir itual be ing s
.

R ELIGION

2 29

d e nition o f re ligion t ak e n at it s l east ; whi ch

for him mea ns the same thing as take n at its

earlie st N ow wh at is a sp ir itual be ing I

Cl ear ly everyt hing t urn s on th at Dr Tylo r s
ge n eral t rea tme nt of th e subj ect seems t o
l ay m o st of th e emp h as is on th e p h ant asm
A p ha nt asm (as th e etym ology of the wo rd
s hows ) is esse ntially an appear an ce In a
dream or h all uc in ation on e sees gures m o re
or l ess di m b u t st ill h avin g
vap or o us

mat eri ality

So too th e S had ow i s s o mething
without b od y th at on e ca n se e ; thou gh th e
breath e x cep t on a fr o sty day s how s it s sub tl e
but y et se n s i b l e n ature rath er b y be ing felt
th an b y be ing see n N ow there ca n be n o
d oub t th at t he p h ant asm p l ay s a c on s i derab l e
part in pr imiti ve r e ligion (as w e ll as in tho se
fan ci es of the pr i miti ve m in d th at h ave n ever
fo un d th e ir w ay into religion at all e ve nt s
into re ligion as i de nti ed with orga nized cult )
S ava ges se e gh o st s thou gh pr obab ly not m o re
fre q ue ntly th a n w e d o
th e y h ave v i v i d
dreams an d are mu c h impre s sed b y the ir
Bes i des t he
dre am e x peri e n ces ; a n d so on
p ha ntasm forms a very c o n ve nie nt h alf w a y
ho use betwee n th e see n an d th e u n see n ; an d
there ca n be no d oub t th at th e sava ge ofte n
S h ad ow a n d s o fo rth whe n he
sa y s breath
is t r ying to thin k a n d mean so me thing
immater ial al toge t her
.

ANTHR OPOLOGY

2 30

B ut an i mi sm wou l d seem s o metimes to be

ed b y Dr T ylor in a wi der sen se n ame ly as

a d o c tr in e of u ni ver sal vit ality

I n dealing
wi th th e m yth s of the ruder pe o p l es as fo r
e x amp l e th o se ab ou t th e su n m oon an d st ars
h e s how s how a g en era l a ni mation of n at u re
i s imp li ed T h e prim iti ve man reads hi ms e lf
into the se thing s whi c h acco rd ing to o ur
sc i e n ce are withou t life o r p e rs on ality He
thinks th at th e y h ave a d iffere nt kin d of b o d y
but th e same k in d of fee ling s a n d m oti ves
But thi s i s not n ecessar ily to think th at the y
are capab l e of gi v ing off a p h ant asm as a
man d o es wh e n hi s s o ul t emp o rarily l eaves
hi m o r wh en aft er death hi s s oul b e c o mes
a gho s t T h ere n eed be not hi ng gho s t li ke
ab out th e su n wh eth er it i s i magin ed as a
s hining orb or as a s hining be ing of h uman
s h ape to whom th e orb belongs Th ere i s
not anythi ng in th e l eas t p h ant asmal ab o ut
th e Greek go d A p ollo I thin k the n th at
w e h ad bett er d i stin gu i s h thi s wi der sen se
of ani m i sm b y a d iff ere nt n ame calling i t

ani mati sm s in ce th at will serve at on ce to

di sc o nn ec t an d to c onn ec t th e t wo c on ception s
I am not sure how ever how f ar w e o ught

to press thi s d oc t rin e of u ni versal vit ality

D o es a savage fo r in s t an ce wh e n h e i s h am
merin g at a p i ece of int thin k of it as oth er

t han a t hi ng any m ore th an w e s houl d ?

us

RE L IG ION
I d o ubt

28 1

i t He may say Confoun d yo u i i f

it suddenly s n aps in two jus t as w e might d o
B ut thou gh th e l anguage ma y seem to i mp ly

a yo u h e woul d mean I beli eve to imput e

to th e int jus t as muc h or as littl e of pers on
al ity as w e s ho ul d mean to d o wh e n us ing
s imil ar l anguage I n other wo rds I b eli eve
th at within th e worl d of hi s ordi n ar y wo rk
a da y e x per i e n c e
h e rec ogniz es b oth things
an d pers on s ; witho ut gi ving a thou ght in
e ith er case to th e hi dde n prin c i p l es that mak e
th em be wh at th e y are ahd act as the y d o
Wh en on th e oth er h an d th e thing o r th e
p ers on f all s within th e worl d of su p e m o rmal
e x peri en ce wh e n th e y s t ri ke th e i magin at i on
as won derf ul an d won der wo rk ing th e n th ere
is muc h m o re reas on why h e S houl d seek to
acc o unt to hi ms e lf for th e m ys t er y in or b e
hi n d th e st range appearan ce H owitt who
kn e w hi s Aus t rali an n ati ves int imat ely c it es
th e followin g as a goo d e x amp l e of how th e

n ati ve m in d wo rks
To th e b l ack fe llow hi s
cl ub o r hi s spear are part an d parce l o f his

ordi n ary life Th ere i s no med i c in e no

devil in th em If th e y are to be made

supern at urally p ot ent th e y m u s t be speci ally
c h armed But it i s q u it e oth erwi se with his
spear thr ow er o r hi s bull r o arer Th e fo rmer
fo r n o o bvio us reas on en ab l es hi m to thr ow
hi s s pear e xt rao rd in arily f ar
(I have m yself
.

ANTHROPO L OG Y

28 2

n an Austr al i an spear wit h t he hel p o f

t h e s pear thr ower y a h un dred an d ft y
y ards an d st ri ke t rue an d deep at th e e n d of
it s ight ) T h e l att er em it s th e noi se of
th un der thou gh a mere c hi p of woo d on th e
e n d of a s t ring T h ese th en are in them

s e l ves
medi c in e
T h ere i s vi rt ue i n or
be hin d th em
vi rt ue t h e same
IS the n to att ri but e
thi ng n ecessaril y as to att ri but e vit ality
Ar e th e spear thr ow er an d th e bul l r o arer
i n evit an thou ght of as ali ve
Or are th e y
as a matt er of c o u rse e n d ow e d with s oul o r
sp i ri t
Or ma y th ere be al s o an impers on al

ki n d of virt ue
medi c in e o r wh at ever
th e won der wo rk ing p ow er in th e won der
wo rking thing i s to be call ed
Now th ere is
evi den ce th at th e savage hi mself i n speaking
ab o ut th ese matt ers s ometi mes say s p ower
s o me times vit al ity s ometi mes sp irit B ut
th e s i mp l es t w a y of d i sp os ing of th ese q ues tion s
is to remember th at suc h n e di s tin ction s as
th ese whi c h the or i s t s ma y seek to draw d o
not appeal at all to th e savage himself Fo r
him th e only f act th at matt ers i s that wh ereas
s ome thi ngs in th e worl d are o rdi n ary an d
can be reck on ed on oth er things cannot be
r eck on ed on bu t are won der wo rking
Mo re o ver of wo n der wo rking things s ome
To ge t all th e
are goo d an d s o me are bad
see

R E LIGION

288

go o d kin d o f won der wor kers o n t o his side

to
c
onfo
u
n
d
th
e
bad
k
in
d
t hat is what
s o as
hi s religion is th ere to d o fo r him
May

b l ess ings c o me may mi sc hi efs go ! is t he

imp o rt of hi s religious st rivin g whe t he r an t hro
l
t
s
c
l
ass
it
as
spe
ll
o
r
as
pra
y
er
i
s
o
o
g
p
N ow the fun ction of religi o n it has bee n
ass umed i s to res tore c on den ce wh e n man
is mazed an d o ut of hi s dep th f earful of th e
m yst eri es th at o b t rude on hi s lif e y et c o m
w
ll
if
not
e
x
ac
tly
i
s
hf
u
l
to
f
ace
th
em
d
e
e
p
an d wr e s t fr om them wh at ever h el p i s in th em
Thi s f un ction religion f ull s b y wh at may be

descr i bed in on e word as su gges tion

H ow
th e su gg estion works ps yc hologi cally how
for in st an ce ass o c i ation of i deas th e so call ed

s ympath eti c ma gi c
pred om in at es at th e
low er l eve l s of religious e xperi e n ce is a
dif cul t an d t echni cal q uestion whi c h ca nnot
be di scussed here Re ligion st an ds b y whe n
there is s omething to be d one a n d su gge s ts
that it ca n be d on e well an d success fully ;
n ay that it i s be ing s o d one An d whe n the
re ligion i s o f th e e ffecti ve s o rt the believers
res p on d to th e su ggestion an d put the thing
thr ough AS the Lat in p oet say s
t he y ca n

because the y think the y ca n

Wh at fr om the anthr op ologi cal po int o f
vi ew is the e ffecti ve sort of re ligion the s o rt
that survi ves becau se on the whol e those
-

ANTHROPOLOG Y

28 4

It is d an gerous to
make s weep ing ge n erali zation s but th ere is
at any rate a goo d deal to be sa i d for c l ass in g
t he wor l d s re ligions e ither a s mec h ani cal an d
in e ffecti ve or as sp i ritual a n d e ffecti ve Th e
mec h a ni ca l kin d offers it s c ons ol ation s in t h e
s h ape of a se t of imp l eme nt s Th e vi rt ue
T hese
res i des in cert a in rit es a n d fo rm ul ari es
as w e h ave see n are espec i ally li ab l e to h arde n
int o mere mec h a ni sm whe n t he y are o f
the n eg ati ve a n d pre caution ary ty pe Th e
sp i rit ual kin d of re ligion on th e other h a n d
w hi c h is espec i ally ass o c i at ed with th e p o s itive
an d acti ve fu n ction s of life t e n ds to read
will an d pers on ality into th e won der wo rki ng
p ow ers th at it summ on s to ma n s ai d T he
will an d pers on ality in the wo rs hi ppers are i n
n eed not so much of imp l eme nt s as of m ore
will an d pers on ality T he y get thi s fr om a
s p i ri tual kin d of re ligion ; whi c h in one w a y o r
another alwa ys su gges t s a s oc i ety a co m
mu nion as at on ce th e means a n d t he e n d o f
vit al bett erme nt
T o say th at religion work s b y su ggest i on is
only to say th at it wor ks thr ou gh the i ma gi
Th ere i s good make beli e ve a s w ell as
n ation
bad ; a n d on e must n ecessarily imagine an d
make be li eve in o rder to will Th e m o re o r
l ess in arti cu l at e a n d int u iti on al fo rces o f th e
m in d how ever n eed to b e su pp l eme n ted b y

who m it he l p s survive

MO RALITY

2 85

p ow er of arti cul at e reas onin g if the will

i s to make g o o d it s twofol d c haract e r of a
fa cu lty of e n ds th at i s like wi se a facu lty of th e
mea ns to tho se e n ds S u ggest ion in s ho rt
m us t be pur ged b y criti c i sm be fo re it ca n
serve as the gu i de of th e high er life To
bring thi s p oint o u t will be the o bj ec t of th e
following c h ap t er
t he

C HAPTE R

IX

M OR ALI TY

SP A CE i s run ning o ut fas t an d it i s q uite

imp o s si b l e to grapp l e wit h th e de tail s of s o
v as t a subj ect as pri miti ve m o ra li ty Fo r
th ese the rea der mus t c on sul t Dr Wes ter
marck s m on ume ntal t reati s e The Origin
a n d D eve lop men t of the M or a l I de as
whi ch
brings toge th er a n i mme n se qu an t ity of facts
un der a c l ear an d c o mpre h e ns i ve sc h eme of
headings H e will di sco ver b y t h e wa y tha t
wh ereas cus toms differ i mme nse ly th e e mo
tions on e may eve n sa y the se n ti me nts that
fo rm th e raw mat eri al o f m o rality are much
the same everyw here
He re it will b e o f m os t use to s ketch
the p sych ological gro u n d wo rk o f p ri mi ti ve
,

ANTHR OPOLOGY

28 6

m o rality as c ontras t ed w ith m o rality o f the

mo re ad v an ced type In pursuanc e of th e
p lan hith erto followed l e t us t ry t o m o ve ye t
anoth er s t ep on fro m th e pure ly e xteri o r vi e w
o f h uman life t ow ard s o ur go a l ; w hi c h is to
apprec i ate th e t rue inw ardne ss of human life
s o far at l eas t as t his i s matter fo r anth ro
l
whi
c
h
reac
h
es
no
f
ar
t
h
er
th
a
n
th
e
o
o
gy
p
hi s to ri c method ca n take it
I t i s of co urse o pe n to q ues tion w he th er
e ith er pri m itiv e o r advan ced m o rality is
suf ci e ntly of on e p i ece to allow as it were a
c o mp o s ite p hotog rap h to be fr amed of e ith er
Fo r our pres e nt purp o ses however thi s e xp e
di e n t i s so se rv i ceab l e as to be wo rth ri sking
Le t us assume th en th at th ere are two main
s tages in th e hi s to ri cal ev ol u tion of s o ci e ty
c ons i dered fr o m th e s ta n dp oint of th e
as
p s yc hology of c on duct I pr o po s e to term
th em the syn n o mic an d t he sy n te lic p hases
Synn o mic
o f s oc i e ty
(fro m th e G ree k
cus to m ) mea ns th at cus to ms are
n omos
s h ared
Syn t e lic
(fro m the G ree k te los
e n d ) means tha t e n ds are s hared
Th e s yn no mic p h a se is fr o m th e ps y cho
l o gi cal p oint of vi e w a ki ngd o m of hab it ; the
The
syn t e lic p h ase i s a kingd o m of reec tion
fo rmer i s govern ed b y a subc on scio us se l ection
o f its s t a n dards of goo d and bad ; th e l a t ter
b y a con s cio us se l ection of its s ta n dards It
,

MO RAL ITY

23 7

remains to Sh ow very bri e y ho w suc h a

differe n ce c omes ab out
Th e o u ts tan ding fac t ab o ut th e syn no mic
life o f the ruder pe op l es is perh aps thi s that
there is h ard ly any pri vac y O f c ou rse many
oth er draw backs mu s t be take n into acc o unt
al s o no wi de thr own c o mmuni cations no
analyti c l anguage no wr iting no b oo ks a n d
but perh aps being in a crow d all th e
so on ;
ti me is th e wo rs t draw back of a ll Fo r as
D i srae li sa ys in S ybil g re g ario us n ess i s not
ass o ci ation Con s t ant h erd ing a n d huddl ing
toge th er hin ders th e deve lopme nt of pers on
ality T h at in depe n denc e of c ha ract er whi c h
i s the pri me con dition of syn t e lic s oc i e ty
ca nnot mat ure eve n though th e germs be
th ere No on e ha s a c h an ce of withdra wing
into hi s own s ou l Th ere fo re th e in di vi dual
d oes not e x p e ri e n ce that s il e nt con versation
In s t ead of
wi th se lf whi c h is reec tion
turning inw ards h e t urn s o utwards In
h e i mit ates
s ho rt
But how it may be objec ted d oes e vol u tion
take p l ace if every on e i mitat es eve ry on e e l se
Certai nly it loo ks at rs t s ight li ke a vicio us
ci rc l e Neverthel ess there is roo m fo r a
c ert ain pr o gress o r a t any ra t e fo r a certai n
pro cess o f c h ange T o anal yse its p syc ho
logi ca l spring s woul d take us to o long I f a
p hrase will d o in s te ad o f an exp l anati o n we
.

ANT HRO P O L OG Y

28 8

ma y sum them up wi th th e brilli an t Fre n ch

ps yc hologi s t Tarde as a cr o ss fertiliza tion

of i m it ation s
We n eed not however go
far to ge t an i mpress ion of how thi s process
of c h ange wo rks I t is going on every day
in o ur mi ds t un der th e n ame of c h ange of

fas hion
Wh e n on e purc h ases th e l at es t
thing in ti es o r s t ra w h at s on e is not ai ming
a t a ration al fo rm o f dress I f th ere is
p rog ress in thi s di rection it i s subc onscio us
T h e u n derlying S p i rit ual c on dition is not
i n ap tly descri bed b y Dr L loy d Mo rg an as a

s h eep th rou gh th e ga p iShn e ss

Fr o m a m oral p oint of v i e w thi s l ack of
capac ity fo r pri vat e jud gme nt i s e q u i val e nt
to a w a nt of m o ral freed om W e h ave see n
how rel ati ve ly e xt ern a l are th e sa n ction s of
savage l ife T hi s d o es not mean of c ourse
th at th ere i s no a n s w ering j ud gme nt in t he
m in d of th e in di vi dua l wh e n h e follow s his
custo ms He say s
It i s th e custom ;

th erefore it is right
B u t thi s jud gme nt ca n
scarce ly be sai d to p ro ceed fro m a t ruly
jud gin g th at i s to s ay criti cal se lf T he man
w at c h es his n e igh b ours tak ing hi s cue fro m
th em Hi s jud gme nt i s a jud gme nt of sen se
He d oes not look inw ards to pri n ci p l e A
m oral p rinc iple i s a st a n dard th at can b y
mean s o f thou ght be t ra n s ferred from o ne
se n si b l e situa tion to a noth er se n s i b l e sit ua ti on
,

MO RALI TY

28 9

ge n eral l aw an d it s app li cati on to the

s it uation prese nt ne w to the se n ses are
c on s i dered apart befo re be ing put togeth er
Con se que ntly a p o ss i b l e app li cation however
s tr ongly su gges t ed b y cu stom f as hion th e
act ion of on e s n e igh b ours on e s o wn impul se
o r prejud i ce o r wh at not can be res i st ed if it
appear on reection n o t to be really sui ted t o
the c ircumst an ces I n S ho rt in o rder to be

ration al an d
put t wo an d two together
o n e must be ab l e to e nt ert a in two a n d two
Perception s on th e
as d i st in c t c on cep tions
c ont rary can only be c ompared in th e l ump
J us t as in th e c h ap t er on l a ngua ge w e sa w
h ow ma n be gan b y t al king in holop hrases an d
only gradually att a in ed to an alyti c th at is
separab l e e l eme nt s of speec h s o in this
c h ap t er w e h ave to not e th e s t ri ctly parall el
develo pme nt fro m c o nfu s ion to d i stin ction
on th e s i de o f th o u ght
S avag e m orality the n i s not rat ional in
th e se n se o f an alysed but i s so to speak
impress ioni sti c We m ight per h aps descri be
it as th e e x pre ss ion of a c oll ecti ve impress ion
It i s best u n derst oo d in th e light of that
bran ch of s oc i al ps yc hology whi c h usually

goes b y t h e n ame of
m ob ps yc hology
Perh aps m ob an d m o bb i s h are rath er u nfo r
Th e y are ap t to make us thi nk
t un at e t erms
of the wil der exp lo s ions o f coll ec ti ve fee li ng
T he

AN TH R O P O L OG Y

2 40

p ani cs b loo d man i a d an c in g ep i demi cs an d

But thou gh a savage s o c i ety is b y
so o n
no mean s a m o b in th e se n se of a we lt er
ing mass of humanity th at h as fo r t he time
be ing lo st it s head th e ps yc hologi cal co n
s i deratio n s app lying to th e l att er app ly al s o
to th e fo rmer whe n due allow an c e has bee n
made fo r th e fact th at savage s o c i ety i s
o r ga niz ed on a perman e nt bas i s Th e di ffer
e n ce betwee n th e two c o mes in S ho rt to thi s
th at th e m ob as represe nt ed in th e savag e
s oc i ety i s a m o b c on s i s ting of many success i ve
ge n eration s o f me n It s t rad ition c on s titu t es
as it w ere a p rolonged a n d ab i d ing i mpress i on
whi c h it s c on duct th ereup on e x presses
S avage thou ght the n i s not ab l e because
it d oes not tr y to break up cust om into
separat e p i eces Rath er it p l a ys r ou n d th e
ed ges of cus to m ; re ligion espec i ally with it s
su gges tion of th e ge n eral sacred n ess of cust o m
h e l p ing it to d o s o T h ere i s fou n d in prim i
ti ve s oc i ety p l e nty of va gue specu l ation that
seeks to jus tify th e e xi s ting B ut to t ake
the mac hin e to b it s in order to pu t it togeth er
d iffere ntly i s ou t of th e reach of a type of
inte llige n ce whi c h thou gh c o mpe t e nt to
grapp l e with det ail s t akes it s prin c i p l es fo r
ra
nt
ed
Wh
e
n
pr
og
ress
c
o
mes
it
c
o
me
b
y
s
g
s tealth thr ou gh i m it ating th e l e tter but
refus ing t o imi t at e the sp irit ; u ntil b y mea n s
-

MAN TH E

INDI V ID UAL

24 1

of l eg al ction s r itual subs titu tion s an d s o

on th e n e w takes th e p l ace of the o ld without
any on e noti c ing the fact
F reed om in the se nse of int e ll ect ual free
d om ma y per haps be sa i d to h ave bee n b o rn
in one p l ace a n d at on e tim e n ame ly in
G reece in the fth an d fourth ce ntu ri e s
O f co urse m inglings an d c l as hings of pe o p l es
Ideas be gin to c ou nt
had prepared the wa y
as s oon as the y b reak aw ay fr om th e ir lo ca l
c ont e xt B ut G reece in t eac hing th e wo rl d
the mea n ing of int ell ectual freed om paved a
w ay tow ards th at m o s t c ompre he n s i ve form
of fr eed om whi c h i s t ermed m o ral Moral
fr eed om i s th e will to gi ve o ut m ore tha n you
t ake in ; to repa y with int eres t th e c o s t of
your s o c i al edu cation It i s t he will to take
thou ght ab out th e meaning an d e n d of human
life a nd b y so d oing to ass i s t in crea ti ve
ev ol ution
,

C HAPTE R X
MA N TH E

B Y w ay of
v idu a lit y , as

I N D I V I D UAL

ep ilogue a wo rd ab out in di
d i sp l ayed amo ngs t pe op l es of
1 P l
o i ti cal fre e d o m whi ch is rath e r a diffe re nt matte r is
pe h ps pro e min e ntly the disc o ver y o f E nglan d
,

ANTHROPOLOG Y

24 2

th e ruder typ e will n o t be o ut o f p l ace

Th ere i s a real danger l es t the ant h ro p ologi s t
s ho ul d thin k tha t a sc i e nti c v i e w of man is to
be o b tain ed b y l eaving o ut the huma n nat ure
i n hi m Thi s c o mes fr o m the over an xi ety
o f e v ol u tion ary hi s to ry to arri v e at ge n era l
p rin ci p l es I t i s too read y to rul e ou t the

acci de nt fo rgetfu l of th e fac t t hat

s o c a ll ed
th e whol e the o ry of b iologi ca l ev ol ution ma y
with so me j us ti ce be descri bed as the happ y

acc i dent th e o ry
Th e man of high in di
v idua lit y th e n th e e x cep tion al ma n th e man
o f ge ni us be h e ma n of tho u ght man of f ee ling
o r man o f ac ti on is no acc i de nt tha t ca n be
O n th e c ont rary h e
o v erloo ked b y hi s to ry
is in no small part th e hi s to ry maker ; a n d
s hou l d be t reated with due respec t
as suc h
b y th e hi s to ry c o mp il er The dr y b on es
o f hi s to ry it s s ta ti s ti cal avera ges an d so on
are all very w e ll in th ei r w ay ; but th e y co rre
s p o n d to th e su per c i a l t ru th tha t hi s to ry
repeats itse lf rath er than to the deeper t ru th
that hi sto ry i s an ev ol ution Anthro p ology
the n S hould not di sdain wh at m ight be t ermed
th e method of th e hi s to ri cal no ve l To s tud y
th e p lot witho u t s tud ying th e c harac ters will
n e ver make sense o f th e drama o f human
,

It ma y seem a t rui sm but is perhaps wo rth

re c olle cti ng a t t h e s t art tha t n o man o r wo man
,

MAN TH E IND IV ID UAL

24 8

l acks ind i vi duality altoge ther e ve n i f i t

c annot be re ga rded in a parti cular case as a
high indi vi duality No on e i s a mere item
Th at use ful gment of th e s ta ti s ti ci an has no
real e xi s te n ce u n der th e sun We n eed to
supp l ement th e b ooks of ab st rac t the o ry with
muc h s ympatheti c ins ight di rect ed towards
me n an d wome n in thei r con cret e se lfhood
S ai d 3 V edda cave d we ll er to Dr S e ligmann
it
i
th
e

rs
t
in
s
t
a
n
ce
I
light
on
in
th
e

rs
t
s
(
b oo k I happe n to take up ) :
I t i s p l easa nt
fo r us to fee l the rain beating on o ur s houl ders
an d good to go o u t an d dig y arns
an d c ome
ho me w e t an d se e th e re bu rning in th e cave

an d sit ro un d it
That s ort of remark
to m y min d throws m o re light on the anthr o
po lo gy of cave life th an all the bon es an d
s ton es th at I have h el ped to dig out of o ur
Mou s teri an cave s in J erse y As th e s toc k
p hrase has it it i s as far as it goes a h uman

Th e in di vi duali t y in th e se n se
d ocume nt
of th e inti ma te self exi s te n ce of th e speaker
an d hi s group fo r c harac teri s ti cally enou gh
he uses th e rs t pers on p l ural i s di sc los ed
suf cie ntly fo r o ur so ul s to get into to uch
We are th e n earer to apprec ia ti ng h uman
hi sto ry fro m th e in si de
Some of those s tude nts o f man ki nd there
fore who h ave be e n pri vil e ged to li ve am ongs t
t he ruder pe o pl e s and to l earn th ei r lan guag e
,

AN TH R OPOLO GY

244

w e ll an d really to be fri e n ds with so me of

th em (whi c h is hard s in ce fri e n ds hi p i mp li es
a certain sen se of eq u ality on both s i des )
s hou l d t ry thei r ha n d s at anthro p ologi ca l
b iograp hy Anth ro p ology s o far as it re l ates
to s avages ca n n ever ri se to the he ight of the
m os t ill umin ating k in d o f hi s t o ry until thi s
is d on e
I t o u ght not to be i mp o ss i bl e fo r an in
t e llige n t whi te man to e nter s ympath e ti cally
into th e me ntal o utloo k of the na ti ve man o f
a ffai rs the m o re o r l ess prac ti cal an d hard
h ea ded l e gi s l ato r an d s tate s man if only
c o mp l e te c on den ce c ou l d be es ta b li s hed
be twee n th e two Th at there are me n of
o uts tan d ing in di vi dua lity who he l p to ma ke
p oliti cal hi s to ry eve n am ongs t th e rud e s t
pe op l es i s m o re over h ard ly to be d o ub te d
Th us M essrs S pe n c er a n d Gill e n in the
in t r oducto ry c h ap ter o f thei r wo rk on t he
Ce nt ral Aust rali an s s t ate th a t after o bserving
th e con duc t of a great gath ering of th e nati ves
the y reac hed th e O p inion th at the c h ange s
whi ch un d oub tedly take p lace from ti me to
time in ab o rigin a l cus to m are b y no mea n s
w holly o f th e subc onscious an d spon tan eo us
s o rt bu t are in part due al s o to th e in ue n ce
o f in di vi dua l s of su pe rio r ab ility
At thi s
gatherin g fo r e x amp l e so me o f th e ol des t
me n were o f no acco unt ; but on th e othe r
,

MAN TH E

IND IV ID UAL

2 45

han d others no t so o ld as t h e y were but

m o re l earn ed in an ci e nt lo re o r m o re s ki ll ed
in matters o f ma gi c we re loo ked up t o b y
the oth ers an d t he y it was who se tt l ed e very
thi ng It mus t howe v er be u n ders tood th at
w e h ave no de nite proof to bring fo rw ard
of the actual in tr oduct ion b y this mean s of
any fun dame nt al ch ange of custom Th e
only thing th at w e ca n sa y is th at after care
fully w atc hin g th e n ati ves during th e perform
an ce of th e ir cerem oni es an d e n deavour ing as
best w e c oul d to e nter into the ir feelings t o
think as the y di d a n d to bec ome for th e time
be ing on e of themse l ves we came to th e c on
e l us ion th at if on e or two of th e m os t p ow erfu l
me n se ttl ed up on th e advi sab ility o f intr o
du c in g s o me c h ange eve n a n imp ort ant on e
it woul d be qu it e po ss i b l e fo r thi s t o be a greed
up on a n d carri ed o n
Thi s passa ge is wo rth q u oting at l e ngt h if
only for th e admirab l e method th at it dis
clo ses Th e p oli c y of t rying to bec o me fo r
the time be ing on e of th emse l ves result ed in
th e b oo k th at of all rst h an d st udi es has
d on e m os t for m o dern anthr o p ology At th e
s ame time M e ssrs
S pe nc er an d G ill e n it is
evi de nt wou l d not c l a im to h ave d on e m ore
than interpret th e e xt ern al s igns of a high
in di vi duality on th e part of these promin e nt
It s till remai ns a r are an d almost
natives
,

ANTHRO POL OGY

24 6

heard o f thi ng fo r a n anthr op olo gi s t to be

o n suc h fr i e n d ly t erms with a sava g e as to get
him to t alk intimat e ly ab out himse lf an d
re veal th e rea l ma n within
T here e xi s t however occas ion al s i de light s
o n h uma n pers on a lity in th e a nthro p ologi ca l
literat ure th at h as to d o with very rude
p e o p l es T he page fr om a huma n d o cume nt
th at I s h all c it e b y w ay of e x amp l e i s a ll the
m o re cu rio us because it re l at es to a type of
e x peri e n ce q u it e o ut s i de the co mpass of
ordin ar y c i vili zed fol k Here a n d there
howe ver s omething like it may be fou n d
am ongst ourse l ves My fr ie n d M r L P
J ac ks fo r in st an ce in hi s s tor y b ook M a d
She p he rds has descr i bed a rusti c of the no rth
o f E ngl a n d who be longed to thi s ol d wo r l d
order of great me n For me n of the ty pe in
q uestion ca n be great at any rat e in low l eve l
s o c iety T h e s o call e d me di c in e man is a
l eader per h aps eve n th e typ i cal l eader of
p rim iti ve s oc i ety ; a n d ju st because he is b y
reas on of hi s calling add i ct ed to pri vacy an d
aloofn ess h e cert ainly t e n ds t o be m o re

in di v idual m o re of a c h aract er t h an t he
e
n
er
al ru n of hi s f e llow s
g
I s h all s lightly c on d e n se fr om H o witt s
Native Tribe s ofS outh E as t A ustra li a th e man s
st ory o f his e x peri e n ce o f initi ati on
o wn
I feel stro ngly
H e witt sa y s b y th e w a y
un

MAN THE IN D I V ID UAL

2 47

assured th at th e ma n be li e ved that t h e e ve nts

whi c h he rel at ed were real an d th at h e h ad
actually e xper ie n ced them
a n d the n goes

on to t alk ab out
subj ecti ve realiti e s
I
m y se lf offer no co mme nt ary T ho s e int er
e st e d in ps y c hi ca l researc h wi ll de t ect hy p noti c
t ran ce l e v it ati o n an d s o fo rth Others
versed in th e sp irit of Willi am J ames V a rie ties
ofR e li gi ous E xp e ri e n ce will n d a n eve n deeper
meaning in it all T h e s o c i o l o gi st meanwhil e
will p oint t o th e force of cu stom a n d t rad ition
as c o lo u ring th e whol e e x p e ri e n ce eve n whe n
at its m ost subjec ti ve an d dream like But
eac h acc o rding to hi s be nt must work o ut
th ese things fo r himse lf I n a ny case it is
w ell th at the e n d of a b ook s ho ul d l eave th e
reader s till think ing
T he speaker w as a Wira dj uri d o cto r of th e
He sa i d
My father i s a
Kang ar o o t o t e m
L iz ard man Whe n I wa s a small b oy he
took me into the bus h to t ra in me to be a
d oc tor He p l aced two l arge q uartz cry st al s
again s t m y breas t an d the y vani s h ed into
me I d o not know how the y w e nt but I
fe lt th em going thr ou gh me li ke w arm th
T hi s was t o make me cl ever an d ab l e to bring

things up
(T hi s re fers to th e medi c ine man s
custom of bringing up into the m outh as if
fro m th e s tomac h the q uartz crys t al in whi c h
his vi rtue has it s c hi e f materi a l emb o d ime nt
,

ANT HR O P OLOGY

248

s ymb ol ; bei n g like wise use ful as w e see

l ater on for hy p notizing purp o ses )
He al s o
gave me s ome things like q uartz cry s t al s in
w at er T he y looked like i ce an d the w at er
tast ed s weet A ft er th at I used to se e t hings
th at m y m oth er c ou l d not se e Wh e n ou t
with her I wou l d s ay Wh at is ou t th ere like
C hi l d
me n w al king 2 Sh e used to sa y
th ere i s nothing
T h ese w ere th e ghos t s

whi c h I be g an to se e
T h e acc ou nt goes on to s t at e th at at puberty
o ur fri e n d w e nt thr o u gh th e re gul ar initi ation
for b oy s ; whe n h e saw th e d o cto rs bringing
up th e ir cry s t al s an d cr y s t al s in m outh
s hooting th e vi rt ue into him to make him

goo d
Th ereup on be ing in a holy st ate li ke
any oth er no vi ce h e h ad reti red to th e bus h
i n th e cus to m a ry mann er to f as t an d med it at e
Whil st I w as in th e bus h m y ol d father
came o ut to me He sa i d Come here to me
an d th e n h e s how ed me a p i ece of q uartz
cry st al in hi s h an d Wh e n I looked at it h e
w e nt d own into th e gr ou n d ; an d I s aw hi m
c o me u p all c o vered with red dus t It made
me very fr ight e n ed T h en m y f ather sai d
Try an d bring up a cry st al
I di d t ry an d
br ou ght on e up He th e n sai d
Come with
me to thi s p l ace I saw him st an di ng b y a hol e
in th e gr ou n d l eading to a grave I we nt
in si de an d saw a dead man who rubbed me all
or

MAN TH E INDI V ID UAL

2 49

ver t o make me cl e ver an d g ave me s ome

cry s t al s Whe n w e came o ut m y fath er
p ointed t o a tiger s n ake saying Th at i s yo ur
f am ili ar It i s min e al so
Th ere was a
st ring e xt e n ding fr o m th e t ail of th e s n ak e to
us
o n e of tho se s t rings whi c h th e med i c in e
men bring up o ut of themsel ves My f ather
too k hol d of th e s tring an d s ai d Le t us
follow th e s n ake
T he s n ake w ent thr ou gh
several tree t run ks an d l et us thro ugh them
At l ast w e reac h ed a t ree wit h a great s we lling
r ou n d its r oot s It i s in suc h p l aces th at
T he s n ake w e nt d own into
D ara mulun li ves
th e gr ou n d an d came up in s i de th e t ree whi c h
w as hollow W e followed him T here I saw
a lot of littl e D ar amulun s th e s on s of B a i ame
Aft erw ards the s n ake too k us into a great
h o l e in whi c h were a number of s n akes Th ese
rubbed th emsel ves again s t me an d di d not
h urt me be ing m y f am ili ars T h e y di d thi s
to make me a c l ever man an d a d o cto r
Th en m y fath er sai d W e will go up to
B ai am e s C amp
! Am ongst th e W ira dj uri
B ai ame i s th e hi gh go d an d D ar amul un i s hi s
Wh at littl e D a ra mulun s ma y be i s
so n
not very c l e ar ! He got ast ri de a thr e ad an d
put me on an o th er an d we h el d b y eac h o the r s
arms At th e e n d of th e thread was W o mb u
th e b ird of Bai ame W e went up thr ou gh th e
clo uds an d on the other s i de was the sk y W e
o

AN THROPOLOGY

2 50

we nt t hr o u gh t h e p l ace wh ere th e d o cto rs go

thr ou gh an d i t kep t o pe ning an d s huttin g
v er y q ui ckly My f ather sai d that if it
,

touc hed a d o cto r wh e n h e w as going thr ou gh

i t wo ul d hurt hi s sp i rit an d whe n h e ret urn ed
h ome he wo u l d S i cke n an d d i e O n th e other
s i de w e saw B ai ame s itting in hi s camp He
wa s a very great ol d man with a l o ng beard
H e sat with hi s l eg s u n der hi m a n d fro m hi s
s ho ul ders e xt e n ded two great q uartz cr y s t al s
to th e sky ab o ve him T h ere w ere al s o
n umbers of th e b oy s of B ai ame a n d of his
p e o p l e who are b irds an d beas t s
T
h
e
!
tot ems !
Aft er t hi s ti me a n d whil e I was in t he
bus h I be ga n to br ing cr ys t al s up ; but I
bec ame very ill an d cann o t do anyt hin g

s in ce
,

B I B L I O GRA P H Y
INTR ODUCTORY No rmIt is impossible to provide

graphy

b eet
'

whe n

biblio

rs t lass aut hori t i es

,
an d
are re ferred t o ; w ils t se le tio n mus t b e arbitrar
o nl
y
an d
in vi di ous
H e re bo o s writ te n in E nglish are alo ne ite
The reader is ad vise d to s pe n d
those most ly th e more mode rn
i ve to the subj e t mos tly o n the des ri pti ve
su h time a s he can
A few ve ry edu ati ve st udi es are mar e d b an
tr eatises
aut or s
aste ris
In man y ases , to
ive n , an d
must b e
n ame wi th in itials is
be
e g at the
onsulted, or a lis t o f autho rs su h as is
en d o f Weste rmar
s wo r s
o f so

vas t a s u

e ve n

ck

Ty lor ,

MA N

A nthrop ology
"
re atest
P r imiti ve C ultur e
(t he
lassi s ) ; Lord Ave b ury s w or s ; A
p resented to E B Ty lor
.

'

THE ORETICAL

Gam m a E

'

manual

(b est

'

of

J Se llas, A n ient Hunt ers a nd thei r

Subj e t
M odern Rep r esen tati ves (bes t popular acco unt )
di fficul t wi t hout spe c ial no wle d e , to b e derive d from, e g
Sir J E van s (Stone Im lements ) J G ei ie (Geo lo y o f Ice
Se e also l rit M us Guide s to Ston e Age ,
Age ) e tc
B ro nze Age , E arly Iro n
Di sr a i s ur i om A 0 H addon ,
RACE A ND G r o o m s m en
lee (bes t short
R a ce ! of M a n a nd The Wa nder i n gs of P
from) ; fulle r detai ls in
o utl in es to w or
D e n i er A
H Keane an d for E urope , W ! Ri pley
Se e also Brit
Mus G uide to E thn o lo ical Co llec tio ns

ANTI Q U ITY

or

SOC I A L ORG AN I! ATI ON A ND LA w

J G Frazer, Totemism

an d E eo ga my ;
L H Mor an , A ncient Society ; E
'
Wes termarc , H i story of B w na n Mar riage ; E S
Hart land, P rimiti ve P a ter nity ; A Lan , The Se ret of the
Totem N W Thomas , Ki nshi Orga n izat ion and Group
l ob s ter Pr imi tive SM
Marri age in A ustra lia ; H
,
.

25 1

BIB LIOGR AP H Y

252

J G Frazer, The G lde n

Rnnxo ron, MA GI C , F OLK -Lo nn
"
B ough (3rd e di ) E S H ar lan d , The Legend of Per seus

i
u
a
l
a
nd R el i g i n ,
The
(esp vol ii ) ; A Lang , M y h, R
M aking of Re li gi n , e tc
R be r s n Smi h, E r ly
"
e v n s, A C
Re li gi n of the S emi es ; F B
Crawle
D G B rin o n , G L G mme, L R E sm ell, R
:

Mare tt,

e tc .

o to
J o

M o m s E Wes terms rok , Or igi n an d De vel op ment of the

lo r, Co ntemp Re v xxi
E B
M or a l I deas
ii ; L T
lati on
H o b house , Mor als i n
A Sutherlan d, Origi n
a nd Gr owth o
f the M or a l I nsti nct
.

MI SC E LLA NE OUS

Ls ngus g

to

E J Payn e , H is r y of the New

t
Wor ld ca lled A me ri ca , vol ii Art : Y H irn, Or ig ins of

A rt
E con mics : P J H Griers n , The Si lent Trad e
.

e :

DE S CRI PTI V E

F J

Gillen, Nat i ve Tribes of

A us ra lia , N r her n Tri bes of Cen ral A us ra lia ;

'
i
a
t
T
o
i
H i , N ve r ibes f S m h east A ustralia ;
A
ds (and hers) , Na ive Tr ibes of Sou h A u s r alia
i , Ka mi la/mi a nd Kur na i ;
L Fis o n and A W H
H Ling R h, A b r igi nes of Tasma n i a

AUSTR ALI A

t
o w tt

W
J W oo
.

Spe ncer

t
o w tt

ot

ot

ot

an d

I NDONE SIA
R H C dring t n , The M ela
"
B H Th mps n , The Fij ia ns ; A O H add n
nesi a ns
of C ambridge E xp ed ition to Torr es
(an d thers ) ,
ligms nn (fo r New Guin ea ) ; G Turner,
Str a its ; O G
W Ellis , E S h rtlan d, R Ts lor (for P lynesia) ; A R
H se an d
allace M l y A rch ip e lag ;
McDougs ll

OCE ANIA

A ND

aa

(for Ind on esia)

ASI A

W
B

ot

de Gro

t o t

au

The Religio us Sys em of China

H R Rive rs , The T das ; an d a hos o f he r g d

h ri ies fo r I n di a , e 0 Sir H H Risley , E Thurs n ,
Croo ks , T C H ds n, P R T Gurd n , C G and
! Se ligma nn (V eddas o f C eyl n ) ; E H Me n , J ur n
xii (
An damanese ) ;
Skea (for
.

o
o o
.

FR I CA South
D Kidd
Bo utl
Ellis

E ast :
es
erne r
A
W E llis
ads gssos r
.

m
J
W t

Cs lls ws
A 0 Ho
.

t
t

oo
to

Casalis ,
Mac lean ,
R sc e W S an d K
M H Kingsley, A B

o o

o
W

ot

BIBLIOGR A P H Y
AME R ICA

vast

mber

ortant w orks

imp

of

nu

253
see

esp .

W Po w ll F Bo s F Cu
A C Fl tch r
to n C
d l 8 Pow rs
M C St
so n J R Sw
J Moo n y J O Do y W J H o ffm n W J M G
Ir oq uoi ) J T it G H ill Tout ;
ta ) ; L H Mo g n (
U k w M xi ; Su E im Thu n A mong
(J

'

e ve n

rse

n no

the I nd ia ns

f Gu ia na

An ci nt : L

e e

on

r a

an

co

ee ,

'

o t

wo

F sm ell

Cul s of the Gr eek Sta es ;

E H am s n , P r o legomemz to Greek Rel igi on W W ards
F wler, Rel igio us E xper ie nce of the Roma n Pe p le A n hr
M de rn : G F A bbo t ,
p ology a nd the Clas sics , etc
i h ancien ) , F olk l re
O La s n ( c mpare m de rn
S cie y s Publica i ns , e tc

E UR OP L

to o
to

a nd

t his

Pol tics
i

"

Mc Dougall I ntr od ucti on

,

e ries

Ke 1 t

Goddes

wt

f Ma n (Part I )
James V a rietie s of

Dar in, Descen

and

t o
t
-

S UB S I DIARY

0
0

omson

Th

oi

to S
,

c al

hot,

Psycho logy

Newb igin , Myres ,

Physics
r ien ce

"

And in
McDo ugall,

I ND E X

o
r

An n -I111 1 95
Af ica n s 4 1 1 00

Cala ra

1 94 , 1 95 , 1 99
g d e s , 1 76
i n s race , 1 06
A lta m lra, 5 2
me i ca ns , 40, 9 7, 1 00, 1 1 0-1 1 4 , 1 24 ,
1 28 , 1 3 3, 1 38 - 1 4 7, 1 5 7, 1 63, 1 74,
1 92, 1 99
A n m n e se, 1 60, 1 88 , 1 93
S xo ns, 1 9 8
ng
Ani m tism, 2 1 0
An imis m , 228 , 230
28, 84 , 9 5- 1 01 ,
Am11 :
1 1 5, I
An th ro id es 23 , 87, 76 79 , 81 ,
8 4 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 5, 1 1
Anth p
, 7 30, 1 86 , 204 , 227,
242 , 244
Am ti es, 37, 59 , 82, 99 , 1 05 - 1 1 1 , 1 1 4
1 1 8 , 1 20 1 22 , 1 28, 1 82, 1 8 8 , 1 4 2
1 88 , 1 94 , zi e- n
1 50. 1 60- 1 6 2,
Athapuuca n lan gua zeg 1 1 2
t n ti h se 0 !
t e , 1 02
A u n g nae, 48
A ui l ra lia n s , 39 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 2, 54 , 1 1 8,
1 20, 1 27, 1 1 7 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 2, 1 6 7 , 1 74 .
1 90, 1 9 1 , 1 98, 207, 2 1 9- 227, 231 ,
244- 250

ra

83 p
-

C h ll

77
C mna , 1 06 , 1 08, 1 1 5, 1 42
Ch ukch l s , 1 1 0
n , 1 6 1 , 1 71 , 1 75 1 89 , 1 97 , 203
ss (m t im n i ), 1 72
li m te , 88-86 , 1 01 , 1 03 1 1 7 1 56
,
,
11 1, 5 3
C o Iec ti ve e s n si bi i t , 1 89 , 1 92
o o
2- 8 6
, 8
00 1 11 1 1 1 011 0, V 33
n fede r c , 1 74
o ns n ui n it , 1 6 3
Co nse n a ti s m 0 1 s vage , 1 1 9, 1 24 ,
1 88 , 1 84 , 2 1
o
n tin , 25 , 1 1 8 1 50
,
g
C ramal 1 1 d e x, 74
C nz, I) 1 9 1
e

da a

A la

Cu

ra

c ul ur

C w ll Cra 4 7
O
M n 80
C u to m 8 8 1 88 1 87

os ,

ne

Bi

v.

me n,

B u tl

v -I

e ve n e ,
6

o n,

an

e,

n,

e r,

ra-

s s,

n,

B uzz, 128

89 , 8 1 , 8 7, 1 08, 1 1 9 , 1 26 ,

66

227 , 288 , 24 5, 24 7

ao y
a ry r

21 3- 21 5, 228 ,

D h me , 1 58 , 1 94
D i
uns ! , 21 6 2 1 9
D aram u lun , 207,
24 0
n !!
D
8 - 1 1 , 22 , 6 4 , 65 , 6 9 1 32,

Bal f r H 40
Ba q u la guag 55 1 82 1 54
B i l gy 1 0 1 3
Bi o 4 9 5 1 79 1 00
Bl d r u 1 80 1 94
Bo
85
7
Bor 1 01 1 84
Br d 56 5 9
B m
8 2 5 5 1 07
s
B u ll row r 1 25
1 28 207 226 231
B uri l 5 79 1 77 202 206 248
o

re s
s

Bage h o , W , 84 , 1 85 , 1 87, 201

Ba n1 111 9 , 24 9 , 25 0
ou

s,

cp a

Cla
Cla
a r o al
C a
Co
r po l y
C l ur
Co
ay
C a g y

A lo a

po ap
ro ology

40

Ca n mbalis m, 8 7
C ar tmlhac , E , 84
Curt 1.a e , 1 05
8% m
1 79
ve
ai n imgs 21 4 7-5 8 221

1 1 8, 1 27, 1 58 , 1 98,

ll

s sku

ve

D e mo l 'ns , E , 9 8, 1 1 1
D l tfo re nt lal e v
ti n, 1 21
D1
1 18
D u Is ,
76
Dual, 1 9 1 , 1 9 5, 1 98
.

ol u o

E gyp t

1 02, 1 05 , 1 07, 1 15
E nd u ga my , 1 65 , 1 78
E r vi ro n me n t, 60, 70, 75 , 93 , 04
! o
E o ll th s, 4 1 -4 8
E s i m , 8 9, 1 1 1 , 1 00, 1 91
E e ni s , 63, 70, 93, 9 5
E urasi n re i n, 1 06 1 1 0
,

i
k o
ug c
a go

25 4

IND E X
8 2-59 , 75, 77-82 , 98, 1 02
1 05, 1 08 , 1 09 , 1 24 , 1 26 , 1 27 , 1 33 ,
1 85, 1 98 , 202 , 230, 24 1
v n s , 8 11 J , 4 2, 1 24
E vo lutwn , 7- 1 2, 1 4, 22, 6 1 72, 1 86 ,

'

E xogamy

1 5 9 , 1 6 1 - 1 65 ,
1 72, 1 73, 220
x e i me n ta
h
s
g

1 6 9,

1 68 ,

pr
l p yc ol o y 23 88
Fa mil y 1 59 1 0 1 6 4 1 7 1 1 78 1 96
Famil y u i d i 1 96
Fli t m{ i g 5 57
Folk lor 1 86 21 0
Fra r J G
200
Fn d m 1 30 1 54
8 1 1 85 288 24 1
Fu gian 188 1 40 1 45
Galley H ill k ull 46 80
Gama 4 74 0
al gi cal m t hod 1 4 7
G

h n

e,

ze

o o

s,

e ne

Ges tu e -1m g g o, 1 8 4, 1 49
GhOata, 229 , 280, 24 8
Gib
t s
, 78
G ee e , 1 27 , 1 57, 1 72, 1 85 , 24 1
G ee nwe l, W , 56
Gn me a G ves, 56

ral ar k ull

r c
r
l

ra

r
r o
or
u

1 1 , 13- 1 5 , 30, 97 , 1 56 , 227,

ry ,

24
H ittite s, 1 07
1 60
H b h se, L
H olop hm o, 1 40- 1 52, 289
H ome, 87 , 50, 1 00, 1 08
W , 1 68 , 28 1 , 246
H owi tt,
H umi it , 21 2

o ou

l y

na

on,

i a,

y,

e n an

es

o n,

a ea,
,

r y

A , 91
Ke llo r,
ve n, 4 6
Ke nt s
Kin s h i , 1 94 , 1 9 5 , 200, 202
Kins h i , 1 68 , 1 7 7
e s, 5 7 58
Kn
K
s, 1 10

ca r
g p
p
app r
ory ak
.

In Ohap elle-s uv aints, 79

6 4 , 65
L m
, J
L Naule tte m n di b e, 78
L n , A , 1 8 7, 226
Lan
e , 24 , 1 80-1 52
s, 1 10
L
La w, 26 ,
Lec ,
1 02
Le M n uat ne r, 8 8, 45 -4 7, 79
Le P v, F , 98
vy 8 11 1 1 1
0 08 8 0. 6 5p 1
o
L
288
g n,
L
asso c ia twn , 1 77
L
, 1 6 7, 200, 21 8, 21 5

a arck
a
ag
guag
app
ky
la

car

W"

1 1 4,
i
27, 5 1 , 1 77, 202, 208-21 6
,
2 4 , 2 1 5 , 24 7
4 , 1 22 , 1 26
, 1 1
M nl l h us ,
59 , 1 5 7
mm t h , 6 7 , 78, 1 1 1 , 1 82
M an , E H 1 8 8, 1 98
H as d Az1 1, 54
s s, 58
Matn arc hs ts , 1 66
m t i ca , mat i
M at n l in val ,
po uss ts l , 1 65 , 1 96
M ed m ne -man , 246 -25 0
ad de n 11 11 a "
e , 1 04 , 1 09 , 1 19
n es i ns, 1 1 6 1 21 , 1 28
e
,
M e ndeh am, 6 7
e n t n e , 85
M ll m ry d mci plln s, 1 92 , 1 99
i s e e nati n 9 3
,
-24 1
Mo b -ps h
2
1
92
0
289
,
,
,
g
M o ieti es , 1 75
M orah t v, 29 , 285 -24 1
o the - i ht , 1 66 , 1 6 9, 1 97
ra , J L , 1 02

Ma c
g
Malaya
Ma o

a r lo l

arn , 2

J mes ,
J e se ,

246
W 24 7
8 2, 86 , 45 , 248
.

Ma k

g82
I kl mgh
8
I m gi ti
28 21 8 223 284
I c t 1 89 200
I nd 1 1 5
I di id u ali t 29 24 1 250
In h E urop a l gu g 1 88
I don ia 1 1 6 1 1 8 1 21 1 84
I i ti ati
1 27 1 74 1 76 21 1
227 246
250
In ti nct
71 89 9 1
c

J ac ks , L P

21 , 8 8, 36 , 88, 46 , 1 06 , 1 12 ,

age,

40, 1 1 9

n es

Iron ag e

51 , 1 67, 220

E
1
loyd M r a
ocal
uck

lo

223

Hadd n A H 88 , 1 27
H ae ck e l E 1 1 8
H and -p in ts, 49
H a ris n
4 1 , 44
He ad f m 73-112 1 07
H ea d h n ting, 1 85
H e Ide l b e rg man d i b l e 77
H iat

ceremoni es

I ntic hi uma

i c l o n,

r s

25 5

224

M
rac
M la a
M o
mc g
o
y c ol o y
M rrg
My
.

INDEX

25 6

N atro n 1 74
N at ural se l ec tion 68 -71 84
Na ture 1 5 8 2 1 55 21 1 230
N ean d e rt hal race 3 7 89 , 77- 81

R w ers , W H R
R uto 1t7. A , 4 1 , 46

8 7,

1 20, 206
N e ga i e ri e s , 21 6- 21 9 , 284
Neg1 o s , 81 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 8 , 1 20, 1 60, 1 88
N e g ro rac e , 80, 9 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 20
Ne o l ntln c age , 40, 5 3- 59 , 8 1 , 1 04 , 1 09
50- 5 3
N 01 l rac e , 1 09

tv
It

Or

eal ,

P ti

on ,

p bb

t l

P
t
y
P th B h
Ph t

Ph t y
Pi
ph
t
P li y
.

P tt y

hi t
h
h t y
l v
P
v l
P p ty
P mh t y
Q uartz y t ls
cr s a

l y
t

24 8- 250

ti

y
h

222
3, 21 8,
, 1 27, 1 68 , 20
,
,
2 1 7 , 21 8 , 224 , 226
S A c e ul , 33, 4 5, 4e
Sa nc o n, 1 9 5 , 203
Sa age r , 1 1 , 1 58
Sc ie nce , 1 2- 1 5
Sec re So me t xes , 1 77
243
Se igman n, O G and
Se x- o e ms , 1 76
S a w, B , 66
S and er, 1 9 8
S a er , 1 79
S mi , W R o er s on, 21 3
Sn are , F , 5 7
a l o rg an za i on , 24- 26 , 1 5 2- 1 81
So c x
So u re, 4 7, 1 08
S e ar - ro wer, 231
S e nc er, B , and (31116 11,
J , 39,
1 63 , 1 75 , 220, 244
S ir , 228 , 229
S e inme z, S R , 1 97
S rat gra c al me od , 31 36
S ugges io n , 288- 235 , 287- 240
Survi vo la, 1 8 6
S u e r a n d , A , 1 57
S mpa e t c mag c , 1 26 238
286
ase o f soc e
Sy nno mic
ase o f soc ie
Syn teli c
, 236

ti

t t

l
lv y

th

b t

i t

l t

p th
p
p it
t
t
t i phi

th

th i

ph
ph

th

i ty
ty
,

Ta o o , 200- 203, 21 5, 21 8
Tas ma ni an s , 39- 44
Th a mes gra els , 38-44 , 46
T e f , 1 98
To d as , 2 1 0-21 9
To rres S rai s , 88
To te nn am, 1 60, 1 66 1 68, 1 75 , 1 39,
220- 223 , 250
Tri e , 1 78
1 84 , 228 - 280
T o r, E

h t

t t

b
yl

i h it

Use- n

Ra c e , 22, 59 - 9 4 , 96 , 99
Ra ze , F , 98
R e n c arna o n 1 07 , 221 , 224
R e ind ee r, 8 7 , 5 5 , 78 1 06 , 1 1 0
1 66 - 1 68 , 204
Re l u o n , 27 , 4 9 ,
28 5 , 24 6 - 250
R id ge wa , W , 1 07
R i es , 2 1 2, 21 9 224 , 234
Ri e r-p ase o f c ul ure , 1 02

1 47, 21 6 , 21 9

Sac ramen tal mea l

Sac red n es s 28 52

1 91 , 1 95

1 9 2 1 95
les , 54
P amted e
P almol xt hl c age , 40, 484 4 , 1 08 , 1 24
P a p uas xans , 1 1 6
P atago n ian a, 1 1 4
P at n l xn eal,
pa ri
patn l ocal,
o te s a , 1 6 5 , 1 96
1 38
ayn e , E J
P er s e c ut xn g e nd en c , 1 87
o uc er de , 4 8
er
es ,
an as m, 229
P hl lOBOp hy, 1 5 1 7, 7 2, 1 54, 223
r a r , 1 72
s , 51
c to gra
P l t hecanth ro p ua erec us, 76 , 1 1 5
o c , 1 7- 1 9
a n s , 1 21 , 1 28, 1 83 , 1 94
P olyn ee x
P o s u lve n tes 21 9- 224 , 2 34
o er , 33 , 55
P re -Dra vi dian l , 1 20
P ro- s o ri c c rono o g , 84
Pro- is o r , 2 1 , 8 1 , 9 7, 1 1 1
P ro-na ta e n iro nmen , 94
P res twrc h, Sir J 4 2
ro fa n e e ss e s , 2 1 7
92 , 1 9 5, 1 98
ro e r
, 1 79 , 1
- is or
ro
, 81 , 9 7
aca

er

6 4, 98

ance ,

V ari a ion , ee-os

V eddas , 1 20, 1 60, 24 8

Wall ac e A R , 69
Wea l de n do me 4 8
,

We l sman n , A
Wee te rrnar c k
,

1 18, 184

Wi tc h craf t

6 5, 66
E , 28 5
.

202. 21 0

me

C YSI

r
n
d
e
o
d
e
n
K
o
w
l
M
f

o
ls made

up

f ab solute ly

le ading

b oo ks b y

ne w

h ii

aut o r t

The e dito rs are P rofesso rs Gilb e rt M urray H A L Fis h

W T B re wste r a nd A rthur Tho mso n
.

Cloth b ound goo d p ap er cle ar typ e 2 5 6 p ages p e r vo lun

b iblio grap hie s indic es also map s o r illustratio ns wh
ne e de d
E ach co mple te and so ld se p arate ly
,

pe r

v olume
A M E R I C A N H I STO R Y
O r de r
u mb e r

47

Tii e Coloni al P e riod (1 6 07

B y C A R L E S M C L E AN A N DRE W S P f

Th e

o f t he

s or

(1 76 3
B y T EO DO RE C S M I T
f
A hi t y
C ll g
d Th W
R v l u ti
H

of

A me r

H i s t o ry

ca n

Ya
me

f
y
l i l ti
Wa rs Bet wee n En g l an d and Amer i

hi t y

T he fas c m a t i n g

82

e ss o r

ro

s or

on

an

un

P r o f e sso r

t he

p i

er o

ar o f

t wo

dre d

of

e a rs

A me r

ith

es

181 2

ca n

p i l

co o n a

H i st o r y W i l l i a

ec a

ph i

as s

'

on

F ro m Jeffers on to L in coln (1 8 1 5
B
W
M A CD ONA L D P f
i
f Hi t y B w
U iv
1y
th m k h hi t y f thi p i d C i l t b t
ti
l id
d l v y
ti m t
25 Th e Civ il War (1 8 5 4
B y F REDER I C L P x
P f
H i t y U iv
f Am i

67

I L L XA M

'

au

t i o na

or

e as

ro

es

an

s or

er

s a

e ss o r

en

se n

s or

er o

ro

rc u a e

ou

e rs

c o ns

of

39

W i sc o ns m

so n,

Recon s t ruction
B y P A U L LE LAN D H w
wn

ti m

e s.

e ss o r

e r can

s or

e rs

ro

an d

o nr n .

Union (1 8 6 5
H i t y f t h U it d S t t
s or

a es

in

D H S
P i d t f t h Li
S i ty
f
f w i g pl
f th d v l p m t
t
t f m th
l g i l t i m u l k d f m t h i l l gu g
DR

s or

e s,

ca

zo o o

en

e o

en

re s

corr ,

n oc

er n

ro

n n ea n

an s ,

n ca

ec

oc e

an

M att e r a n d E n er g y
B y F S O DD L t
P hy i l C h mi t y
w
it y f Gl g
B i ll i t C h d l y b
U iv

43

ro

Lo n

e rs

e c ur e r

Y,

as

t t rac t a t te n ti o n

to a

ca r

in

s ca

an

an

N e w Yo r k S u n

"

an d

s r

ar

R a di o ac t i v i
s u r a ss e d
Si

Ps ycholo g y Th e Study of Beh aviour

B y W I LL I A M CD O U ALL f O x f d A w ll d i g t d mm
ti l f t h i
x ll t l it y f m b y
h
p t
,

au

a s o

es s e n

ing

th ity
or

or

e sc e n c e

in e

e rar

en

ce

su

es e

A nth r op olog y
B y R R M A RE TT R d
pl t t d m p h g
d g by m
th
l
t
d W itt y

ou

un

su

an

ea

in S o c ia

er

e n e ra

An

ro

o o

se r e s o f c

an d s o

xf d S k
b di l y n d m t
ll t
t hu
S
th g
l d

th p l g y

i
b
f hi t y
w ll d pt d

e c o ur se o

c e ar a n

a s i c , so

A me r

an i n

one

er

an

s or

to

en

en

e n er a

ee

en

ce

or

e s,

L b r a ry A s s o c mt i o n B o o klu t

ca n

E me r it

t he

re a

ei

C r i me an d In sanity
B y D C A MER C I E R th f T xt B k
1 2 Th e A ni ma l Wo r l d
B y P RO F W G A M LE
1 5 Int r o duc tion to M a th ema ti cs
17

37

er

or

The Pr in c i p l es o f P h y s iolog y
B y P R O F J G M C KE N DR I C K A c o mpa c t s ta t e me n t b y
P ro f e sso r at G l as g o w fo r un i n s t ru c t e d r e a d e r s

42

41

d
li

R.

au

or

oo

f I n s a n i ty

et c.

By

tho r

N W H I T E H EAD ,

Un i v e rs al A lg e br a

of

au

P H I L O S O P H Y A ND

RE L I GI O N
6 9 A Hi s to ry of F reedom o f Tho u ght
f M d
B y J O N B BU R M A LL D R g i P f
t y
C mb i d g U iv
ity S mm i th hi t y f h
h
d
m g
t g gl b t w
d f h
.

in

or

s ru

Y,

th t

p r in C i p le

a ut

er s

o ri t

c o e rc o n

an

us

ee n

pi i

ro e sso r o

ar ze s

r e as o n

is

n on

an

mi s t a

s or

t e

e rn

lo

e nc e

er

of

Mi s s ion s : T h e r Ri se a n d Develop ment

B y M M AN D E LL C RE I T ON th f H i t y f E gl d I
m
th
k
p v th t m m h v d
ivi l i
t
th h m
y
w l d th
g
y
52 E thi cs
B
i
G E M OO RE L t
M lSi
C mb id g
D I S CU S
wy
i g ht d wh t w g d t h w h y
f
d wh
6 5 T h e L it era ture of the O l d T es tame nt
H
B G E O R E F M OO E P f
f h Hi t y f R li
i
d
i ll b p
A p p l
w k f h hi g h t
y
bl
b dy wh
b t B i bl t d t
d
gh
b k t y bj t A m
l f Th
J
93
5 0 T h e M ak in g Of th e New T es t ament
f N w T t m
B y B W B A C ON P f
t C iti i m Y l
mm y
th it tiv
f h
lt f m d
iti l

55

as

au

or

GH

se e

an

an

or

to

ro

er

i ss

au

an

or

ns

e nc

s or

o ne

o re

an

ze

at

is

e c ur er

an

ron

is

c e n ce ,

o ra

an

e re

s an

ore s

e to a n

oo

on

n v e rSi t

u ar

su

ec

ro

e sso r
or

c are s e n o u

e ri c a n

s or

or

es

ou

er

e s u

ourn a

n,

arv a

o re a

ro

a se n t

eo 0

au

'

ith

or

re g a r

su

t o t he

ro

ar

or

e sso r

igi

ns

of

es a

re s u

t he

Ne w Te s

en

ern

me n

c s

cr

ca

a e

r e se a r

LE M E N T

By C

B B,

xf

or

Pr ob l ems of P hilosop hy
B y B E A N D R U SS ELL L t
d L t
F ll w T i i ty C ll
C mb i d g
4 4 Budd h is m
D
L t
By M R
P hi l ph y M h
I di
4 6 E n g li s h S ec t s : A His to ry of No n c o nfo r mit
By W B S
P i ip al f M h t C ll g O x f d
6 0 Comp ara ti ve Re l i g i on
By P
J 13
C A R E N T ER
8 8 Re li g io us D eve lo p ment B et w ee n O l d a nd Ne
Tes tam e nt s
B y R H C A R LE S C
f W t mi t
Sh w h w
l i gi
t hi l th g ht g w b tw
1 80 B C
d 1 00 A D
L I T E RAT U R E A N D A R T
7 3 E uri p i d e s a nd H is A g e
B y G I L ER T M U RRA R g i P f
f G
k Ox f d
8 1 Ch aucer an d H is T i me s
B y G ACE E H w L t
t H ll Ox f d ; L
L dy M g
R d
By Mw
7 0 A n c i e nt A rt a n d Rit ua l
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