Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
An overview
Contents
1
Overview
1.1
3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
General principles
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
Manufacturing applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6
Industrial applications
1.1.7
Sociocultural applications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.1.8
Legal aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.1.9
Impact
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
17
1.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
24
25
3D bioprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.2.1
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.2.2
Bioprinting approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
1.2.3
Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
1.2.4
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
1.2.5
Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.2.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
29
2.1
3D modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.1.1
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.1.2
Modeling process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.1.3
Compared to 2D methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.1.4
3D model market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.1.5
3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.1.6
Human models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.1.7
3D Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
ii
CONTENTS
2.2
2.3
2.1.8
Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.1.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
3D scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.2.1
Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.2.2
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.2.3
Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.2.4
Applications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
2.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
43
2.3.1
43
2.3.2
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.3.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.3.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.3.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Manufacturing processes
44
3.1
Contour crafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.1.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.1.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.1.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
45
3.2.1
Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.2
Applications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.3
Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.2.4
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
D-Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.1
Technical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.2
How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.3
47
3.3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.3.5
Future of D-Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
49
3.4.1
49
3.2
3.3
3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
iii
3.4.2
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.4.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.4.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.4.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
50
3.5.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.5.2
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.5.3
Commercial applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.5.4
Free applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.5.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.5.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.5.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
53
3.6.1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
54
3.7.1
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.7.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
Magnetic 3D bioprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.8.1
General principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.8.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.8.3
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.8.4
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.8.5
Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.8.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.8.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
56
3.9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.9.2
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.9.3
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.9.4
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.9.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.9.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.10 Stereolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.10.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
58
59
3.10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.10.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
59
60
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
iv
CONTENTS
3.11.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
60
3.12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.12.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
61
61
3.12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
61
61
3.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.13.2 Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.13.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.13.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.13.5 Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
63
3.13.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
63
63
3.14.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Applications
64
4.1
3D printed rearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.1.1
64
4.1.2
Legal status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.1.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.1.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3D-printed spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
4.2.1
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
4.2.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
Building printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.3.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.3.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
Critical making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.4.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.4.2
74
4.4.3
74
4.4.4
74
4.4.5
75
4.4.6
75
4.2
4.3
4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.4.7
76
4.4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
77
Injection molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.5.1
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.5.2
Process characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.5.3
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.5.4
80
4.5.5
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.5.6
Injection process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.5.7
Process troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.5.8
Power requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.5.9
Robotic moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.5.10 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
85
4.5.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
85
Rapid prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.6.1
86
4.6.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.6.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
4.6.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
4.6.5
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
4.6.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
4.7.1
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.7.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.7.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
Organ-on-a-chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.8.1
Lab-on-chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.8.2
89
4.8.3
Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
4.8.4
Human-on-a-chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
4.8.5
94
4.8.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.8.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
Tissue engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.9.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.9.2
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.9.3
97
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
CONTENTS
4.9.4
Scaolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.9.5
4.9.6
4.9.7
4.9.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.9.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Related
5.1
107
Nanofactories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1.2
Self-replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.1.3
5.1.4
Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.5
5.1.6
5.1.7
In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.8
5.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
111
6.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.3
Chapter 1
Overview
1.1 3D printing
1.1.1 History
Terminology and methods
Early Additive Manufacturing (or AM) equipment and
materials were developed in the 1980s.[6] In 1981, Hideo
Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two AM fabricating methods of a threedimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask
pattern or the scanning ber transmitter.[7][8] But on July
16, 1984 Alain Le Mhaut, Olivier de Witte and Jean
Claude Andr led their patent for the stereolithography process.[9] It was three weeks before Chuck Hull
led his own patent for stereolithography. The application of French inventors were abandoned by the French
General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and
CILAS (The Laser Consortium).[10] The claimed reason was for lack of business perspective.[11] Then in
1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corporation[12] developed a prototype system based on a process known as
stereolithography, in which layers are added by curing
photopolymers with ultraviolet light lasers. Hull dened
the process as a system for generating three-dimensional
objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed,[13][14] but this had been already in-
A MakerBot 3D printer
as additive manufacturing (AM), refers to various processes used to synthesize a three-dimensional object.[1]
In additive manufacturing processing, successive layers
of material are formed under computer control to create
the object.[2] These objects can be of almost any shape or
geometry and are produced from digital model data 3D
model or other electronic data source such as an Additive
Manufacturing File (AMF) le.
1
2
vented by Kodama. Hulls contribution is the design of
the STL (STereoLithography) le format widely accepted
by 3D printing software as well as the digital slicing and
inll strategies common to many processes today. The
term 3D printing originally referred to a process employing standard and custom inkjet print heads. The technology used by most 3D printers to dateespecially hobbyist and consumer-oriented modelsis fused deposition
modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion.
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
automated control.
1.1. 3D PRINTING
3
moving material[34] with a higher-resolution subtractive
process can achieve greater precision.
Some printable polymers such as ABS, allow the surface
nish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor
processes[35] based on acetone or similar solvents.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of
using multiple materials in the course of constructing
parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not
necessarily require painting.
1.1.3 Processes
Several 3D printing processes have been invented since
the late 1970s.[38] The printers were originally large, expensive, and highly limited in what they could produce.[6]
A large number of additive processes are now available.
The main dierences between processes are in the way
layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials
that are used. Some methods melt or soften the material to produce the layers, for example. selective laser
melting (SLM) or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS),
selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM),[39] or fused lament fabrication (FFF),
while others cure liquid materials using dierent sophisticated technologies, such as stereolithography (SLA).
With laminated object manufacturing (LOM), thin layers
are cut to shape and joined together (e.g., paper, polymer,
metal). Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies oer a choice of
powder and polymer for the material used to build the
object.[40] Others sometimes use standard, o-the-shelf
business paper as the build material to produce a durable
prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of the
printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and
color capabilities.[41]
Extrusion deposition
Though the printer-produced resolution is sucient for
many applications, printing a slightly oversized version Main article: Fused deposition modeling
of the desired object in standard resolution and then re- Fused deposition modeling (FDM), derives from auto-
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
tadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), polylactic
acid (PLA), high density polyethylene (HDPE), PC/ABS,
polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) and high impact polystyrene
(HIPS). In general, the polymer is in the form of a lament fabricated from virgin resins. There are multiple
projects in the open-sourced community aimed at processing post-consumer plastic waste into lament. These
involve machines used to shred and extrude the plastic
material into lament. Additionally, uoropolymers such
as PTFE tubing are used in the process due to the materials ability to withstand high temperatures. This ability
is especially useful in transferring laments.[45]
1.1. 3D PRINTING
Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system. The printer creates the model one layer at a time
by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins) and
printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an
inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has
been printed. This technology allows the printing of full
color prototypes, overhangs, and elastomer parts. The
strength of bonded powder prints can be enhanced with
wax or thermoset polymer impregnation.
Lamination
Main article: Laminated object manufacturing
In some printers, paper can be used as the build material,
resulting in a lower cost to print. During the 1990s some
companies marketed printers that cut cross sections out
of special adhesive coated paper using a carbon dioxide
laser and then laminated them together.
5
1905) developed in 1860 and the photopolymerization of
Mitsubishis Matsubara in 1974.[54]
The photosculpture method consisted of photographing
a subject from a variety of equidistant angles and projecting each photograph onto a screen, where a pantograph
was used to trace the outline onto modeling clay.[55][56][57]
In photo-polymerization, a vat of liquid polymer is exposed to controlled lighting under safelight conditions.
The exposed liquid polymer hardens. Polymerization occurs when photopolymers are exposed to light when photopolymers contain chromophores, otherwise, the addition of molecules that are photosensitive are utilized to
react with the solution to begin polymerization. Polymerization of monomers lead to cross-linking, which creates
a polymer. Through these covalent bonds, the property
of the solution is changed.[24] The build plate then moves
down in small increments and the liquid polymer is again
exposed to light. The process repeats until the model has
been built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the
vat, leaving the solid model. The EnvisionTEC Perfactory[58] is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.
In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography a 3D
digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each
slice is converted into a two-dimensional mask image.
The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable
liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin
to cure it in the shape of the layer.[61] The technique has
Stereolithography apparatus
been used to create objects composed of multiple materials that cure at dierent rates.[61] In research systems,
the light is projected from below, allowing the resin to be
Main article: Stereolithography
quickly spread into uniform thin layers, reducing production time from hours to minutes.[61] Commercially availStereolithography was patented in 1986 by Chuck
able devices such as Objet Connex apply the resin via
Hull.[53] Photopolymerization is primarily used in steresmall nozzles.[61]
olithography (SLA) to produce a solid part from a liquid. This process was a dramatic departure from the
"photosculpture" method of Franois Willme (1830
6
Powder Fed Directed Energy Deposition
In Powder Fed Directed Energy Deposition a high power
laser is used to melt metal powder supplied to the focus of
the laser beam. The laser beam typically travels through
the center of the deposition head and is focused to a small
spot by one or more lenses. The build occurs on a X-Y
table which is driven by a tool path created from a digital
model to fabricate an object layer by layer. The deposition head is moved up vertically as each layer is completed. Metal powder is delivered and distributed around
the circumference of the head or can be split by an internal manifold and delivered through nozzles arranged
in various congurations around the deposition head. A
hermetically sealed chamber lled with inert gas or a local
inert shroud gas is often used to shield the melt pool from
atmospheric oxygen for better control of material properties. The Powder Fed Directed Energy process is similar
to Selective Laser Sintering, but the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the part at that
moment. The process supports a wide range of materials
including titanium, stainless steel, aluminum, and other
specialty materials as well as composites and functionally graded material. The process can not only fully build
new metal parts but can also add material to existing parts
for example for coatings, repair, and hybrid manufacturing applications. LENS (Laser Engineered Net Shaping),
which was developed by Sandia National Labs, is one example of the Powder Fed - Directed Energy Deposition
process for 3D printing or restoring metal parts.[62][63]
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
resin to ow under and maintain contact with the bottom of the object.[66] An oxygen-permeable membrane
lies below the resin, which creates a dead zone (persistent liquid interface) preventing the resin from attaching
to the window (photopolymerization is inhibited between
the window and the polymerizer).[67]
Unlike stereolithography, the printing process is continuous. The inventors claim that it can create objects
up to 100 times faster than commercial 3D printing
methods.[66][67][68]
1.1.4 Printers
Industry use
1.1. 3D PRINTING
7
several other new 3D printers are aimed at the small,
inexpensive market including the mUVe3D and Lumifold. Rapide 3D has designed a professional grade crowdsourced 3D-printer costing $1499 which has no fumes
nor constant rattle during use.[86] The 3Doodler, 3D
printing pen, raised $2.3 million on Kickstarter with the
pens selling at $99,[87] though the 3D Doodler has been
criticized for being more of a crafting pen than a 3D
printer.[88]
All of the plastic parts for the machine on the right were produced
by the machine on the left. Adrian Bowyer (left) and Vik Olliver
(right) are members of the RepRap project.
Large 3D printers have been developed for industrial, education, and demonstrative uses. A large delta-style 3D
printer was built in 2014 by SeeMeCNC. The printer is
capable of making an object with diameter of up to 4 feet
(1.2 m) and up to 10 feet (3.0 m) in height. It also uses
plastic pellets as the raw material instead of the typical
plastic laments used in other 3D printers.[96]
Another type of large printer is Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM). The goal is to develop printers that
can produce a large object in high speed. A BAAM machine of Cincinnati Incorporated can produce an object
at the speeds 200-500 times faster than typical 3D print-
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
every eld it touches.
The Economist, in a February 10, 2011
leader[100]
Microelectronic device fabrication methods can be employed to perform the 3D printing of nanoscale-size objects. Such printed objects are typically grown on a solid
substrate, e.g. silicon wafer, to which they adhere after Additive manufacturings earliest applications have been
printing as they're too small and fragile to be manipulated on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For
post-construction.
example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest addiIn one technique, 3D nanostructures can be printed tive variants, and its mission was to reduce the lead time
by physically moving a dynamic stencil mask during and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and dethe material deposition process, somewhat analogous vices, which was earlier only done with subtractive toolto the extrusion method of traditional 3D printers. room methods such as cnc milling and turning, and preciProgrammable-height nanostructures with resolutions as sion grinding, far more accurate than 3d printing with acsmall as 10 nm have been produced in this fashion, curacy down to 0.00005 and creating better quality parts
by metallic physical vapor deposition through a piezo- faster, but sometimes too expensive for low accuracy pro[106]
With technological advances in additive
actuator controlled stencil mask having a milled nanopore totype parts.
[98]
manufacturing,
however,
and the dissemination of those
in a silicon nitride membrane.
advances into the business world, additive methods are
Another method enhances the photopolymerization pro- moving ever further into the production end of manufaccess on a much smaller scale, using nely-focused lasers turing in creative and sometimes unexpected ways.[106]
controlled by adjustable mirrors. This method has pro- Parts that were formerly the sole province of subtracduced objects with feature resolutions of 100 nm.[99]
tive methods can now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones. In addition, new developments
in RepRap technology allow the same device to perform
1.1.5 Manufacturing applications
both additive and subtractive manufacturing by swapping
magnetic-mounted tool heads.[107]
Three-dimensional printing makes it as
cheap to create single items as it is to produce
thousands and thus undermines economies
Cloud-based additive manufacturing
of scale. It may have as profound an impact
on the world as the coming of the factory
Main article: 3D printing marketplace
did....Just as nobody could have predicted
the impact of the steam engine in 1750or
Additive manufacturing in combination with cloud comthe printing press in 1450, or the transistor
in 1950it is impossible to foresee the
puting technologies allows decentralized and geographlong-term impact of 3D printing. But the
ically independent distributed production.[108] Cloudbased additive manufacturing refers to a servicetechnology is coming, and it is likely to disrupt
1.1. 3D PRINTING
oriented networked manufacturing model in which
service consumers are able to build parts through
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), Platform-as-a-Service
(PaaS), Hardware-as-a-Service (HaaS), and Software-asa-Service (SaaS).[109][110][111] Distributed manufacturing
as such is carried out by some enterprises; there is also a
services like 3D Hubs that put people needing 3D printing in contact with owners of printers.[112]
Some companies oer on-line 3D printing services to
both commercial and private customers,[113] working
from 3D designs uploaded to the company website. 3Dprinted designs are either shipped to the customer or
picked up from the service provider.[114]
9
Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing
and many of its processes remain unproven. 3D printing
is now entering the eld of rapid manufacturing and was
identied as a next level technology by many experts
in a 2009 report.[119] One of the most promising processes looks to be the adaptation of selective laser sintering (SLS), or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) some
of the better-established rapid prototyping methods. As
of 2006, however, these techniques were still very much
in their infancy, with many obstacles to be overcome before RM could be considered a realistic manufacturing
method.[120]
Rapid prototyping
Mass customization
customize objects using simplied web based customisation software, and order the resulting items as 3D printed
unique objects.[115][116] This now allows consumers to
create custom cases for their mobile phones.[117] Nokia
has released the 3D designs for its case so that owners
can customize their own case and have it 3D printed.[118]
Rapid manufacturing
Food
Additive manufacturing of food is being developed by
squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional
objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and at foods such as
crackers, pasta,[122] and pizza.[123][124] NASA has considered the versatility of the concept, awarding a contract to
the Systems and Materials Research Consultancy to study
the feasibility of printing food in space.[125] One of the
problems with food printing is the nature of the texture
of a food. For example, foods that are not strong enough
to be led are not appropriate for 3D printing.
10
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
1.1.6
Industrial applications
Apparel
The Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial KUKA
robots
The improvements on accuracy, speed and quality of materials in 3D printing technology have opened new doors
for it to move beyond the use of 3D printing in the modeling process and actually move it to manufacturing strategy. A good example is Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis research at the University of Southern California which resulted in a 3D printer that can build a house in 24 hours
.The process is called Contour Crafting. Khoshnevis,
Russell, Kwon, & Bukkapatnam, dene contour crafting
as an additive manufacturing process which uses computer controlled systems to repeatedly lay down layers of
materials such as concrete. Bushey also discussed Khoshneviss robot which comes equipped with a nozzle that
spews out concrete and can build a home based on a set
computer pattern. Contour Crafting technology has great
potential for automating the construction of whole structures as well as sub-components. Using this process, a
1.1. 3D PRINTING
11
Firearms
Main article: 3D printed rearms
In 2012, the US-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to "[design] a working plastic gun that could
be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D
printer.[141][142] Defense Distributed has also designed
a 3D printable AR-15 type rie lower receiver (capable of lasting more than 650 rounds) and a 30 round
M16 magazine The AR-15 has multiple receivers (both
an upper and lower receiver), but the legally controlled
part is the one that is serialized (the lower, in the AR15s case). Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded
in designing the rst working blueprint to produce a
plastic gun with a 3D printer in May 2013, the United
States Department of State demanded that they remove
the instructions from their website.[143] After Defense
Distributed released their plans, questions were raised 3D printed human skull from computed computer tomography
data.
regarding the eects that 3D printing and widespread
[144][145]
consumer-level CNC machining
may have on gun
control eectiveness.[146][147][148][149]
Medical devices In October 24, 2014, a ve-year-old
In 2014, a man from Japan became the rst per- girl born without fully formed ngers on her left hand beson in the world to be imprisoned for making 3D came the rst child in the UK to have a prosthetic hand
printed rearms.[150] Yoshitomo Imura posted videos and made with 3D printing technology. Her hand was deblueprints of the gun online and was sentenced to jail for signed by US-based E-nable, an open source design ortwo years. Police found at least two guns in his household ganisation which uses a network of volunteers to design
that were capable of ring bullets.[150]
and make prosthetics mainly for children. The prosthetic
hand was based on a plaster cast made by her parents.[155]
A boy named Alex was also born with a missing arm
from just above the elbow. The team was able to use
Medical
3D printing to upload an e-NABLE Myoelectric arm that
runs o of servos and batteries that are actuated by the
See also: Biomolecular printing
electromyography muscle. With the use of 3D printers,
3D printing has been used to print patient specic implant and device for medical use. Successful operations E-NABLE has so far distributed more than 400 plastic
hands to children.
include a titanium pelvis implanted into a British patient,
[151]
titanium lower jaw transplanted to a Belgian patient,
Printed prosthetics have been used in rehabilitation of
and a plastic tracheal splint for an American infant.[152] crippled animals. In 2013, a 3D printed foot let a crippled
The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be duckling walk again.[156] In 2014 a chihuahua born withthe biggest area of future development using the custom out front legs was tted with a harness and wheels created
3D printing technology.[153] In March 2014, surgeons in with a 3D printer.[157] 3D printed hermit crab shells let
Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a hermit crabs inhabit a new style home.[158] A prosthetic
motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road beak was another tool developed by the use of 3D printing
accident.[154] Research is also being conducted on meth- to help aid a bald eagle named Beauty, whose beak was
ods to bio-print replacements for lost tissue due to arthri- severely mutilated from a shot in the face. Since 2014,
tis and cancer .
commercially available titanium knee implants made with
3D printing technology can now be used to make exact 3D printer for dogs have been used to restore the animal
and United States
replicas of organs. The printer uses images from patients mobility. Over 10,000 dogs in Europe[159]
have
been
treated
after
only
one
year.
MRI or CT scan images as a template and lays down layers of rubber or plastic.
12
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
OpenBook standard laptop cases. I.e. a Novena motherboard can be bought and be used in a printed VIA OpenBook case.[172]
Space
The Zero-G Printer, the rst 3D printer designed to operate in zero gravity, was built under a joint partnership
between NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)
and Made In Space, Inc.[178] In September 2014, SpaceX
delivered the zero-gravity 3D printer to the International
Space Station (ISS). On December 19, 2014, NASA
emailed CAD drawings for a socket wrench to astronauts
aboard the ISS, who then printed the tool using its 3D
printer. Applications for space oer the ability to print
parts or tools on-site, as opposed to using rockets to bring
along pre-manufactured items for space missions to human colonies on the moon, Mars, or elsewhere.[179] The
European Space Agency plans to deliver its new Portable
On-Board 3D Printer (POP3D for short) to the International Space Station by June 2015, making it the second
3D printer in space.[180][181]
Furthermore, the Sinterhab project is researching a lunar
base constructed by 3D printing using lunar regolith as a
base material. Instead of adding a binding agent to the
regolith, researchers are experimenting with microwave
sintering to create solid blocks from the raw material.[182]
Similar researches and projects like these could allow
faster construction for lower costs, and has been investigated for construction of o-Earth habitats.[183][184]
In 2005, a rapidly expanding hobbyist and home-use market was established with the inauguration of the opensource RepRap and Fab@Home projects. Virtually all
home-use 3D printers released to-date have their technical roots in the ongoing RepRap Project and associated
open-source software initiatives.[185] In distributed manufacturing, one study has found[186] that 3D printing could
Computers and robots
become a mass market product enabling consumers to
save money associated with purchasing common houseSee also: Modular design and Open-source robotics
hold objects.[89] For example, instead of going to a store
to buy an object made in a factory by injection molding
3D printing can also be used to make laptops and other (such as a measuring cup or a funnel), a person might incomputers and cases. For example, Novena and VIA stead print it at home from a downloaded 3D model.
1.1. 3D PRINTING
13
(the V&A). The installation was called Industrial Revolution 2.0: How the Material World will Newly Materialize.[190]
An example of 3D printed limited edition jewellery. This necklace is made of glassber-lled dyed nylon. It has rotating linkages that were produced in the same manufacturing step as the
other parts
Some of the recent developments in 3D printing were revealed at the 3DPrintshow in London, which took place in
November 2013 and 2014. The art section had in exposition artworks made with 3D printed plastic and metal.
Several artists such as Joshua Harker, Davide Prete, Sophie Kahn, Helena Lukasova, Foteini Setaki showed how
3D printing can modify aesthetic and art processes. One
part of the show focused on ways in which 3D printing
can advance the medical eld. The underlying theme of
these advances was that these printers can be used to create parts that are printed with specications to meet each
individual. This makes the process safer and more ecient. One of these advances is the use of 3D printers
to produce casts that are created to mimic the bones that
they are supporting. These custom-tted casts are open,
which allow the wearer to scratch any itches and also wash
the damaged area. Being open also allows for open ventilation. One of the best features is that they can be recycled to create more casts.[191]
3D printing is becoming more popular in the customisable gifts industry, with products such as personalized
mobile phone cases and dolls,[192] as well as 3D printed
chocolate.[193]
The use of 3D scanning technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of moulding techniques that in many cases can be more expensive, more
dicult, or too invasive to be performed, particularly for
precious or delicate cultural heritage artifacts[194] where
direct contact with the moulding substances could harm
the original objects surface.
Critical making refers to the hands on productive activities that link digital technologies to society. It is invented
to bridge the gap between creative physical and conceptual exploration.[195] The term was popularized by Matt
Ratto, an Assistant Professor and director of the Critical
Making lab in the Faculty of Information at the University
of Toronto. Ratto describes one of the main goals of critical as to use material forms of engagement with techGuardians of Time by Manfred Kielnhofer, 3D printing polished nologies to supplement and extend critical reection and,
nickel steel by Shapeways in 2014
in doing so, to reconnect our lived experiences with technologies to social and conceptual critique.[196] The main
focus of critical making is open design,[197] which inArt
cludes, in addition to 3D printing technologies, also other
digital software and hardware. People usually reference
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report spectacular design when explaining critical making.[198]
on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing
technology,[187] being used by artists such as Martin John
Callanan at The Bartlett school of architecture. By 2007 Communication
the mass media followed with an article in the Wall Street
Journal[188] and Time Magazine, listing a 3D printed Employing additive layer technology oered by 3D printdesign among their 100 most inuential designs of the ing, Terahertz devices which act as waveguides, couplers
year.[189] During the 2011 London Design Festival, an in- and bends have been created. The complex shape of these
stallation, curated by Murray Moss and focused on 3D devices could not be achieved using conventional fabriPrinting, was held in the Victoria and Albert Museum cation techniques. Commercially available professional
14
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
source labs.[215] Engineering and design principles are explored as well as architectural planning. Students recreate
duplicates of museum items such as fossils and historical artifacts for study in the classroom without possibly
damaging sensitive collections. Other students interested
in graphic designing can construct models with complex
Domestic use
working parts easily. 3D printing gives students a new
perspective with topographic maps. Science students can
Some early consumer examples of 3d printing include study cross-sections of internal organs of the human body
the 64DD released in 1999 in Japan.[200][201] As of 2012, and other biological specimens. And chemistry students
domestic 3D printing was mainly practiced by hobbyists can explore 3D models of molecules and the relationship
and enthusiasts. However, little was used for practical within chemical compounds.[216]
household applications, for example, ornamental objects.
According to a recent paper by Kostakis et al.,[217] 3D
Some practical examples include a working clock[202] and
printing and design can electrify various literacies and
gears printed for home woodworking machines among
creative capacities of children in accordance with the
other purposes.[203] Web sites associated with home 3D
spirit of the interconnected, information-based world.
printing tended to include backscratchers, coat hooks,
Future applications for 3D printing might include creating
door knobs, etc.[204]
open-source scientic equipment.[215][218]
The open source Fab@Home project[84] has developed
printers for general use. They have been used in research
environments to produce chemical compounds with 3D Environmental use
printing technology, including new ones, initially without immediate application as proof of principle.[121] The In Bahrain, large-scale 3D printing using a sandstoneprinter can print with anything that can be dispensed from like material has been used to create unique coral-shaped
a syringe as liquid or paste. The developers of the chemi- structures, which encourage coral polyps to colonize and
cal application envisage both industrial and domestic use regenerate damaged reefs. These structures have a much
for this technology, including enabling users in remote lo- more natural shape than other structures used to create
cations to be able to produce their own medicine or house- articial reefs, and, unlike concrete, are neither acid nor
hold chemicals.[205][206]
alkaline with neutral pH.[219]
3D printing is now working its way into households, and
more and more children are being introduced to the concept of 3D printing at earlier ages. The prospects of Cultural Heritage
3D printing are growing, and as more people have access to this new innovation, new uses in households will In the last several years 3D printing has been intensively
used by in the cultural heritage eld for preservation,
emerge.[207]
restoration and dissemination purposes.[220] Many EuThe OpenReex SLR lm camera was developed for 3D ropeans and North American Museums have purchased
printing as an open-source student project.[208]
3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces of their
relics.[221]
grade printer EDEN 260V was used to create structures
with minimum feature size of 100 m. The printed structures were later DC sputter coated with gold (or any other
metal) to create a Terahertz Plasmonic Device.[199]
The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the British Museum have started using their 3D printers to create museum souvenirs that are available in the museum shops.[222] Other museums, like the National Museum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum,
have gone further and sell through the online platform
Threeding digital models of their artifacts, created using
Artec 3D scanners, in 3D printing friendly le format,
which everyone can 3D print at home.[223]
3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the
classroom.[209][210][211] 3D printing allows students to create prototypes of items without the use of expensive tooling required in subtractive methods. Students design and
produce actual models they can hold. The classroom environment allows students to learn and employ new applications for 3D printing.[212] RepRaps, for example,
have already been used for an educational mobile robotics Specialty materials
platform.[213]
Some authors have claimed that 3D printers oer an unprecedented revolution in STEM education.[214] The
evidence for such claims comes from both the low cost
ability for rapid prototyping in the classroom by students,
but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientic
equipment from open hardware designs forming open-
Consumer grade 3D printing has resulted in new materials that have been developed specically for 3D printers. For example, lament materials have been developed
to imitate wood in its appearance as well as its texture.
Furthermore, new technologies, such as infusing carbon
ber[224] into printable plastics, allowing for a stronger,
1.1. 3D PRINTING
15
lighter material. In addition to new structural materials law whereas any technical features could only be claimed
that have been developed due to 3D printing, new tech- if covered by a valid patent.
nologies have allowed for patterns to be applied directly to
3D printed parts. Iron oxide-free Portland cement powder has been used to create architectural structures up to Gun legislation and administration
9 feet in height.[225][226][227]
The US Department of Homeland Security and the Joint
Regional Intelligence Center released a memo stating that
signicant advances in three-dimensional (3D) print1.1.8 Legal aspects
ing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable
les for rearms components, and diculty regulating
Intellectual property
le sharing may present public safety risks from unqualied gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed
See also: Free hardware
guns, and that proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manu- their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by
facturing industries where many legal regimes, including new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable
patents, industrial design rights, copyright, and trademark les will be as dicult to control as any other illegally
may apply. However, there is not much jurisprudence to traded music, movie or software les.[231]
say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become main- Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter
stream and individuals and hobbyist communities begin than in the United States, some commentators have said
manufacturing items for personal use, for non-prot dis- the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative
tribution, or for sale.
rearms are not as easily obtainable.[232] Ocials in the
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to
do these things, where an active intellectual property was
involved, a person would have to contact the owner and
ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a
price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws
contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private',
'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of
art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, noncommercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
Patents cover inventions including processes, machines,
manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a nite duration which varies between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a
type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such
a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.[228]
Impact
Additive manufacturing, starting with todays infancy period, requires manufacturing rms to be exible, everimproving users of all available technologies to remain
competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also
predict that this arc of technological development will
counter globalization, as end users will do much of their
own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy
products from other people and corporations.[6] The real
integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of comple-
16
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
menting traditional subtractive methods rather than dis- ing could develop economies of scope. While the adplacing them entirely.[252]
vantages of scale rest on cheap global transportation, the
economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible
and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of
Social change
the capabilities of the fabrication tools.[260] And following Neil Gershenfeld [265] in that some of the least develSince the 1950s, a number of writers and social com- oped parts of the world need some of the most advanced
mentators have speculated in some depth about the so- technologies, Commons-based peer production and 3D
cial and cultural changes that might result from the ad- printing may oer the necessary tools for thinking globvent of commercially aordable additive manufacturing ally but act locally in response to certain problems and
technology.[253] Amongst the more notable ideas to have needs.
emerged from these inquiries has been the suggestion
that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter peo- Larry Summers wrote about the devastating conseples homes, so the conventional relationship between the quences of 3D printing and other technologies (robots,
home and the workplace might get further eroded.[254] articial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform rouLikewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes tine tasks. In his view, already there are more Amereasier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects ican men on disability insurance than doing production
around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight ser- work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the
vices might also become less.[255] Finally, given the ease wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the
with which certain objects can now be replicated, it re- capacity of capital embodying articial intelligence to
mains to be seen whether changes will be made to current replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will incopyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property crease rapidly in the years ahead. Summers recommends
more vigorous cooperative eorts to address the myrrights with the new technology widely available.
iad devices (e.g., tax havens, bank secrecy, money launAs 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, dering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of
online social platforms have developed to support the great wealth to avoid paying income and estate taxes,
community.[256] This includes websites that allow users and to make it more dicult to accumulate great fortunes
to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, without requiring great social contributions in return,
as well as social forums that discuss how to improve including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly
3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well laws, reductions in excessive protection for intellecas social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D tual property, greater encouragement of prot-sharing
models.[257][258][259] RepRap is a wiki based website that schemes that may benet workers and give them a stake
was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bardeveloped into a community that aims to bring 3D print- gaining arrangements, improvements in corporate govering to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such nance, strengthening of nancial regulation to eliminate
as Pinshape, Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which was subsidies to nancial activity, easing of land-use restriccreated initially to allow users to post 3D les for anyone tions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep
to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of shar- rising in value, better training for young people and reing 3D les. These websites have allowed for greater so- training for displaced workers, and increased public and
cial interaction between users, creating communities ded- private investment in infrastructure developmente.g.,
icated around 3D printing.
in energy production and transportation.[266]
[260][261][262]
Some
call attention to the conjunction of Michael Spence wrote that Now comes a powerful,
Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in inother low-cost manufacturing techniques. The self- creasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitureinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be tion and disintermediation has been underway for some
overcome with the development of economies of scope, time in service sectorsthink of ATMs, online bankand here, the civil society can play an important role con- ing, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship
tributing to the raising of the whole productive structure management, mobile payment systems, and much more.
to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customized This revolution is spreading to the production of goods,
productivity.[260] Further, it is true that many issues, prob- where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor. In his
lems and threats rise due to the large democratization view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies
of the means of production, and especially regarding the comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D
physical ones.[260] For instance, the recyclability of ad- printers) and, more important, in creating the software
vanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons man- that enables machines to carry out various tasks. Once
ufacturing could become easier; not to mention the im- this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relplications on counterfeiting [263] and on IP.[264] It might atively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal
be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With
whose competitive dynamics were about economies of a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront
scale, Commons-based peer production and 3D print-
1.1. 3D PRINTING
17
Forbes investment pundits have predicted that 3D printing may lead to a resurgence of American Manufacturing, citing the small, creative companies that comprise the
current industry landscape, and the lack of the necessary
complex infrastructure in typical outsource markets.[268]
1.1.10
See also
3D Manufacturing Format
Additive Manufacturing File Format
AstroPrint
Cloud manufacturing
Computer numeric control
Fusion3
Laser cutting
Limbitless Solutions
List of 3D printer manufacturers
List of common 3D test models
List of emerging technologies
List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts
Magnetically assisted slip casting
MakerBot Industries
[6] Jane Bird (2012-08-08). Exploring the 3D printing opportunity. The Financial Times. Retrieved 2012-08-30.
[7] Hideo Kodama, A Scheme for Three-Dimensional
Display by Automatic Fabrication of Three-Dimensional
Model, IEICE TRANSACTIONS on Electronics
(Japanese Edition), vol.J64-C, No.4, pp.237241, April
1981
[8] Hideo Kodama, Automatic method for fabricating a
three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening
polymer, Review of Scientic Instruments, Vol. 52, No.
11, pp. 17701773, November 1981
[9] Jean-Claude, Andre. Disdpositif pour realiser un modele de piece industrielle. National De La Propriete Industrielle.
[10] Mendoza, Hannah Rose (2015-05-15).
Alain Le
Mhaut, The Man Who Submitted Patent For SLA 3D
Printing Before Chuck Hull. 3dprint.com.
[11] Moussion, Alexandre (2014). Interview dAlain Le
Mhaut, lun des pres de limpression 3D. Primante
3D.
[12] 3D Printing: What You Need to Know. PCMag.com.
Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[13] Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects
by Stereolithography (1984-08-08)
[14] Freedman, David H. Layer By Layer. Technology Review 115.1 (2012): 5053. Academic Search Premier.
Web. 2013-07-26
18
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
[15] Amon, C. H.; Beuth, J. L.; Weiss, L. E.; Merz, R.; Prinz,
F. B. (1998). Shape Deposition Manufacturing With Microcasting: Processing, Thermal and Mechanical Issues
(PDF). Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
120 (3). Retrieved 2014-12-20.
[17] Prinz, F. B.; Merz, R.; Weiss, Lee (1997). Ikawa, N., ed.
Building Parts You Could Not Build Before. Proceedings of
the 8th International Conference on Production Engineering. 2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK: Chapman & Hall. pp. 4044.
[18] Google Ngram of the term additive manufacturing.
[19] GrabCAD, GE jet engine bracket challenge
[20] Zelinski, Peter (2014-06-02), How do you make a howitzer less heavy?", Modern Machine Shop
[21] Pearce, Joshua M.; et al. (2010). 3-D Printing of Open
Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development. Journal of Sustainable Development 3 (4): 1729. doi:10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17. Retrieved
2012-01-31.
[22] 3D Printing. 13 February 2012.
[23] Ishengoma, Fredrick R.; Mtaho, Adam B. (2014-10-18).
3D Printing: Developing Countries Perspectives. International Journal of Computer Applications 104 (11): 30
34. arXiv:1410.5349. doi:10.5120/18249-9329. ISSN
0975-8887.
[24] Jacobs, Paul Francis (1992-01-01). Rapid Prototyping &
Manufacturing: Fundamentals of Stereolithography. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. ISBN 978-0-87263425-1.
[25] 3D solid repair software Fix STL polygon mesh les
LimitState:FIX". Print.limitstate.com. Retrieved 201601-04.
[26] Model Repair Service. Modelrepair.azurewebsites.net.
Retrieved 2016-01-04.
[27] Magics, the Most Powerful 3D Printing Software
| Software for additive manufacturing.
Software.materialise.com. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
[33] How to 3D-print super-fast and have an awesome nishing. 3dprinterchat. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
[35] Kraft, Caleb. Smoothing Out Your 3D Prints With Acetone Vapor. Make. Make. Retrieved 2016-01-05.
[36] Amberlee S. Haselhuhn, Eli J. Gooding, Alexandra
G. Glover, Gerald C. Anzalone, Bas Wijnen, Paul G.
Sanders, Joshua M. Pearce. (2014). Substrate Release
Mechanisms for Gas Metal Arc 3-D Aluminum Metal
Printing. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing 1 (4):
204. doi:10.1089/3dp.2014.0015.
[37] Amberlee S. Haselhuhn, Bas Wijnen, Gerald C.
Anzalone, Paul G. Sanders, Joshua M. Pearce, In
Situ Formation of Substrate Release Mechanisms for
Gas Metal Arc Weld Metal 3-D Printing. Journal
of Materials Processing Technology. 226, pp. 50
59 (2015) DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.06.038
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.06.038
[38] Sames, W. The metallurgy and processing science of
metal additive manufacturing. International Materials
Reviews.
[39] FDM is a proprietary term owned by Stratasys. All 3-D
printers that are not Stratasys machines and use a fused
lament process are referred to as or fused lament fabrication (FFF).
[40] Sherman, Lilli Manolis (November 15, 2007). A whole
new dimension Rich homes can aord 3D printers. The
Economist.
[41] Wohlers, Terry. Factors to Consider When Choosing a
3D Printer (WohlersAssociates.com, Nov/Dec 2005)".
[42] www.3ders.org (2012-09-25). Casting aluminum parts
directly from 3D printed PLA parts. 3ders.org. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[43] Aordable 3D Printing with new Selective Heat Sintering (SHS) technology. blueprinter.
[44] Chee Kai Chua; Kah Fai Leong; Chu Sing Lim (2003).
Rapid Prototyping. World Scientic. p. 124. ISBN 978981-238-117-0.
[45] PTFE Tubing Benets & Applications. Fluorotherm
Polymers, Inc. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
1.1. 3D PRINTING
19
[50] Hiemenz, Joe. Rapid prototypes move to metal components (EE Times, 3/9/2007)".
[51] Rapid Manufacturing by Electron Beam Melting.
SMU.edu.
[52] 3D Printer Uses Standard Paper.
[69] 3D Printing: Challenges and Opportunities for International Relations. Council on Foreign Relations. October
23, 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
TU Wien.
12
[66] St. Fleur, Nicholas (17 March 2015). 3-D Printing Just
Got 100 Times Faster. The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 March
2015.
[85] 3D printer by Saskatchewan man gets record crowdsourced cash. Saskatchewan: CBC News. 6 November
2013. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
[86] Rapide One Aordable Professional Desktop 3D
Printer by Rapide 3D. Indiegogo. December 2, 2013.
Retrieved 20 January 2014.
[88] Dorrier, Jason (27 February 2013). Kickstarter 3Doodler 3D Printing Pen Nothing of the Sort - But Somehow
Raises $2 Million.
20
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
[89] Wittbrodt, B. T.; Glover, A. G.; Laureto, J.; Anzalone, [107] G. Anzalone, B. Wijnen, Joshua M. Pearce, (2015)
G. C.; Oppliger, D.; Irwin, J. L.; Pearce, J. M. (2013).
"Multi-material additive and subtractive prosumer digital
Life-cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturfabrication with a free and open-source convertible delta
ing with open-source 3-D printers. Mechatronics 23 (6):
RepRap 3-D printer", Rapid Prototyping Journal, 21(5),
pp.506519. doi:10.1108/RPJ-09-2014-0113
713. doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002.
[90] Kreiger, M.; Pearce, J. M. (2013). Environmental [108] Felix Bopp (2010). Future Business Models by Additive
Life Cycle Analysis of Distributed Three-Dimensional
Manufacturing. Verlag. ISBN 3-8366-8508-6. Retrieved
Printing and Conventional Manufacturing of Polymer
4 July 2014.
Products. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering:
[109] Wu, D., Thames, J.L., Rosen, D.W., & Schaefer, D.
131002082320002. doi:10.1021/sc400093k.
(2013). Enhancing the Product Realization Process with
[91] Christian Baechler, Matthew DeVuono, and Joshua M.
Cloud-Based Design and Manufacturing Systems. TransPearce, Distributed Recycling of Waste Polymer into
actions of the ASME, Journal of Computing and InforRepRap Feedstock. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 19 (2),
mation Science in Engineering (JCISE), 13(4): 041004pp. 118-125 (2013). DOI:10.1108/13552541311302978
041004-14. doi:10.1115/1.4025257
[92] Distributed Recycling of Post-Consumer Plastic Waste
[110] Wu, D., Rosen, D.W., Wang, L., & Schaefer, D.
in Rural Areas.
(2015). Cloud-Based Design and Manufacturing: A
New Paradigm in Digital Manufacturing and Design In[93] Rostock (delta robot 3D printer) by Johann. Thinginovation. Computer-Aided Design, 59(1): 114, DOI:
verse.com.
10.1016/j.cad.2014.07.006.
[94] Vandendriessche, Pieter-Jan. delta 3D printer accuracy.
[111] Wu, D., Rosen, D.W., & Schaefer, D. (2015). Scala[95] Titsch, Mike (July 11, 2013). MatterHackers Opens 3D
bility Planning for Cloud-Based Manufacturing Systems.
Printing Store and Releases MatterControl 0.7.6. ReTransactions of the ASME, Journal of Manufacturing Scitrieved November 30, 2013.
ence and Engineering, DOI:10.1115/1.4030266.
[96] Hoosier Daddy The Largest Delta 3D Printer In the [112] 3D Hubs: Like Airbnb For 3D Printers. gizmodo. ReWorld. 3D Printer World (Punchbowl Media). 2014-09trieved 2014-07-05.
23. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
[113] Sterling, Bruce (2011-06-27). Spime Watch: Das[97] McKenna, Beth (2014-09-26). The Next Big Thing
sault Systmes 3DVIA and Sculpteo (Reuters, June 27,
in 3-D Printing: Big Area Additive Manufacturing, or
2011)". Wired. Archived from the original on 15 April
BAAM. The Motley Fool. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
2014. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[98] J. L. Wasserman; et al. (2008). Fabrication of
One-Dimensional Programmable-Height Nanostructures [114] Vance, Ashlee (2011-01-12). The Wow Factor of 3-D
Printing (The New York Times, January 12, 2011)". Revia Dynamic Stencil Deposition. Review of Scientrieved 2012-01-31.
tic Instruments 79 (7): 073909. arXiv:0802.1848.
doi:10.1063/1.2960573.
[115] The action doll you designed, made real. makie.me. Retrieved January 18, 2013.
[99] patel, Prachi (5 March 2013). Micro 3-D Printer Creates
Tiny Structures in Seconds. MIT Technology Review.
[116] Cubify Express Yourself in 3D. myrobotnation.com.
Retrieved 2014-01-25.
[100] Print me a Stradivarius How a new manufacturing technology will change the world. Economist Technology.
[117] Turn Your Babys Cry Into an iPhone Case. Bloomberg
2011-02-10. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
Businessweek. 2012-03-10. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
[101] Zelinski, Peter (2014-06-25). Video: Worlds largest additive metal manufacturing plant. Modern Machine Shop. [118] Nokia backs 3D printing for mobile phone cases. BBC
News Online. 2013-02-18. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
[102] Sherman, Lilli Manolis. 3D Printers Lead Growth of
Rapid Prototyping (Plastics Technology, August 2004)". [119] Wohlers Report 2009, State of the Industry Annual
Retrieved 2012-01-31.
Worldwide Progress Report on Additive Manufacturing,
Wohlers Associates, ISBN 978-0-9754429-5-1
[103] 3D printing: 3D printing scales up. The Economist.
2013-09-07. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[120] Hopkinson, N & Dickens, P 2006, 'Emerging Rapid Man[104] A printed smile. The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-05-08.
ufacturing Processes, in Rapid Manufacturing; An industrial revolution for the digital age, Wiley & Sons Ltd,
Chichester, W. Sussex
[105] Development of a Three-Dimensional Printed, LiquidCooled Nozzle for a Hybrid Rocket Motor, Nick Quigley [121] Symes, M. D.; Kitson, P. J.; Yan, J.; Richmond, C. J.;
Cooper, G. J. T.; Bowman, R. W.; Vilbrandt, T.; Cronin,
and James Evans Lyne, Journal of Propulsion and Power,
L. (2012). Integrated 3D-printed reactionware for chemVol. 30, No. 6 (2014), pp. 17261727.
ical synthesis and analysis. Nature Chemistry 4 (5): 349
[106] Vincent & Earls 2011
354. doi:10.1038/nchem.1313. PMID 22522253.
1.1. 3D PRINTING
21
[122] Wong, Venessa. A Guide to All the Food Thats Fit to [143] Blueprints for 3-D printer gun pulled o website. states3D Print (So Far)". Bloomberg.com.
man.com. May 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[123] Did BeeHex Just Hit 'Print' to Make Pizza at Home?". [144] Samsel, Aaron. 3D Printers, Meet Othermill: A CNC
Retrieved 28 May 2016.
machine for your home oce (VIDEO)". Guns.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[124] Foodini 3D Printer Cooks Up Meals Like the Star Trek
Food Replicator. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
[145] The Third Wave, CNC, Stereolithography, and the end
of gun control. Popehat. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[125] 3D Printing: Food in Space. NASA. Retrieved 201509-30.
[146] Rosenwald, Michael S. (2013-02-25). Weapons made
[126] Print your own medicine.
with 3-D printers could test gun-control eorts. Washington Post.
[127] RFA-HD-15-023: Use of 3-D Printers for the Production of Medical Devices (R43/R44)". NIH grants. Re- [147] Making guns at home: Ready, print, re. The
trieved 2015-09-30.
Economist. 2013-02-16. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[128] 3D Printed Clothing Becoming a Reality. Resins On[148] Rayner, Alex (6 May 2013). 3D-printable guns are just
line. 2013-06-17. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
the start, says Cody Wilson. The Guardian (London).
[129] Michael Fitzgerald (2013-05-28). With 3-D Printing,
the Shoe Really Fits. MIT Sloan Management Review. [149] Manjoo, Farhad (2013-05-08). 3-D-printed gun: Yes,
it will be possible to make weapons with 3-D printers.
Retrieved 2013-10-30.
No, that doesn't make gun control futile. Slate.com. Re[130] Sharma, Rakesh (2013-09-10). 3D Custom Eyewear
trieved 2013-10-30.
The Next Focal Point For 3D Printing. Forbes.com. Re[150] Franzen, Carl. 3D-printed gun maker in Japan sentenced
trieved 2013-09-10.
to two years in prison. The Verge.
[131] Parker C. J. (2015). The Human Acceptance of 3D Printing in Fashion Paradox: Is mass customisation a bridge too [151] Transplant jaw made by 3D printer claimed as rst.
far? IWAMA 2015: 5th International Workshop of AdBBC. 2012-02-06.
vanced Manufacturing and Automation. Shanghai, China.
[152] Rob Stein (2013-03-17). Doctors Use 3-D Printing To
[132] Koenigsegg One:1 Comes With 3D Printed Parts.
Help A Baby Breathe. NPR.
Business Insider. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
[133] tecmundo.com.br/ Conhea o Urbee, primeiro carro a ser [153] Moore, Calen (11 February 2014). Surgeons have implanted a 3-D-printed pelvis into a U.K. cancer patient.
fabricado com uma impressora 3D
ercemedicaldevices.com. Retrieved 2014-03-04.
[134] Eternity, Max. The Urbee 3D-Printed Car: Coast to
[154] Keith Perry (2014-03-12). Man makes surgical history
Coast on 10 Gallons?".
after having his shattered face rebuilt using 3D printed
[135] 3D Printed Car Creator Discusses Future of the Urbee on
parts. London: The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2014YouTube
03-12.
[136] Simmons, Dan (2015-05-06). Airbus had 1,000 parts 3D
[155] BBC News (October 2014). Inverness girl Hayley Fraser
printed to meet deadline. BBC. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
gets 3D-printed hand, BBC News, 2014-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
[137] Zitun, Yoav (2015-07-27). The 3D printer revolution
comes to the IAF. Ynet News. Retrieved 2015-09-29.
[156] 3D-Printed Foot Lets Crippled Duck Walk Again.
[138] Knippers, E. Architecture | Leapfrog 3D Printers.
[157] Pleasance, Chris (18 August 2014). Puppy power: Chiwww.lpfrg.com. Retrieved 2015-09-29.
huahua born without front legs is given turbo-charged
[139] Concept Modeling, Realistic 3D Printed Models | Stratamakeover after being tted with 3D printed body harness
sys. stratasys.com. Retrieved 2015-09-29.
and a set of skateboard wheels. The Daily Mail. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
[140] Khoshnevis, B.; Russell, R.; Kwon, Hongkyu; Bukkapatnam, S. (2001-09-01). Crafting large prototypes.
[158] Flaherty, Joseph (2013-07-30). So Cute: Hermit Crabs
IEEE Robotics Automation Magazine 8 (3): 3342.
Strut in Stylish 3-D Printed Shells. Wired.
doi:10.1109/100.956812. ISSN 1070-9932.
[141] Greenberg, Andy (2012-08-23). "'Wiki Weapon Project' [159] 3D Systems preps for global launch of 'printed' knee implants for dogs. FierceAnimalHealth.com. Retrieved 13
Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print At Home.
April 2015.
Forbes. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
[142] Poeter, Damon (2012-08-24). Could a 'Printable Gun' [160] Saxena, Varun. FDA clears 3-D printed device for miniChange the World?". PC Magazine. Retrieved 2012-08mally invasive foot surgery. FierceMedicalDevices.com.
27.
Retrieved 14 April 2015.
22
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
[161] Yue J, Zhao P, Gerasimov JY, van de Lagemaat M, [181] Wood, Anthony (2014-11-17). POP3D to be Europes
Grotenhuis A, Rustema-Abbing M, van der Mei HC,
rst 3D printer in space. Retrieved 2015-02-01.
Busscher HJ, Herrmann A, Ren Y: 3D-Printable Antimicrobial Composite Resins. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2015, [182] Raval, Siddharth (2013-03-29). SinterHab: A Moon
Base Concept from Sintered 3D-Printed Lunar Dust.
25(43): 67566767.
Space Safety Magazine. Retrieved 2013-10-15.
[162] 3D-printed sugar network to help grow articial liver.
[183] The Worlds First 3D-Printed Building Will Arrive In
BBC News.
2014. TechCrunch. 2012-01-20. Retrieved 2013-02-08.
[163] Invetech helps bring bio-printers to life. Australian Life
Scientist. Westwick-Farrow Media. December 11, 2009. [184] Diaz, Jesus (2013-01-31). This Is What the First LuRetrieved December 31, 2013.
nar Base Could Really Look Like. Gizmodo. Retrieved
2013-02-01.
[164] Building body parts with 3D printing.
[185] The RepRaps Heritage.
[165] Silverstein, Jonathan. "'Organ Printing' Could Drastically
Change Medicine (ABC News, 2006)". Retrieved 2012- [186] Kelly, Heather (July 31, 2013). Study: At-home 3D
01-31.
printing could save consumers thousands"". CNN.
[166] Engineering Ourselves The Future Potential Power of [187] Squin, C. H. (2005).
Rapid prototyp3D-Bioprinting?". ENGINEERING.com.
ing.
Communications of the ACM 48 (6): 66.
doi:10.1145/1064830.1064860.
[167] The Diplomat (2013-08-15). Chinese Scientists Are 3D
Printing Ears and Livers With Living Tissue. Tech Biz. [188] Guth, Robert A. How 3-D Printing Figures To Turn
The Diplomat. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Web Worlds Real (The Wall Street Journal, December 12,
[168] How do they 3D print kidney in China. Retrieved 201310-30.
[189] iPad iPhone Android TIME TV Populist The Page (200804-03). Bathsheba Grossmans Quin.MGX for Materi[169] Mishs Global Economic Trend Analysis: 3D-Printing
alise. Time. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Spare Human Parts; Ears and Jaws Already, Livers Coming Up ; Need an Organ? Just Print It. Globaleconom[190] Williams, Holly (2011-08-28). Object lesson: How the
icanalysis.blogspot.co.uk. 2013-08-18. Retrieved 2013world of decorative art is being revolutionised by 3D
10-30.
printing (The Independent, 28 August 2011)". London.
Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[170] Palmer, Eric (3 August 2015). Company builds plant
for 3DP pill making as it nails rst FDA approval. ercepharmamanufacturing.com. Retrieved 4 August 2015. [191] Bennett, Neil (November 13, 2013). How 3D printing is
helping doctors mend you better. TechAdvisor.
[171] Kuehn, Steven E. (September 2015). I'm Printing Your
Prescription Now, Ma'am. From the Editor. Pharma- [192] Custom Bobbleheads. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
ceutical Manufacturing (paper) (Putnam Media): 7.
[193] 3D-print your face in chocolate for that special Valentines Day gift. The Guardian. 25 January 2013.
[172] The Almost Completely Open Source Laptop Goes on
Sale.
[194] Cignoni, P.; Scopigno, R. (2008). Sampled 3D models
for CH applications. Journal on Computing and Cultural
[173] McCue, TJ. Robots And 3D Printing.
Heritage 1: 1. doi:10.1145/1367080.1367082.
[174] Why to Use 3D Printers and the Best 3D Printers To Build
Your Own Robot
[195] DiSalvo, C (2009).
Design and the Construction of Publics.
Design Issues.
1 25: 48.
[175] Printoo: Giving Life to Everyday Objects (paper-thin,
doi:10.1162/desi.2009.25.1.48.
exible Arduino-compatible modules)
[196] Ratto, M. & Ree, R. (2012). Materializing information:
[176] 3&DBot: An Arduino 3D printer-robot with wheels
3D printing and social change.. First Monday 17 (7).
[177] A lesson in building a custom 3D printed humanoid
[197] Ratto, Matt (2011). Open Design and Critical Making.
robot.
Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive.
[178] New horizons open with space-based 3D printing. SPIE
[198] Lukens, Jonathan. Speculative Design and Technological
Newsroom. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
Fluency. International Journal of Learning and Media 3:
2339. doi:10.1162/ijlm_a_00080.
[179] Hays, Brooks (2014-12-19). NASA just emailed the
space station a new socket wrench. Retrieved 2014-12[199] Pandey, S.; Gupta, B.; Nahata, A. (2013). Com20.
plex Geometry Plasmonic Terahertz Waveguides Created
[180] Brabaw, Kasandra (2015-01-30). Europes 1st Zerovia 3D Printing. Cleo: 2013. pp. CTh1K.CTh12.
doi:10.1364/CLEO_SI.2013.CTh1K.2. ISBN 978-1Gravity 3D Printer Headed for Space. Retrieved 201502-01.
55752-972-5.
1.1. 3D PRINTING
23
[200] Fletcher, JC (August 28, 2008). Virtually Overlooked: [218] Pearce, Joshua M. 2012. "Building Research Equipment
Mario Artist. Retrieved 2014-06-14.
with Free, Open-Source Hardware. Science 337 (6100):
13031304
[201] Mario Artist: Polygon Studio. Retrieved 2014-06-14.
[219] Underwater City: 3D Printed Reef Restores Bahrains
[202] ewilhelm. 3D printed clock and gears. InstructaMarine Life. ptc.com. 2013-08-01. Retrieved 2013-10bles.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
30.
[203] 23/01/2012 (2012-01-23). Successful Sumpod 3D print[220] Scopigno, R.; Cignoni, P.; Pietroni, N.; Callieri, M.;
ing of a herringbone gear. 3d-printer-kit.com. Retrieved
Dellepiane, M. (November 2015). Digital Fabrication
2013-10-30.
Techniques for Cultural Heritage: A Survey. Computer
Graphics Forum: n/a. doi:10.1111/cgf.12781.
[204] ""backscratcher 3D Models to Print - yeggi.
[205] Sanderson, Katharine. Make your own drugs with a 3D [221] Museum uses 3D printing to take fragile maquette by
Thomas Hart Benton on tour through the States.
printer.
[206] Cronin, Lee (2012-04-17). 3D printer developed for [222] British Museum releases 3D printer scans of artefacts.
2014-11-04.
drugs (video interview [5:21]). Glasgow University:
BBC News Online. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
[223] Threeding Uses Artec 3D Scanning Technology to Catalog 3D Models for Bulgarias National Museum of Mili[207] D'Aveni, Richard (2013-03). 3-D Printing Will Change
tary History. 3dprint.com. 2015-02-20.
the World. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved 201410-08. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[224] "$5,000 3D printer prints carbon-ber parts. MarkForged.
[208] 3D printable SLR brings whole new meaning to digital
camera"". Gizmag.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[225] Researchers at UC Berkeley Create Bloom First Ever
[209] Schelly, C., Anzalone, G., Wijnen, B., & Pearce, J. M.
3D-printed Cement Structure That Stands 9 Feet Tall.
(2015). Open-source 3-D printing Technologies for edcbs sanfrancisco. 6 March 2015. Retrieved 23 April
ucation: Bringing Additive Manufacturing to the Class2015.
room. Journal of Visual Languages & Computing.
[226] Chino, Mike (9 March 2015). UC Berkeley unveils 3D[210] Grujovi, N., Radovi, M., Kanjevac, V., Borota, J., Gruprinted Bloom building made of powdered cement.
jovi, G., & Divac, D. (2011, September). 3D printing
Retrieved 23 April 2015.
technology in education environment. In 34th International Conference on Production Engineering (pp. 2930). [227] Fixsen, Anna (6 March 2015). Print it Real Good: First
Powder-Based 3D Printed Cement Structure Unveiled.
[211] Mercuri, R., & Meredith, K. (2014, March). An educaRetrieved 23 April 2015.
tional venture into 3D Printing. In Integrated STEM Education Conference (ISEC), 2014 IEEE (pp. 16). IEEE. [228] 3D Printing Technology Insight Report, 2014, patent activity involving 3D-Printing from 19902013, accessed
[212] Students Use 3D Printing to Reconstruct Dinosaurs on
2014-06-10
YouTube
[229] Thompson, Clive (30 May 2012). 3-D Printings Legal
[213] Gonzalez-Gomez, J., Valero-Gomez, A., Prieto-Moreno,
Morass.
A., & Abderrahim, M. (2012). A new open source 3dprintable mobile robotic platform for education. In Ad- [230] Weinberg, Michael (January 2013). Whats the Deal with
vances in Autonomous Mini Robots (pp. 4962). Springer
copyright and 3D printing?" (PDF). Institute for Emerging
Berlin Heidelberg.
Innovation. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[214] J. Irwin, J.M. Pearce, D. Opplinger, and G. Anzalone. [231] Homeland Security bulletin warns 3D-printed guns may
The RepRap 3-D Printer Revolution in STEM Educabe 'impossible' to stop. Fox News. 2013-05-23. Retion, 121st ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Intrieved 2013-10-30.
dianapolis, IN. Paper ID #8696 (2014).
[232] Cochrane, Peter (2013-05-21). Peter Cochranes Blog:
[215] Zhang, C.; Anzalone, N. C.; Faria, R. P.; Pearce, J.
Beyond 3D Printed Guns. TechRepublic. Retrieved
M. (2013). De Brevern, Alexandre G, ed. Open2013-10-30.
Source 3D-Printable Optics Equipment. PLoS ONE 8
(3): e59840. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059840. PMC [233] Gilani, Nadia (2013-05-06). Gun factory fears as
3D blueprints put online by Defense Distributed.
3609802. PMID 23544104.
Metro.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[216] 3D Printing in the Classroom to Accelerate Adoption of
[234] Liberator: First 3D-printed gun sparks gun control conTechnology.
troversy. Digitaljournal.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[217] Kostakis, V.; Niaros, V.; Giotitsas, C. (2014): Open
source 3D printing as a means of learning: An educational [235] First 3D Printed Gun 'The Liberator' Successfully
experiment in two high schools in Greece. In: Telematics
Fired. International Business Times UK. 2013-05-07.
Retrieved 2013-10-30.
and Informatics
24
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
[236] US demands removal of 3D printed gun blueprints. neu- [256] Materializing information: 3D printing and social
rope.eu. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
change. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
[237] Espaa y EE.UU. lideran las descargas de los planos de [257] RepRap Options. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
la pistola de impresin casera. ElPais.com. 2013-05-09.
Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[258] 3D Printing. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
[238] Controlled by Guns. Quiet Babylon. 2013-05-07. Re- [259] Thingiverse. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
trieved 2013-10-30.
[260] Kostakis, V. (2013): At the Turning Point of the Current
[239] 3dprinting. Joncameld.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Techno-Economic Paradigm: Commons-Based Peer Production, Desktop Manufacturing and the Role of Civil So[240] State Dept Censors 3D Gun Plans, Citing 'National Secuciety in the Perezian Framework.. In: TripleC, 11(1), 173
rity'". News.antiwar.com. 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013190.
10-30.
[241] Wishful Thinking Is Control Freaks Last Defense [261] Kostakis, V.; Papachristou, M. (2014): Commons-based
Against 3D-Printed Guns. Reason.com. 2013-05-08.
peer production and digital fabrication: The case of a
Retrieved 2013-10-30.
RepRap-based, Lego-built 3D printing-milling machine.
In: Telematics and Informatics, 31(3), 434443
[242] Lennard, Natasha (2013-05-10). The Pirate Bay steps
in to distribute 3-D gun designs. Salon.com. Archived [262] Kostakis, V; Fountouklis, M; Drechsler, W. (2013): Peer
from the original on 2013-05-19. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Production and Desktop Manufacturing: The Case of the
[243] Sen. Leland Yee Proposes Regulating Guns From 3D Printers. CBS Sacramento. 2013-05-08. Retrieved
2013-10-30.
Dickel, Sascha/Schrape, Jan-Felix (2016): Materializing Digital Futures. In: Ferdinand, Jan-Peter et
al. (Hg.): The Decentralized and Networked Future
of Value Creation. Dordrecht: Springer, S. 163
178. Springerlink
Tran, Jasper (2016). Press Clause and 3D Printing. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property 14: 7580.
Tran, Jasper (2016). 3D-Printed Food. Minnesota
Journal of Law, Science and Technology 17: 855
80.
1.2. 3D BIOPRINTING
25
26
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
maintain the object,both mechanical and chemical stimulations are needed. These stimulations send signals to the
cells to control the remodeling and growth of tissues. In
addition, in recent development, bioreactor technologies
have allowed the rapid maturation of tissues, vascularization of tissues and the ability to survive transplants.[7]
and cell arrangement to resemble evolving tissues. Autonomous self-assembly depends on the cell as the fundamental driver of histogenesis, guiding the building blocks,
structural and functional properties of these tissues. It demands a deeper understanding of the of how embryonic
tissues mechanisms develop as well as the microenviron[10]
Bioreactors work in either providing convective nutrient ment surrounded to create the bioprinted tissues.
transport, creating microgravity environments, changing
the pressure causing solution to ow through the cells, Mini-tissue
or add compression for dynamic or static loading. Each
type of bioreactor is ideal for dierent types of tissue, The third approach of bioprinting is a combination
for example compression bioreactors are ideal for carti- of both the biomimicry and self-assembly approaches,
lage tissue.[1]:198
which is called mini tissues. Organs and tissues are built
from very small functional components. Mini-tissue approach takes these small pieces and manufacture and ar1.2.2 Bioprinting approach
range them into larger framework.[11] This approach uses
two dierent strategies. The rst strategy is when selfResearchers in the eld have developed approaches assembling cell spheres are arranged into large scaled tisto produce living organs that are constructed with sues by using natural designs as a guide. The second stratthe appropriate biological and mechanical properties. egy is when designing precise, high quality, reproductions
3D bioprinting is based on three main approaches: of a tissue and allowing them to self-assemble into large
Biomimicry, autonomous self-assembly and mini-tissue scaled functional tissue. The mixture of these strategies is
building blocks.[10]
required to print a complex three dimensional biological
structure.[10]
Biomimicry
The rst approach of bioprinting is called biomimicry.
The main goal of this approach is to create fabricated
structures that are identical to the natural structure that
are found in the tissues and organs in the human body.
Biomimicry requires duplication of the shape, framework, and the microenvironment of the organs and
tissues.[11] The application of biomimicry in bioprinting
involves creating both identical cellular and extracellular parts of organs. In order for this approach to be successful, replicating the tissues on a micro scale is substantial. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the microenvironment, the nature of the biological forces in this
microenvironment, the precise organization of functional
and supporting cell types, solubility factors, and the composition of extracellular matrix.[10]
1.2.3 Printers
Akin to ordinary ink printers, bioprinters have three major components to them. These are the hardware used,
the type of bio-ink, and the material it is printed on
(biomaterials).[6] In bioprinting, there are three major
types of printers that have been used. These are inkjet,
laser-assisted, and extrusion printers.
Inkjet printers are mainly used in bioprinting for fast and
large-scale products. One type of inkjet printer, called
drop-on-demand inkjet printer, prints materials in exact
amounts, minimizing cost and waste. Printers that utilize
lasers provide high-resolution printing; however, these
printers are often expensive. Extrusion printers print cells
layer-by-layer, just like 3D printing to create 3D constructs. In addition to just cells, extrusion printers may
also use hydrogels infused with cells.[6]
Autonomous self-assembly
1.2.4 Applications
The second approach of bioprinting is autonomous selfassembly. This approach relies on the physical process
of embryonic organ development then replicates the tissues by using this process as a model.[11] When cells are
in their early development, they create their own extracellular matrix building block, the proper cell signaling, and
independent arrangement and patterning to provide the
required biological functions and micro-architecture.[10]
Autonomous self-assembly demands specic information
about the developmental techniques of the tissues and organs of the embryo.[11] There is a scaold-free model
that uses self-assembling spheroids that subjects to fusion
1.2. 3D BIOPRINTING
eventually be used to create fully functional human organs for transplants and drug research, which will allow
for more eective organ transplants and safer more effective drugs.[13]
Further advancements
27
mined to be a suitable biomaterial.[21] Engineers are also
exploring other options such as printing micro-channels
that can maximize the diusion of nutrients and oxygen from neighboring tissues [8] In addition, The Defense
Threat Reduction Agency aims to print mini organs such
as hearts, livers, and lungs as the potential to test new
drugs more accurately and perhaps eliminate the need for
testing in animals.[8]
1.2.5
Impact
254265.
28
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Chapter 2
of points in 3D space, connected by various geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc.
This article is about computer modeling within an artistic Being a collection of data (points and other informamedium. For scientic usage, see Computer simulation. tion), 3D models can be created by hand, algorithmically
(procedural modeling), or scanned. Their surfaces may
be further dened with texture mapping.
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling (or modelling)
is the process of developing a mathematical representa- 3D models are widely used anywhere in 3D graphics and
tion of any three-dimensional surface of an object (either CAD. Actually, their use predates the widespread use
inanimate or living) via specialized software. The prod- of 3D graphics on personal computers. Many computer
uct is called a 3D model. It can be displayed as a two- games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites
dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering before computers could render them in real-time.
or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. Today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of elds.
The model can also be physically created using 3D print- The medical industry uses detailed models of organs;
ing devices.[1]
these may be created with multiple 2-D image slices from
Models may be created automatically or manually. The an MRI or CT scan. The movie industry uses them as
manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for characters and objects for animated and real-life motion
3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as pictures. The video game industry uses them as assets for
computer and video games. The science sector uses them
sculpting.
as highly detailed models of chemical compounds.[3] The
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graph- architecture industry uses them to demonstrate proposed
ics software used to produce 3D models. Individual pro- buildings and landscapes in lieu of traditional, physical
grams of this class are called modeling applications or architectural models. The engineering community uses
modelers.
them as designs of new devices, vehicles and structures
as well as a host of other uses. In recent decades the earth
science community has started to construct 3D geological
2.1.1 Models
models as a standard practice. 3D models can also be the
basis for physical devices that are built with 3D printers
or CNC machines.
Representation
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories.
Solid - These models dene the volume of the object they represent (like a rock). These are more realistic, but more dicult to build. Solid models are
mostly used for nonvisual simulations such as medical and engineering simulations, for CAD and specialized visual applications such as ray tracing and
constructive solid geometry
3D model of a spectrograph[2]
Shell/boundary - these models represent the surface, e.g. the boundary of the object, not its volume
30
(like an innitesimally thin eggshell). These are easier to work with than solid models. Almost all visual
models used in games and lm are shell models.
Because the appearance of an object depends largely
on the exterior of the object, boundary representations
are common in computer graphics. Two dimensional
surfaces are a good analogy for the objects used in graphics, though quite often these objects are non-manifold.
Since surfaces are not nite, a discrete digital approximation is required: polygonal meshes (and to a lesser
extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations
have been gaining some popularity in recent years. Level
sets are a useful representation for deforming surfaces
which undergo many topological changes such as uids.
The process of transforming representations of objects,
such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a
point on its circumference into a polygon representation of a sphere, is called tessellation. This step is used
in polygon-based rendering, where objects are broken
down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as
spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes, which are nets of
interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of
e.g. squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to
rasterise (the surface described by each triangle is planar,
so the projection is always convex); .[4] Polygon representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and
in these cases the tessellation step is not included in the
transition from abstract representation to rendered scene.
2.1.2
Modeling process
2.1. 3D MODELING
31
32
tioned, 3D models can be purchased from online marketplaces and printed by individuals or companies using
commercially available 3D printers, enabling the homeproduction of objects such as spare parts,[5] and even
medical equipment.[6]
2.1.6
Human models
2.1.7
3D Clothing
software are also used in constructing digital representation of mechanical models or parts before they are actually manufactured. CAD/CAM related software are used
in such elds, and with these software, not only can you
construct the parts, but also assemble them, and observe
their functionality.
3D modelling is also used in the eld of Industrial Design, wherein products are 3D modeled before representing them to the clients. In Media and Event industries,
3D modelling is used in Stage/Set Design.
2.1.8
Uses
3D modeling is used in various industries like lms, animation and gaming, interior designing and architecture.
They are also used in the medical industry for the interactive representations of anatomy. A wide number of 3D
2.2. 3D SCANNER
33
Evolver is a portal, 3D modeler and market place for 2.1.11 External links
3D characters
How 3D Works - Explains 3D modeling for an illuminated manuscript
Geological modeling
Industrial CT scanning
Marching cubes
Open CASCADE
Polygon mesh
Polygonal modeling
Scaling (geometry)
2.2 3D scanner
SIGGRAPH
Stanford Bunny
Triangle mesh
Utah teapot
Voxel
B-rep
2.1.10
References
[1] http://www.fractal.ae/3d-modelling-services/
[2] ERIS Project Starts. ESO Announcement. Retrieved 14
June 2013.
[3] 3D Scanning Advancements in Medical Science. Konica Minolta. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
[4] Jon Rado, Anatomy of an MMORPG, August 22, 2008
[5] 3D Printing Toys. Business Insider. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
3D scanned interior of St Josephs Church, Subiaco
[6] New Trends in 3D Printing Customized Medical Devices. Envisiontec. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
[7] Lands End First With New 'My Virtual Model' Technology: Takes Guesswork Out of Web Shopping for Clothes
That Fit. PRNewswire. Lands End. February 12, 2004.
Retrieved 2013-11-24.
[8] All About Virtual Fashion and the Creation of 3D Clothing. CGElves. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
[9] 3D Clothes made for The Hobbit using Marvelous Designer. 3DArtist. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
34
2.2.1
Functionality
3D scanning of a n whale skeleton in the Natural History Museum of Slovenia (August 2013)
2.2. 3D SCANNER
35
This lidar scanner may be used to scan buildings, rock formations, etc., to produce a 3D model. The lidar can aim its laser
beam in a wide range: its head rotates horizontally, a mirror
ips vertically. The laser beam is used to measure the distance to
the rst object on its path.
Time-of-ight devices are also available in a 2D conguTime-of-ight The time-of-ight 3D laser scanner is ration. This is referred to as a time-of-ight camera.
an active scanner that uses laser light to probe the subject.
At the heart of this type of scanner is a time-of-ight laser
range nder. The laser range nder nds the distance of a
Laser
surface by timing the round-trip time of a pulse of light.
A laser is used to emit a pulse of light and the amount
of time before the reected light is seen by a detector is
measured. Since the speed of light c is known, the roundCCD/PSD - Sensor
trip time determines the travel distance of the light, which
is twice the distance between the scanner and the surface.
Dz
If t is the round-trip time, then distance is equal to c
t/2 . The accuracy of a time-of-ight 3D laser scanner
depends on how precisely we can measure the t time: 3.3
picoseconds (approx.) is the time taken for light to travel
1 millimetre.
The laser range nder only detects the distance of one
Lense
point in its direction of view. Thus, the scanner scans
its entire eld of view one point at a time by changing the range nders direction of view to scan dierent
points. The view direction of the laser range nder can
be changed either by rotating the range nder itself, or
DZ
Object
by using a system of rotating mirrors. The latter method
is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and
can thus be rotated much faster and with greater accuracy.
Typical time-of-ight 3D laser scanners can measure the Principle of a laser triangulation sensor. Two object positions
are shown.
distance of 10,000~100,000 points every second.
36
Triangulation Triangulation based 3D laser scanners
are also active scanners that use laser light to probe the environment. With respect to time-of-ight 3D laser scanner the triangulation laser shines a laser on the subject and
exploits a camera to look for the location of the laser dot.
Depending on how far away the laser strikes a surface,
the laser dot appears at dierent places in the cameras
eld of view. This technique is called triangulation because the laser dot, the camera and the laser emitter form
a triangle. The length of one side of the triangle, the distance between the camera and the laser emitter is known.
The angle of the laser emitter corner is also known. The
angle of the camera corner can be determined by looking at the location of the laser dot in the cameras eld of
view. These three pieces of information fully determine
the shape and size of the triangle and give the location of
the laser dot corner of the triangle. In most cases a laser
stripe, instead of a single laser dot, is swept across the object to speed up the acquisition process. The National Research Council of Canada was among the rst institutes to
develop the triangulation based laser scanning technology
in 1978.[3]
Strengths and weaknesses Time-of-ight and triangulation range nders each have strengths and weaknesses
that make them suitable for dierent situations. The advantage of time-of-ight range nders is that they are capable of operating over very long distances, on the order of kilometres. These scanners are thus suitable for
scanning large structures like buildings or geographic features. The disadvantage of time-of-ight range nders is
their accuracy. Due to the high speed of light, timing
the round-trip time is dicult and the accuracy of the Hand-held laser scanners
distance measurement is relatively low, on the order of
Hand-held laser scanners create a 3D image through the
millimetres.
triangulation mechanism described above: a laser dot or
Triangulation range nders are exactly the opposite. They
line is projected onto an object from a hand-held dehave a limited range of some meters, but their accuracy is vice and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled device or
relatively high. The accuracy of triangulation range ndposition sensitive device) measures the distance to the
ers is on the order of tens of micrometers.
surface. Data is collected in relation to an internal coordiTime-of-ight scanners accuracy can be lost when the nate system and therefore to collect data where the scanlaser hits the edge of an object because the information ner is in motion the position of the scanner must be deterthat is sent back to the scanner is from two dierent lo- mined. The position can be determined by the scanner uscations for one laser pulse. The coordinate relative to the ing reference features on the surface being scanned (typscanners position for a point that has hit the edge of an ically adhesive reective tabs, but natural features have
object will be calculated based on an average and there- been also used in research work [6][7] ) or by using an exfore will put the point in the wrong place. When using a ternal tracking method. External tracking often takes the
high resolution scan on an object the chances of the beam form of a laser tracker (to provide the sensor position)
hitting an edge are increased and the resulting data will with integrated camera (to determine the orientation of
show noise just behind the edges of the object. Scanners the scanner) or a photogrammetric solution using 3 or
with a smaller beam width will help to solve this prob- more cameras providing the complete Six degrees of freelem but will be limited by range as the beam width will dom of the scanner. Both techniques tend to use infra red
increase over distance. Software can also help by deter- Light-emitting diodes attached to the scanner which are
mining that the rst object to be hit by the laser beam seen by the camera(s) through lters providing resilience
to ambient lighting.
should cancel out the second.
At a rate of 10,000 sample points per second, low resolu- Data is collected by a computer and recorded as data
tion scans can take less than a second, but high resolution points within Three-dimensional space, with processing
2.2. 3D SCANNER
37
eld of view at once. Scanning an entire eld of view in a
fraction of a second reduces or eliminates the problem of
distortion from motion. Some existing systems are capable of scanning moving objects in real-time. VisionMaster creates a 3D scanning system with a 5-megapixel camera 5 million data points are acquired in every frame.
A real-time scanner using digital fringe projection and
phase-shifting technique (certain kinds of structured light
methods) was developed, to capture, reconstruct, and
render high-density details of dynamically deformable
objects (such as facial expressions) at 40 frames per
second.[8] Recently, another scanner has been developed.
Dierent patterns can be applied to this system, and the
frame rate for capturing and data processing achieves 120
frames per second. It can also scan isolated surfaces, for
example two moving hands.[9] By utilising the binary defocusing technique, speed breakthroughs have been made
that could reach hundreds of [10] to thousands of frames
per second.[11]
Modulated light
Using a periscope allows to into small diameter holes and measure bottom and side walls.
Volumetric techniques
Structured light
Main article: Structured-light 3D scanner
Structured-light 3D scanners project a pattern of light on
the subject and look at the deformation of the pattern on
the subject. The pattern is projected onto the subject using either an LCD projector or other stable light source.
A camera, oset slightly from the pattern projector, looks
at the shape of the pattern and calculates the distance of
every point in the eld of view.
Structured-light scanning is still a very active area of research with many research papers published each year.
Perfect maps have also been proven useful as structured
light patterns that solve the correspondence problem and
allow for error detection and error correction.[24] [See
Morano, R., et al. Structured Light Using Pseudoran- Industrial
Although most common in medicine,
dom Codes, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Industrial computed tomography, Microtomography and
Machine Intelligence.
MRI are also used in other elds for acquiring a digiThe advantage of structured-light 3D scanners is speed tal representation of an object and its interior, such as
and precision. Instead of scanning one point at a time, non destructive materials testing, reverse engineering, or
structured light scanners scan multiple points or the entire studying biological and paleontological specimens.
38
Non-contact passive
Passive 3D imaging solutions do not emit any kind of ra- Most applications, however, use instead polygonal 3D
diation themselves, but instead rely on detecting reected models, NURBS surface models, or editable featureambient radiation. Most solutions of this type detect vis- based CAD models (aka Solid models).
ible light because it is a readily available ambient radiation. Other types of radiation, such as infra red could also
Polygon mesh models: In a polygonal representation
be used. Passive methods can be very cheap, because in
of a shape, a curved surface is modeled as many
most cases they do not need particular hardware but simsmall faceted at surfaces (think of a sphere modple digital cameras.
eled as a disco ball). Polygon modelsalso called
Mesh models, are useful for visualisation, for some
CAM (i.e., machining), but are generally heavy
Stereoscopic systems usually employ two video cam( i.e., very large data sets), and are relatively uneras, slightly apart, looking at the same scene. By
editable in this form. Reconstruction to polygoanalysing the slight dierences between the images
nal model involves nding and connecting adjacent
seen by each camera, it is possible to determine
points with straight lines in order to create a continthe distance at each point in the images. This
uous surface. Many applications, both free and nonmethod is based on the same principles driving hufree, are available for this purpose (e.g. MeshLab,
man stereoscopic vision.
PointCab, kubit PointCloud for AutoCAD, JRC
Photometric systems usually use a single camera, but
3D Reconstructor, imagemodel, PolyWorks, Rapidtake multiple images under varying lighting condiform, Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D etc.).
tions. These techniques attempt to invert the image
Surface models: The next level of sophistication
formation model in order to recover the surface oriin modeling involves using a quilt of curved surentation at each pixel.
face patches to model our shape. These might be
Silhouette techniques use outlines created from a seNURBS, TSplines or other curved representations
quence of photographs around a three-dimensional
of curved topology. Using NURBS, our sphere is
object against a well contrasted background. These
a true mathematical sphere. Some applications ofsilhouettes are extruded and intersected to form the
fer patch layout by hand but the best in class ofvisual hull approximation of the object. With these
fer both automated patch layout and manual layout.
approaches some concavities of an object (like the
These patches have the advantage of being lighter
interior of a bowl) cannot be detected.
and more manipulable when exported to CAD. Surface models are somewhat editable, but only in a
sculptural sense of pushing and pulling to deform
User assisted (image-based modelling) There are
the surface. This representation lends itself well
other methods that, based on the user assisted detection
to modelling organic and artistic shapes. Providers
and identication of some features and shapes on a set
of surface modellers include Rapidform, Geomagic,
of dierent pictures of an object are able to build an
Rhino 3D, Maya, T Splines etc.
approximation of the object itself. This kind of techniques are useful to build fast approximation of simple
Solid CAD models:
From an engineershaped objects like buildings. Various commercial packing/manufacturing perspective, the ultimate
ages are available like D-Sculptor, iModeller, Autodesk
representation of a digitised shape is the editable,
ImageModeler, 123DCatch or PhotoModeler.
parametric CAD model. After all, CAD is the
common language of industry to describe, edit
This sort of 3D imaging solution is based on the prinand maintain the shape of the enterprises assets.
ciples of photogrammetry. It is also somewhat similar
In CAD, our sphere is described by parametric
in methodology to panoramic photography, except that
features which are easily edited by changing a value
the photos are taken of one object on a three-dimensional
(e.g., centre point and radius).
space in order to replicate it instead of taking a series of
photos from one point in a three-dimensional space in orThese CAD models describe not simply the envelope or
der to replicate the surrounding environment.
shape of the object, but CAD models also embody the
design intent (i.e., critical features and their relationship to other features). An example of design intent not
2.2.3 Reconstruction
evident in the shape alone might be a brake drums lug
bolts, which must be concentric with the hole in the centre
From point clouds
of the drum. This knowledge would drive the sequence
The point clouds produced by 3D scanners and 3D imag- and method of creating the CAD model; a designer with
ing can be used directly for measurement and visualisa- an awareness of this relationship would not design the lug
tion in the architecture and construction world.
bolts referenced to the outside diameter, but instead, to
2.2. 3D SCANNER
the center. A modeler creating a CAD model will want
to include both Shape and design intent in the complete
CAD model.
Vendors oer dierent approaches to getting to the parametric CAD model. Some export the NURBS surfaces
and leave it to the CAD designer to complete the model
in CAD (e.g., Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D). Others
use the scan data to create an editable and veriable feature based model that is imported into CAD with full feature tree intact, yielding a complete, native CAD model,
capturing both shape and design intent (e.g. Geomagic,
Rapidform). Still other CAD applications are robust
enough to manipulate limited points or polygon models
within the CAD environment (e.g., CATIA, AutoCAD,
Revit).
From a set of 2D slices
39
of the object. Volume rendering is usually only used
for visualisation of the scanned object.
Image segmentation: Where dierent structures
have similar threshold/greyscale values, it can become impossible to separate them simply by adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is
called segmentation, a manual or automatic procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from
the image. Image segmentation software usually allows export of the segmented structures in CAD or
STL format for further manipulation.
Image-based meshing: When using 3D image data
for computational analysis (e.g. CFD and FEA),
simply segmenting the data and meshing from CAD
can become time consuming, and virtually intractable for the complex topologies typical of image
data. The solution is called image-based meshing,
an automated process of generating an accurate and
realistic geometrical description of the scan data.
From laser scans
Laser scanning describes the general method to sample or
scan a surface using laser technology. Several areas of application exist that mainly dier in the power of the lasers
that are used, and in the results of the scanning process.
Low laser power is used when the scanned surface doesn't
have to be inuenced, e.g. when it only has to be digitised.
Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to get information about the scanned surface. Another low-power
application uses structured light projection systems for
solar cell atness metrology, enabling stress calculation
throughout in excess of 2000 wafers per hour.[12]
The laser power used for laser scanning equipment in industrial applications is typically less than 1W. The power
level is usually on the order of 200 mW or less but sometime more.
2.2.4 Applications
Construction industry and civil engineering
Robotic control: e.g. a laser scanner may function
as the eye of a robot.[13][14]
As-built drawings of bridges, industrial plants, and
monuments
Documentation of historical sites
Site modelling and lay outing
Quality control
Quantity surveys
Freeway redesign
40
Entertainment
3D scanners are used by the entertainment industry to
create digital 3D models for movies, video games and
leisure purposes. They are heavily utilised in virtual cinematography. In cases where a real-world equivalent of
a model exists, it is much faster to scan the real-world
object than to manually create a model using 3D modeling software. Frequently, artists sculpt physical models
of what they want and scan them into digital form rather
than directly creating digital models on a computer.
Law Enforcment
3D laser scanning is used by the FBI. 3D Models are used
for on-site documentation of:[17]
Crime scenes
Bullet trajectory
Accident reconstruction
Bombings
Plane crashes, and more
2.2. 3D SCANNER
exhibit consisted of a rear projection display on a wall
and a pair of stereo glasses for the viewer. The glasses,
combined with polarised projectors, provided a 3D effect. Position tracking hardware on the glasses allowed
the display to adapt as the viewer moves around, creating
the illusion that the display is actually a hole in the wall
looking into Jeersons Library. The Jeersons Cabinet
exhibit was a barrier stereogram (essentially a non-active
hologram that appears dierent from dierent angles) of
Jeersons Cabinet.
41
is being made available to the public for free and downloadable in several data formats.
Medical CAD/CAM
3D scanners are used to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry. It gradually supplants tedious plaster cast. CAD/CAM software are then used to
design and manufacture the orthosis, prosthesis or dental
implants.
Within highly automated processes, the resulting geometric measures are transferred to machines that manufacture the desired objects. Due to mechanical uncertainties and abrasions, the result may dier from its digital
nominal. In order to automatically capture and evaluate
these deviations, the manufactured part must be digitised
as well. For this purpose, 3D scanners are applied to generate point samples from the objects surface which are
nally compared against the nominal data.[27]
The process of comparing 3D data against a CAD model
is referred to as CAD-Compare, and can be a useful
technique for applications such as determining wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accuracy of nal build, analysing gap and ush, or analysing highly
complex sculpted surfaces. At present, laser triangulation
scanners, structured light and contact scanning are the
predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact scanning remaining the slowest, but
42
2.2.5
See also
3D printing
3D reconstruction
3D computer graphics software
Angle-sensitive pixel
Depth map
Epipolar geometry
Light-eld camera
Photogrammetry
Range imaging
Structured-light 3D scanner
2.2.6
References
43
2.3.1
2.3.2
Gallery
2.3.3
See also
2.3.4
References
Chapter 3
Manufacturing processes
3.1 Contour crafting
3.1.1
[1] Annenberg Foundation Puts Robotic Disaster Rebuilding Technology on Fast Track. University of Souther
California School of Engineering. November 14, 2005.
Retrieved May 8, 2012.
[2] Automated Construction using Contour Crafting Applications on Earth and Beyond PDF
[3] Caterpillar Inc. Funds Viterbi 'Print-a-House' Construction Technology. USC Viterbi School of Engineering.
August 28, 2008. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
History
3.2.1
Benets
3.2.2
Applications
45
highly complex parts and the tooling industry to make direct tooling inserts. With a typical build envelope (e.g.
for EOSs EOSINT M280[1] ) of 250 x 250 x 325 mm,
and the ability to grow multiple parts at one time, DMLS
is a very cost and time eective technology. The technology is used both for rapid prototyping, as it decreases
development time for new products, and production manufacturing as a cost saving method to simplify assemblies
and complex geometries.[2]
The Northwestern Polytechnical University of China is
using a similar system to build structural titanium parts
for aircraft.[3] An EADS study shows that use of the
process would reduce materials and waste in aerospace
applications.[4]
On September 5, 2013 Elon Musk tweeted an image of
SpaceX's regeneratively-cooled SuperDraco rocket engine chamber emerging from an EOS 3D metal printer,
noting that it was composed of the Inconel superalloy.[5]
In a surprise move, SpaceX announced in May 2014 that
the ight-qualied version of the SuperDraco engine is
fully printed, and is the rst fully printed rocket engine.
Using Inconel, an alloy of nickel and iron, additivelymanufactured by direct metal laser sintering, the engine operates at a chamber pressure of 6,900 kilopascals (1,000 psi) at a very high temperature. The engines are contained in a printed protective nacelle, also
DMLS-printed, to prevent fault propagation in the event
of an engine failure.[6][7][8] The engine completed a full
qualication test in May 2014, and is slated to make its
rst orbital spaceight in 2015 or 2016.[8]
The ability to 3D print the complex parts was key to
achieving the low-mass objective of the engine. According to Elon Musk, Its a very complex engine, and it was
very dicult to form all the cooling channels, the injector
head, and the throttling mechanism. Being able to print
very high strength advanced alloys ... was crucial to being able to create the SuperDraco engine as it is.[9] The
3D printing process for the SuperDraco engine dramatically reduces lead-time compared to the traditional cast
parts, and has superior strength, ductility, and fracture
resistance, with a lower variability in materials properties.[10]
3.2.3 Constraints
The aspects of size, feature details and surface nish, as
well as print through error in the Z axis may be factors
that should be considered prior to the use of the technology. However, by planning the build in the machine
where most features are built in the x and y axis as the
material is laid down, the feature tolerances can be managed well. Surfaces usually have to be polished to achieve
mirror or extremely smooth nishes.
This technology is used to manufacture direct parts for For production tooling, material density of a nished part
a variety of industries including aerospace, dental, med- or insert should be addressed prior to use. For example, in
ical and other industries that have small to medium size, injection molding inserts, any surface imperfections will
46
RepRap Project
Solid freeform fabrication
Stereolithography
Laser engineered net shaping
Laser sintering of gold
3.2.4
Materials
3.2.5
See also
Rapid manufacturing
[12] http://knowledge.stereolithography.com/activekb/
questions/74/STL+File+Conversion
Rapid prototyping
[13] http://www.eos.info/material-m
3.3. D-SHAPE
3.2.7
External links
3.3 D-Shape
D-Shape is a large 3-dimensional printer that uses
binder-jetting, a layer by layer printing process, to bind
sand with an inorganic seawater[1] and magnesium-based
binder[2] in order to create stone-like objects. Invented by
Enrico Dini, founder of Monolite UK Ltd, the rst model
of the D-Shape printer used epoxy resin, commonly used
as an adhesive in the construction of skis, cars, and
airplanes, as the binder. Dini patented this model in
2006.[3] After experiencing problems with the epoxy,
Dini changed the binder to the current magnesium-based
one and patented his printer again in September 2008.[4]
In the future, Dini aims to use the printer to create fullscale buildings.
3.3.1
Technical description
3.3.2
How it works
47
about 24 hours for the material to completely solidify.
Because the nozzles are 20mm apart there are gaps that
may need to be lled up. To ll in these gaps and ensure the sand is uniformly exposed to the binder, an electric piston on the beam that holds the printer head forces
the printer head to shift in the direction perpendicular to
the printers direction of motion. It takes D-Shape four
forward and backward strokes to nish printing a layer.
After a layer is nished, the stepper motors on the vertical beams move the base upwards. From the hollow
framework just above the printer head, new sand, which is
cyclically relled, is distributed into the area of the frame
to create the next layer.[8] During printing, excess sand
acts as a support for the solidifying sand and can also be
reused in later printings. The printing process is continuous and stops only when the desired structure is completely printed.
48
Radiolaria
D-Shape successfully created the tallest printed sculpture, Radiolaria, in 2009.[14] Radiolaria, a sculpture created by Italian architect Andrea Morgante and inspired
by radiolarians, unicellular organisms with intricate mineral skeletons, shows o D-Shapes ability to print large
freeform structures. The current version of the sculpture
is only a 3 x 3 x 3m scale model of the full-size Radiolaria
that is planned to be put in a roundabout in Pontedera,
Italy.[15]
3.3.5
Future of D-Shape
Currently, Jake Wake-Walker and Marc Webb are working on a documentary, titled The Man Who Prints Houses,
about Enrico Dini and his invention.[16] Although DShape has garnered attention for its printing abilities, it is
still a work in progress. While it has gotten close to printing an actual house by printing a trullo, which is a small,
stone hut,[17] the printer still needs to be modied in order to make Dinis dreams of printing larger and more
complex buildings a reality.
Lunar bases
Because of D-Shapes capabilities, the European Space
Agency (ESA) has taken interest in using the printer to
build moon bases.[18] The ESA is interested in using DShape to build moon bases out of lunar regolith, otherwise known as moon dust, because the 3-D printer can
build the base onsite without human intervention. This
is advantageous because only the machine would have to
be taken to the moon, thus reducing the cost of bringing
building materials to the lunar surface to create the bases.
D-Shape has been successful in printing components for
the lunar bases with a simulated moon dust, and has also
been subject to tests that aim to see how the printer will
work in the environment on the moon.[19]
3.3.6
References
[4] Dini, Enrico. Method for automatically producing a conglomerate structure and apparatus therefor US 8337736
B2. US Patents. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
[5] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[6] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[7] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[8] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[9] Dini, Enrico. Method for automatically producing a conglomerate structure and apparatus therefor US 8337736
B2. US Patents. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
[10] Parsons, Sarah (17 March 2010). 3-D Printer Creates
Entire Buildings From Solid Rock. Habitat. Retrieved
22 October 2013.
[11] Belezina, Jan (24 February 2012). D-Shape 3D printer
can print full-sized houses. Gizmag. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[12] D-Shape Promises To Modernize New Yorks Shoreline
Using 3D-Printing Technology. The Hungton Post. 3
June 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[13] D-Shape wins top prize in NYC Waterfront Construction
Competition. 3ders.org. 12 April 2013. Retrieved 20
October 2013.
[14] Quirk, Vanessa. How 3D Printing Will Change Our
World. Arch Daily. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
[15] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[16] Blagdon, Je (21 February 2012). British company uses
3D printing to make stone buildings out of sand. The
Verge. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[17] Quirk, Vanessa. How 3D Printing Will Change Our
World. Arch Daily. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
[18] Edwards, Lin (19 April 2010). 3D printer could build
moon bases. Phys.org. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[19] Cesaretti, Giovanni; Enrico Dini; Xavier de Kestelier;
Valentina Colla; Laurent Pambaguian (January 2014).
Building components for an outpost on the Lunar soil by
means of a novel 3D printing technology. Acta Astronautica 93: 430450. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.07.034.
Retrieved 4 November 2013.
3.3.7
External links
49
growth of rapid prototyping techniques such as stereolithography, rst developed for non-structural plastic
parts over thirty years ago.[1]
3.4.2 Process
The operational concept of EBF3 is to build a near-netshape metal part directly from a Computer Aided Design
(CAD) le. Current computer-aided machining practices
start with a CAD model and use a post-processor to write
the machining instructions (G-code) dening the cutting
tool paths needed to make the part. EBF3 uses a similar process, starting with a CAD model, numerically slicing it into layers, then using a post-processor to write the
G-code dening the deposition path and process parameters for the EBF3 equipment.[2] It uses a focused electron
beam in a vacuum environment to create a molten pool on
a metallic substrate. The beam is translated with respect
to the surface of the substrate while metal wire is fed into
the molten pool. The deposit solidies immediately after the electron beam has passed, having sucient structural strength to support itself. The sequence is repeated
in a layer-additive manner to produce a near-net-shape
part needing only nish machining. The EBF3 process is
scalable for components from fractions of an inch to tens
of feet in size, limited mainly by the size of the vacuum
chamber and amount of wire feedstock available.[3]
Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3 ) is an additive manufacturing process that builds near-net-shape
parts requiring less raw material and nish machining 3.4.3 See also
than traditional manufacturing methods. It uses a fo Electron beam additive manufacturing
cused electron beam in a vacuum environment to create
a molten pool on a metallic substrate.
3.4.4 References
3.4.1
History
[1] http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/
20080013538_2008013396.pdf
Electron
Beam
Freeform Fabrication for Cost Eective Near-Net
Shape
50
3.5.1 History
Fused deposition modelling: 1 nozzle ejecting molten material,
2 deposited material (modeled part), 3 controlled movable
table
3.5.2 Process
The model or part is produced by extruding small attened strings of molten material to form layers as the material hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozFused deposition modeling (FDM) is an additive man- zle
ufacturing technology commonly used for modeling, pro- A plastic lament or metal wire is unwound from a coil
totyping, and production applications. It is one of the and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which can
51
3.5.3
Commercial applications
52
Hyrel 3D
MakerBot Industries
Printrbot
Rapid prototyping
RepRap Project
Robo 3D
Selective laser sintering
Stereolithography
Ultimaker
Von Neumann universal constructor
SNT 3D Printers
[4] Chee Kai Chua; Kah Fai Leong, Chu Sing Lim (2003).
Rapid Prototyping. World Scientic. p. 124. ISBN
9789812381170.
53
Stephens, Brent; Parham Azimia; Zeineb El Orcha;
Tianie Ramos (November 2013).
Ultrane
Particle Emissions from Desktop 3D Printers. Atmospheric Environment 79: 334339.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050.
Retrieved
13 August 2013.
How Fused Deposition Modeling Works.
THRE3D.com. Archived from the original on
February 21, 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
3D Printing process and How FDM technology
works Video. homeshop3dprinting.com. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
Complete list of G-code used by 3D printers
rmware of RepRap project. RepRap.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
54
3. Laser cross hatches non-part area to facilitate waste center of the head and is focused to a small spot by one
removal.
or more lenses. The X-Y table is moved in raster fashion
to fabricate each layer of the object. The head is moved
4. Platform with completed layer moves down out of up vertically as each layer is completed. Metal powders
the way.
are delivered and distributed around the circumference
of the head either by gravity, or by using a pressurized
5. Fresh sheet of material is rolled into position.
carrier gas. An inert shroud gas is often used to shield
6. Platform downs into new position to receive next the melt pool from atmospheric oxygen for better control
of properties, and to promote layer to layer adhesion by
layer.
providing better surface wetting.
7. The process is repeated.
This process is similar to other 3D fabrication technologies in its approach in that it forms a solid component
Note:
by the layer additive method. The LENS process can
go from metal and metal oxide powder to metal parts,
Low cost due to readily available raw material
in many cases without any secondary operations. LENS
is similar to selective laser sintering, but the metal pow Paper models have wood like characteristics, and
der is applied only where material is being added to the
may be worked and nished accordingly
part at that moment. It can produce parts in a wide range
Dimensional accuracy is slightly less than that of of alloys, including titanium, stainless steel, aluminum,
stereolithography and selective laser sintering but no and other specialty materials; as well as composite and
functionally graded materials. Primary applications for
milling step is necessary.
LENS technology include repair & overhaul, rapid pro Relatively large parts may be made, because no totyping, rapid manufacturing, and limited-run manufacchemical reaction is necessary.[2][3]
turing for aerospace, defense, and medical markets. Microscopy studies show the LENS parts to be fully dense
with no compositional degradation. Mechanical testing
3.6.1 References
reveals outstanding as-fabricated mechanical properties.
[1] How Laminated Object Manufacturing
THRE3D.com. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
Works.
The process can also make near net shape parts when
its not possible to make an item to exact specications.
In these cases post production light machining, surface
nishing, or heat treatment may be applied to achieve end
compliance.
3.8.1
General principle
3.8.2
History
55
3.8.5 Users
The target users for magnetic 3D bioprinting are in the
pharmaceutical and CRO industries, where this system
can be integrated early in the drug discovery process as a
compound screen for toxicity and ecacy. In the future,
magnetic 3D bioprinting could be applied to the eld of
regenerative medicine and organogenesis. Overall, magnetic 3D bioprinting is an eective tool to create faithful
models of native tissue.
Organovo
The rst commercially available 3D bioprinting system is
being commercialized by Nano3D Biosciences, Inc. The
rst application of this system is for high-throughput and 3.8.7 References
high-content drug screening.[8]
3.8.3
Process
In this system, cells are magnetically printed into 3D patterns (rings or dots), and after printing, interact with surrounding cells and ECM to migrate and proliferate and
ultimately shrink the structure, typically within 24 h. This
shrinkage varies with drug concentration and is a labelfree metric of cell function that can be easily captured
and measured with brighteld imaging.[8] In this system,
the size of the pattern is captured using an iPod-based
system, which is programmed using a freely available app
(Experimental Assistant) to image whole plates of up to
96 structures at small intervals (as small as 1 s) to efciently capture pharmacodynamics. A 384 version of
this system is currently being developed. Results employing magnetic 3D bioprinting were recently published in
Scientic Reports in October 2013.[8]
3.8.4
Application
56
3.9.1
History
3.9.3
Materials
In the original implementations, starch and gypsum plaster ll the powder bed, the liquid binder being mostly
water to activate the plaster. The binder also includes
dyes (for color printing), and additives to adjust viscosity,
surface tension, and boiling point to match print head
specications. The resulting plaster parts typically lack
"green strength" and require inltration by melted wax,
cyanoacrylate glue, epoxy, etc. before regular handling.
Like other powder-bed processes, surface nish and accuracy, object density, anddepending on the material
and processpart strength may be inferior to technologies such as stereolithography (SLA) or selective laser
sintering (SLS). Although stair-stepping and asymmetrical dimensional properties are features of 3D printing as
most other layered manufacturing processes, 3D printing
materials are generally consolidated in such a way that
minimizes the dierence between vertical and in-plane
resolution. The process also lends itself to rasterization
of layers at target resolutions, a fast process that can accommodate intersecting solids and other data artifacts.
3.10. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
57
3.9.5
See also
3D printing
List of common 3D test models
3D printing marketplace
Volumetric printing
3.9.6
References
[4] http://www.fusion3design.com/
[5] http://3dprint.com/12560/plan-b-3dp-3d-printer/
3.10 Stereolithography
Scanner system
Laser
3.10.1 History
Laser beam
Liquid resin
Stereolithography apparatus
Stereolithography (SLA or SL; also known as Optical Fabrication, Photo-Solidication, Solid FreeForm Fabrication, Solid Imaging, Rapid Prototyping, Resin Printing, and 3D printing) is a form
of additive manufacturing technology used for creating
58
3.10.2
Technology
Although stereolithography can be used to produce virtually any synthetic design,[13] it is often costly; the cost
of photopolymer resin can be around $2500 per gallon (DSM Somos 11-122) and SLA machines can cost
$250,000.[18] Recently, public interest in stereolithography has inspired the design of several consumer models of
3D printer which feature drastically reduced prices, such
as the Titan 1 by Kudo3D, the Ilios HD by GizmoForYou,
the Form 2 by Formlabs & CTC Riverside and the Pegasus Touch by FSL3D, and the Nobel 1.0 by XYZPrinting.
There has also been a reduction of the cost of photopoly-
3.10. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
59
mer resins, with USA based providers such as MakerJuice [15] Stereolithography (SLA)". www.amtech-rp.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
Labs oering consumers photopolymer resins with prices
as low as $55 per Liter, and European based providers
such as spot-A Materials oering materials for 68 per [16] Formlabs Form 2 3D Printer review: An excellent 3D
printer for a hefty price. CNET. Retrieved 3 February
Liter.
3.10.4
See also
Stereolithography (medicine)
Thermoforming
3.10.5
References
3.10.6 Notes
Kalpakjian, Serope and Steven R. Schmid. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 5th edition.
Ch. 20 (pp. 586587 Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper
Saddle River NJ, 2006.
60
3.12.1 History
Selective heat sintering (SHS) is a type of additive manufacturing process. It works by using a thermal printhead
to apply heat to layers of powdered thermoplastic. When
a layer is nished, the powder bed moves down, and
an automated roller adds a new layer of material which
is sintered to form the next cross-section of the model.
SHS is best for manufacturing inexpensive prototypes for
concept evaluation, t/form and functional testing. SHS
is a Plastics additive manufacturing technique similar to
selective laser sintering (SLS), the main dierence being
that SHS employs a less intense thermal printhead instead
of a laser, thereby making it a cheaper solution, and able
to be scaled down to desktop sizes.[1]
3.11.1
References
3.12.2 Technology
An additive manufacturing layer technology, SLS involves the use of a high power laser (for example, a carbon
dioxide laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal,
ceramic, or glass powders into a mass that has a desired
three-dimensional shape. The laser selectively fuses powdered material by scanning cross-sections generated from
a 3-D digital description of the part (for example from a
CAD le or scan data) on the surface of a powder bed.
After each cross-section is scanned, the powder bed is
lowered by one layer thickness, a new layer of material is
applied on top, and the process is repeated until the part
is completed.
Because nished part density depends on peak laser
power, rather than laser duration, a SLS machine typically uses a pulsed laser. The SLS machine preheats the
bulk powder material in the powder bed somewhat below
its melting point, to make it easier for the laser to raise the
temperature of the selected regions the rest of the way to
the melting point.[6]
In contrast with some other additive manufacturing processes, such as stereolithography (SLA) and fused deposition modeling (FDM), which most often require special
support structures to fabricate overhanging designs, SLS
does not need a separate feeder for support material because the part being constructed is surrounded by unsintered powder at all times, this allows for the construction
of previously impossible geometries. Also, since the machines chamber is always lled with powder material the
fabrication of multiple parts has a far lower impact on the
overall diculty and price of the design because through
a technique known as 'Nesting' multiple parts can be positioned to t within the boundaries of the machine. One
design aspect which should be observed however is that
with SLS it is 'impossible' to fabricate a hollow but fully
enclosed element. This is because the unsintered powder
within the element can't be drained.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing (AM) technique that uses a laser as the power
source to sinter powdered material (typically metal), aiming the laser automatically at points in space dened by
a 3D model, binding the material together to create a
solid structure. It is similar to direct metal laser sintering (DMLS); the two are instantiations of the same concept but dier in technical details. Selective laser melting
(SLM) uses a comparable concept, but in SLM the material is fully melted rather than sintered,[1] allowing different properties (crystal structure, porosity, and so on).
SLS (as well as the other mentioned AM techniques) is a
relatively new technology that so far has mainly been used
for rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of Since patents have started to expire, aordable home
component parts. Production roles are expanding as the printers have become possible, but the heating process is
commercialization of AM technology improves.
still an obstacle, with a power consumption of up to 5 kW
3.12.3
61
Instant manufacturing, also known as direct manufacturing or on-demand manufacturing
Rapid manufacturing
Rapid prototyping
RepRap Project
Some SLS machines use single-component powder, such
Solid freeform fabrication
as direct metal laser sintering. Powders are commonly
produced by ball milling. However, most SLS machines
Von Neumann universal constructor
use two-component powders, typically either coated powder or a powder mixture. In single-component powders,
the laser melts only the outer surface of the particles
3.12.5 References
(surface melting), fusing the solid non-melted cores to
each other and to the previous layer.[6]
[1] How Selective Laser Sintering Works. THRE3D.com.
Retrieved 7 February 2014.
Compared with other methods of additive manufacturing, SLS can produce parts from a relatively wide range of [2] Deckard, C., Method and apparatus for producing parts
commercially available powder materials. These include
by selective sintering, U.S. Patent 4,863,538, led Octopolymers such as nylon (neat, glass-lled, or with other
ber 17, 1986, published September 5, 1989.
llers) or polystyrene, metals including steel, titanium, alloy mixtures, and composites and green sand. The physi- [3] Lou, Alex and Grosvenor, Carol "Selective Laser Sintering, Birth of an Industry", The University of Texas, Decal process can be full melting, partial melting, or liquidcember 07, 2012. Retrieved on March 22, 2013.
phase sintering. Depending on the material, up to 100%
density can be achieved with material properties com- [4] US5597589
parable to those from conventional manufacturing methods. In many cases large numbers of parts can be packed [5] Housholder, R., Molding Process, U.S. Patent
4,247,508, led December 3, 1979, published January
within the powder bed, allowing very high productivity.
SLS technology is in wide use around the world due to its
ability to easily make very complex geometries directly
from digital CAD data. While it began as a way to build
prototype parts early in the design cycle, it is increasingly
being used in limited-run manufacturing to produce enduse parts. One less expected and rapidly growing application of SLS is its use in art.
27, 1981.
[6] Prasad K. D. V. Yarlagadda; S. Narayanan (February
2005). GCMM 2004: 1st International Conference on
Manufacturing and Management. Alpha Science Int'l. pp.
73. ISBN 978-81-7319-677-5. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
3.12.4
See also
3D printing
Desktop manufacturing
Digital fabricator
Direct digital manufacturing
Fab lab
Selective laser melting is an additive manufacturing process that uses 3D CAD data as a digital information
source and energy in the form of a high-power laser beam,
to create three-dimensional metal parts by fusing ne
metal powders together. Manufacturing applications in
aerospace or medical orthopedics are being pioneered.
3.13.1 History
Selective laser melting started in 1995 at the Fraunhofer
Institute ILT in Aachen, Germany, with a German research project, resulting in the so-called basic ILT SLM
patent DE 19649865. Already during its pioneering
62
phase Dr. Dieter Schwarze and Dr. Matthias Fockele from F&S Stereolithographietechnik GmbH located
in Paderborn collaborated with the ILT researchers Dr.
Wilhelm Meiners and Dr. Konrad Wissenbach. In the
early 2000s F&S entered into a commercial partnership
with MCP HEK GmbH (later on named MTT Technology GmbH and then SLM Solutions GmbH) located
in Luebeck in northern Germany. Today Dr. Dieter
Schwarze is with SLM Solutions GmbH and Dr. Matthias
Fockele founded Realizer GmbH.
The ASTM International F42 standards committee has
grouped selective laser melting into the category of laser
sintering, although this is an acknowledged misnomer
because the process fully melts the metal into a solid homogeneous mass, unlike selective laser sintering (SLS)
and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), which are true
sintering processes. A similar process is electron beam
melting (EBM), which uses an electron beam as energy
source.
3.13.2
Process
3.13.3
Materials
3.13.4 Applications
The types of applications most suited to the selective
laser melting process are complex geometries & structures with thin walls and hidden voids or channels on the
one hand or low lot sizes on the other hand. Advantage
can be gained when producing hybrid forms where solid
and partially formed or lattice type geometries can be produced together to create a single object, such as a hip stem
or acetabular cup or other orthopedic implant where oseointegration is enhanced by the surface geometry. Much
of the pioneering work with selective laser melting technologies is on lightweight parts for aerospace[1] where traditional manufacturing constraints, such as tooling and
physical access to surfaces for machining, restrict the design of components. SLM allows parts to be built additively to form near net shape components rather than by
removing waste material.
Traditional manufacturing techniques have a relatively
high set-up cost (e.g. for creating a mold). While
SLM has a high cost per part (mostly because it is timeintensive), it is advisable if only very few parts are to be
produced. This is the case e.g. for spare parts of old
machines (like vintage cars) or individual products like
implants.
Tests by NASAs Marshall Space Flight Center, which is
experimenting with the technique to make some dicultto-fabricate parts from nickel alloys for the J-2X and RS25 rocket engines, show that dicult to make parts made
with the technique are somewhat weaker than forged and
milled parts but often avoid the need for welds which are
weak points.[1]
3.13.5 Potential
Selective laser melting or additive manufacturing, sometimes referred to as rapid manufacturing or rapid prototyping, is in its infancy with relatively few users in comparison to conventional methods such as machining, casting or forging metals, although those that are using the
technology have become highly procient. Like any process or method selective laser melting must be suited to
the task at hand. Markets such as aerospace or medical orthopedics have been evaluating the technology as
a manufacturing process. Barriers to acceptance are high
and compliance issues result in long periods of certication and qualication. This is demonstrated by the lack of
fully formed international standards by which to measure
the performance of competing systems. The standard in
question is ASTM F2792-10 Standard Terminology for
Additive Manufacturing Technologies.
3.13.6
See also
63
are auto-stereoscopic, full parallax (in both horizontal
and vertical viewing arrangements) and can be viewed by
multiple viewers in regular room lighting. A volumetric print can be thought of as a reconstructed light eld
based on the scattering of light by distributed pigments
in volume. Any three-dimensional scene can be volumetrically printed, although biological specimens and volumetrically X-rayed objects (i.e., CT scans) are thought to
be particularly well suited to this type of imaging.[1]
There are several methods for producing a volumetric
print, the most common being an index-matched stack
of hundreds of sheets of thin clear material (most often
PMMA, also known as Lucite or acrylic). Each sheet in
the volumetric stack is printed with a color slice of a digital 3D model, placed in a vacuum chamber, and then
injected with a uid matching the index of refraction of
the sheet material.[2]
3.13.7
References
3.13.8
Further reading
3.14.1 References
[1] Kickstarter project lets you print eerie 3D x-rays. Wired
UK. 2 June 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2014.
[2] And Now For Something Completely Dierent: Volumetric Printing. 3D Printing Industry. 1 June 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
Chapter 4
Applications
4.1 3D printed rearms
In 2012, the U.S.-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to design a working plastic gun that could
be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D
printer.[1][2] Defense Distributed has also designed a
3D printable AR-15 type rie lower receiver (capable
of lasting more than 650 rounds) and a variety of magazines, including ones for AK-47.[3] Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the rst working blueprint to produce a plastic gun with a 3D printer
in May 2013, the United States Department of State
demanded that they remove the instructions from their
website.[4]
65
The
Japan
In Japan, in May 2014, Yoshitomo Imura was the rst [12] Homeland Security bulletin warns 3D-printed guns may
be 'impossible' to stop. Fox News. 2013-05-23. Reperson to be arrested for possessing printed guns. Imura
trieved 2013-11-10.
had ve guns, two of which were capable of being red,
but had no ammunition. Imura had previously posted
[13] Cochrane, Peter (2013-05-21). Peter Cochranes Blog:
blueprints and video of his guns to the Internet, which
Beyond 3D Printed Guns. TechRepublic. Retrieved
triggered the investigation.[39]
2013-11-10.
4.1.3
See also
3D printing
Defense Distributed
Gun control
Gun politics in the United States
Improvised rearm
List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts
4.1.4
References
66
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
[28] Like It Or Not, 3D Printing Will Probably Be Legislated. TechCrunch. 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[29] Liz Klimas (2013-02-19). Engineer: Dont Regulate 3D
Printed Guns, Regulate Explosive Gun Powder Instead |
Video. TheBlaze.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
The new United Launch Alliance Vulcan launch vehiclewith rst launch no earlier than 2019is evaluating 3d-printing for over 150 parts: 100 polymer and 50+
[2]
[30] Beckhusen, Robert (2013-02-15). 3-D Printing Pioneer metal parts.
Wants Government to Restrict Gunpowder, Not Printable
Guns | Danger Room. Wired.com. Retrieved 2013-1110.
[31] How Defense Distributed Already Upended the World
- Philip Bump. The Atlantic Wire. 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
[32] Gayle S Putrich (13 May 2013). Plastic gun draws eyes
to 3-D printing. European Plastics News. External link
in |publisher= (help)
[33] Senator seeks to extend ban on 'undetectable' 3D-printed
guns. the Guardian. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
[34] H.R. 1474
[35] S. 1149
[36] On
Undetectable
Firearms
Act
blog.defdist.org.
Defense Distributed.
18, 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
Renewal.
November
[37] H.R. 3626 - All Actions. United States Congress. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
[38] House votes to renew ban on plastic rearms.
Foxnews.com. 3 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December
2013.
[39] Japanese man arrested for possessing 3-D printer guns.
Retrieved 15 February 2015.
4.1.5
4.2.1 Applications
Rocket engines
The SuperDraco engine that provides launch escape system and propulsive-landing thrust for the Dragon V2
passenger-carrying space capsule is fully printed, and
was the rst fully printed rocket engine. In particular,
the engine combustion chamber is printed of Inconel,
an alloy of nickel and iron, using a process of direct
metal laser sintering, and operates at a chamber pressure
6,900 kilopascals (1,000 psi) at a very high temperature.
The engines are contained in a printed protective nacelle
to prevent fault propagation in the event of an engine
failure.[3][4][5] The SuperDraco engine produces 73 kilonewtons (16,400 lbf) of thrust.[6] The engine completed
a full qualication test in May 2014, and is slated to make
its rst orbital spaceight in 2015 or 2016.[1][5]
The ability to 3D print the complex parts was key to
achieving the low-mass objective of the engine. Its a
very complex engine, and it was very dicult to form all
the cooling channels, the injector head, and the throttling
mechanism. ... [The ability] to print very high strength
advanced alloys ... was crucial to being able to create the
SuperDraco engine.[7]
External links
Spacecraft structure
By 2014, 3D printing had begun to be used to print the
entire mechanical structure and integral propellant tanks
of a small spacecraft.[10]
67
Texas, May 2014 Appendices (PDF), Blue Ridge Research and Consulting, LCC, p. 12, retrieved August 8,
2014
[7] Foust, Je (2014-05-30). SpaceX unveils its 21st century spaceship"". NewSpace Journal. Retrieved 2014-0531.
[8] Aerojet Rocketdyne 3D Prints An Entire Engine in Just
Three Parts. 3dprint.com. 2014-06-26. Retrieved 201408-08.
[9] Aerojet Rocketdyne Hot-Fire Tests Additive Manufactured Components for the AR1 Engine to Maintain 2019
Delivery. Aerojet Rocketdyne. 2015-03-15. Retrieved
5 June 2015.
[10] Diamandis, Peter (2014-06-26). Update from Planetary
Resources. Peter H. Diamandis channel. Planetary Resources. Retrieved 2014-07-30.
4.2.2
References
[1] SpaceX Launches 3D-Printed Part to Space, Creates Printed Engine Chamber for Crewed Spaceight.
SpaceX. Retrieved 2014-08-01. Compared with a traditionally cast part, a printed valve body has superior
strength, ductility, and fracture resistance, with a lower
variability in materials properties. The MOV body was
printed in less than two days, compared with a typical castings cycle measured in months. The valves extensive test
program including a rigorous series of engine rings,
component level qualication testing and materials testing
has since qualied the printed MOV body to y interchangeably with cast parts on all Falcon 9 ights going
forward.
[2] Stone, Je (2015-04-21). Vulcan Rocket: 3D Printing
Launch Plan Includes More Than 100 Components. International Business Times. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
[3] Norris, Guy (2014-05-30). SpaceX Unveils Step
Change Dragon V2". Aviation Week. Retrieved 201405-30.
[4] Kramer, Miriam (2014-05-30). SpaceX Unveils Dragon
V2 Spaceship, a Manned Space Taxi for Astronauts
Meet Dragon V2: SpaceXs Manned Space Taxi for Astronaut Trips. space.com. Retrieved 2014-05-30.
[5] Bergin, Chris (2014-05-30). SpaceX lifts the lid on the
Dragon V2 crew spacecraft. NASAspaceight.com. Retrieved 2014-05-30.
[6] James, Michael; Salton, Alexandria; Downing, Micah
(November 12, 2013), Draft Environmental Assessment
for Issuing an Experimental Permit to SpaceX for Operation of the Dragon Fly Vehicle at the McGregor Test Site,
68
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
4.3.1
History
69
a 4-storey, 13-room structure modelled on a traditional
Dutch canal house. One of the most distinct design features of the Canal House is its geometrically faceted plastic faade. 3D Print House Building BlocksThis gives
a contemporary 3D print twist to the traditional canal
house silhouette. The ability to print ornamental detailing on demand is a key design benet of 3D modelling
and printing in the building industry. With costly labourintensive work reduced, custom-designed homes would
become more accessible. So what are the main benets
of printing a house? Waste materials are a big problem
for the building industry, but with 3D printing only the
necessary raw materials are produced for each project.
An added bonus is that 3D printer ink can be made from
recycled plastic waste. If printing on site, transport costs
and CO2 emissions are greatly reduced as are dust and
noise levels. And when the building is no longer needed,
it can be shredded and recycled. Another key driver for
developing this technology within the construction industry is the growing need for rapidly produced housing. In
this respect, 3D printing has the potential to reshape the
way in which we build our cities especially as Megacities are on the increase around the globe. The 3D Print
Canal House was the rst full-scale construction project
of its kind to get o the ground. In just a short space of
time, the Kamermaker has been further developed to increase its production speed by 300%. However, progress
has not been swift enough to claim the title of Worlds
First 3D Printed House.[19]
The building blocks are then used to form component this was faked and that WinSun stole his intellectual propparts that can be slotted together like Lego to create erty.[28]
70
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Original
Contour
Crafting
Patent
[5] Patent by Dini et. al, Method and Device for Building
Automatically Conglomerate Structures. Patent number
US20080148683 A1 ] web cited 2016-07-18
[6] J.B.Gardiner PhD thesis Exploring the Emerging Design
Territory of Construction 3D Printing, 2011 (p89) web
cited 2016-07-18
[7] J.B.Gardiner PhD thesis Exploring the Emerging Design
Territory of Construction 3D Printing, 2011 (p337) web
cited 2016-07-18
[8] J.B.Gardiner PhD thesis Exploring the Emerging Design
Territory of Construction 3D Printing, 2011 (p81) web
cited 2016-07-18
[9] Freefab: Development of a construction-scale robotic
71
4.3.4
External links
Arduino Hardware
Critical making has been coined as a reaction to digitisa Future of Construction Process: 3D Concrete Print- tion and is moreover a reaction to things that have essentially been done before. It involves engaging with physical
ing, 2010.
components and materials in
Lunar Base Using 3D Printing, video, 2013.
their raw forms and building something from scratch, en 3D Printing of a lunar base using lunar soil will print couraging maker culture. Critical making is less about
buildings at 3.5 meters per hour, NextBigFuture, the aesthetics of the end product and more about the pro2013
cess and conceptual exploration.It is the inquiry that mat-
72
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
ters and not the nal solution Through making you get
a better understanding of how various technologies function. Critical Making gives birth to curiosity. While making, you question several aspects of the process, explore
various directions formulating your own opinion on what
works or does not work and why.
4.4.1
Critical making is an opportunity for participants to design low-delity prototypes. Prototypes help you follow your main inquiry and gure out new possibilities
to a problem, rather than just giving you one solution.
Critical makers might code instructions for an arduino,
construct a structure using traditional crafting supplies
and/or use building toys like Lego to realize their visions.
Thus, critical making seeks to increase the use of technology in classrooms, studios and labs. Participants are not
expected to deliver a highly sophisticated nal product;
thus, critical making can ease hesitant individuals into becoming acquainted with intimidating hardware and software.
Often, critical making is done in small groups which supports discussion and facilitates productivity. Participants
can leverage the particular skill set of each group member
in the wider group eort. Critical making provides obvious opportunity to kinaesthetic learners who thrive in
hands-on situations; however, critical making could also
benet students who learn best while listening. Those
who learn via written text could be an asset to the greater
group in their ability to explain concepts from the consulted literature relevant to the making activity.
Critical making, more over uses innovative ways to adhere to the ideas of conceptualizing further more by substituting the nal tools with more simpler and available
ones in order to promote the creative aptitude of the
group involved.
Practice
By way of illustration, the concept wr pwr [10] is introduced in critical making scenario, which was introduced to shows how people gain knowledge from critical making.[11] In general, this scenario is created to
encourage people to participate in the infrared communication, visualized by a series of colored, blinking
lights. Specically, wr pwr is simple electronic agents
constructed from pre-assembled and coded components,
including the arduino microcontroller and development
environment[12] Arduino also includes hardware and software. The software can be installed into computers,
73
use cable, critical making allows designers to create arts
using technologies.[13]
We can't restrict ourselves by only the traditional materials. It is on us and our creative outlook to which and what
can be utilized, for example in a paper mesh when fused
with resin glue is used to make art, it forms a sturdy and
durable material with optimum use of the given materials.
Critical Making Lab Critical Making Lab is a shared
space for students to experience the practice of critical
making process in Faculty of Information, University of
Toronto. Critical Making Lab provides participants tools
and basic knowledge of digital technology used in critical making. The mission of this lab is to enhance collaboration, communication, and the practice-based engagement in critical making.[14] The Critical Making Lab was
founded by Matt Ratto. Ratto started the practice of critical making workshops since 2007. Since 2007 in Amsterdam, London, Canada, the US, and Scotland. There
are six current lab members, who are all students from
Faculty of Information. With some other active members
and alums, they form the team of critical making lab.
Critical making can continue to enrich the learning environment of faculty, students and community members
if critical making centers and innovation labs continue to
grow in popularity. Such a center would host advanced
which allow users to control the hardware (i.e. colored, resources, tools and shops as well as cross-disciplinary
blinking lights) by using simple coding systems. Reec- curriculum and research development.
tion is a very important process involved in the critical
making activities. Participants are asked to reect on the It is possible for us to incorporate or have our lab of our
making process and the conceptual exploration. Some of own, there is no xed criteria for the equipment that needs
the questions could be: What was dicult in your proto- to be present for it to be called a critical lab. It is a hytype construction? What would you do dierently next brid, a robotics lab grouped with an art lab with the right
time? Having completed this exercise, has your opinion students has the potential to become a critical lab, and its
only 10 Percent of it the rest 90 depends on the minds
on the social concept changed or remained the same?
involved.
Students in Critical Making Activities with Lego
Materials 3D Printing: Allows for relatively cheap and Site3 Colaboratory Site 3 is created to encourage
customizable design of objects which are often integrated people to making, teaching, learning and thinking about
into critical making projects.
the intersection between art and technology. It is a space
Raspberry Pi: Is a single-board computer (SBC). It has that invites people to become makers by providing them
the functionality of a computer with audio, video, USB with the right tools to construct and display their creations
while teaching new skills through regular classes and inand LAN interfaces.
spiring many more to join the maker community and
Arduino: Is a single-board microcontroller (MCU). Used bring their projects to life. Site 3 members form a diverse
to interface communications between user and design.
group of people, including artists, makers, engineers, creLEDs: Small lights integrated into many critical design ators, techies; people who collaborate to make and learn
projects as a way to give feedback and interact with user. from the experience. Site 3 has done a lot of amazing
Conductive textile: Conductive fabrics and thread are projects and tests that covers DIY and critical making, for
used in many projects to circulate electrical currents example the PK4A (Using a wireless EEG headset and a
which might connect LEDs to controller boards, like Ar- control unit connected to a ame eect, participants can
create 20-foot-plus blasts of re with their thoughts) and
duino.
DIY IR Remote Shutter Test at Site 3 (iPhone remotely
Craft Materials: Critical Making shares similar building control your camera).
practices from DIY, and as such, much of the easy use
craft materials are used during critical making projects. Critical Making-Teaching
As a result, by connecting Arduino to computer through The rst masters level critical making course was held at
74
Faculty of Information in 2008 where the Arduino software and hardware were used due to its easy accessibility,
open source nature, but more importantly, the physicality
of the material which gave a more hands on understanding of making. The goal was also to understand the nature of construction instead of simply being familiar with
a system/concept in an abstract theory.
The pedagogy of critical making focuses on the novel understandings imbibed by the makers themselves instead
of creating experiences to be used by people. The unpacking nature of the course is to allow a higher understanding of the digital technology that is already consumed and to come up with alternatives of such technologies.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
It was printed using a hacked photocopier and about a
100,000 pages were manually folded and stapled to create
300 copies of 10 booklets each.The publication asks us to
look at aspects of the DIY culture that go beyond buying
an Arduino, getting a MakerBot and reducing DIY to a
weekend hobby.These books embrace social issues, the
history of technology, activism and politics. The project
stems also from a disappointment. A year ago, Make received a grant from DARPA to create makerspaces for
teenagers. Everyone who, so far, had assumed that a culture built on openness was antithetic to the murkiness that
surrounds the military world was bitterly disheartened.
CM is not the anti-Make Magazine, it is simply an alternative, a forum for electronic DIY practice to discuss
hacking, making, kludging, DIYing in a less sanitized,
mass-market way.
4.4.5
75
Concepts Related to Critical Making Thingiverse, for example), press print and the printer will
2. Ratto, Matt and Megan Boler, eds. DIY Citizenship: Critical Making and Social Media. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press. (2014)
3. Ratto, Matt and Garnet Hertz. Critical Making. Special Issue on The Culture of Digital Education: Innovation in Art, Design, Science and Technology Practices:
Leonardo Electronic Almanac. Accepted, January, 2014.
4. Ratto, Matt, Kirk Jalbert and Sara Wylie. Critical
Making as Research Program: introduction to the forum on Critical Making. Special Forum issue on Critical
Making, The Information Society 30(2). (2014) 85-95.
5. Wylie, Sara, Kirk Jalbert, Shannon Dosemagen &
Matt Ratto Institutions for Civic Technoscience: How
Critical Making is Transforming Environmental Research, The Information Society 30:2, (2014) 116-126.
6. Ratto, Matt, Kirk Jalbert and Sara Wylie, eds. Critical
Making Special Forum Issue, The Information Society
30.2 (March 2014).
7. Record, Isaac, Matt Ratto, Adriana Ieraci, Nina
Czegledy and Amy Ratelle. DIY Prosthetics Workshops: Critical Making for Public Understanding of Human Augmentation. International Symposium on Technology and Society (ISTAS) 2013, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Canada, June 2729, 2013.
8. Ratto, Matt. Critical Making: Conceptual and Material Studies in Technology and Social Life. The Information Society 27.4 (2011): 252-260.
9. Ratto, Matt. Open Design and Critical Making.
Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive. Eds. P. Atkinson, M. Avital, B. Mau, R. Ramakers and C. Hummels. Amsterdam: BIS Publishers, 2011.
203-209.
10. Cohn, Marisa, Tobie Kerridge, Ann Light, Silvia
Lindtner and Matt Ratto. Tracing Design(ed) Author-
76
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
4.4.7
3. Coons, Ginger (Virginia). (2011). Colour standardization: Its past and a possible future (MI thesis). University of Toronto.
4. Gamba Bari, Antonio. (2010). Critical assessment
of customization discourse in information systems design
(MI thesis). University of Toronto.
5. Krauss, Armin Martin. (2010). Dynamic catergorization: What we can learn from the emergent arrangement
of physical artifacts in libraries (MI thesis). University of
Students Publications on Critical Toronto.
Making
1. Resch, G (forthcoming). Waynding in Smart In7. Ree, Robert. (2011). 3D printing: Convergences,
formation Space: The Future of Ambient Sensing in
ctions, uidity (MI thesis). University of Toronto.
Academic Libraries and Beyond, Faculty of Information
Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 1.
2. Record, Isaac, Matt Ratto, Adriana Ieraci, Nina 4.4.8 See also
Czegledy and Amy Ratelle. DIY Prosthetics Work1. Critical technical practice
shops: Critical Making for Public Understanding of Human Augmentation. International Symposium on Tech2. Critical thinking
nology and Society (ISTAS) 2013, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Canada, June 2729, 2013.
3. Critical design
3.
Erickson, Ingrid, Lisa Nathan, Nassim Ja4. Speculative design
farinaimi, Cory Knoebel and Matt Ratto.
Values|Design|Critique|Making Workshop, iSchool Confer5. Maker culture
ence, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, February
710, 2012.
6. Technology
4. coons, g. & Tissenbaum, M. (2011, February). NonStandard Bodies. Poster presented as part of the Design
Methods for the Information School Curriculum at the
iSchools iConference 2011, Seattle, WA.
7. Arduino
8. 3D Printing
77
P
charge
nozzle
sprue
runner
gates
parts
[17] http://research.ecuad.ca/criticalmaking/
[18] Williams, Colin C. (2004). A lifestye choice? Evaluating
the motives of do-it-yourself (DIY) consumers. I. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 32
(4/5): 276. doi:10.1108/09590550410534613.
[19] Kuznetsov, S. & Paulos, E. (2010). Rise of the expert amateur: DIY projects, communities, and cultures..
In Proceedings of the 6th Nordic Conference on HumanComputer Interaction: Extending Boundaries: 295304.
ejector pins
Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials, including metals, (for which the process is called
[20] Blikstein, P. (2013). Gears of our childhood: construc- diecasting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most
tionist toolkits, robotics, and physical computing, past and commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers.
future. In Proceedings of the 12th International ConferMaterial for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed,
ence on Interaction Design and Children: 173182.
and forced into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens
[21] Williams, Colin C. (2004). A lifestye choice? Evaluating to the conguration of the cavity.[1]:240 After a product is
the motives of do-it-yourself (DIY) consumers. I. Inter- designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer,
national Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 32 moulds are made by a mouldmaker (or toolmaker) from
(4/5): 273. doi:10.1108/09590550410534613.
metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precision[22] Lukens, J. & DiSalvo, C. (2011). Speculative Design and machined to form the features of the desired part. InjecTechnological Fluency. International Journal of Learn- tion moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variing. 4 3: 2340. doi:10.1162/ijlm_a_00080.
ety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body
78
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection
moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can
be used for some simple injection moulds.
Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process; the material
used for the part, the desired shape and features of the
part, the material of the mould, and the properties of
the moulding machine must all be taken into account.
The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this
breadth of design considerations and possibilities.
4.5.1
Applications
4.5.2
Process characteristics
79
around them. This process is known as Insert moulding and allows single parts to contain multiple materials.
This process is often used to create plastic parts with protruding metal screws, allowing them to be fastened and
unfastened repeatedly. This technique can also be used
for In-mould labelling and lm lids may also be attached
to moulded plastic containers.
80
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
4.5.4
4.5.5
Equipment
81
The amount of resin required to ll the sprue, runner and
cavities of a mould comprises a shot. Trapped air in
the mould can escape through air vents that are ground
into the parting line of the mould, or around ejector pins
and slides that are slightly smaller than the holes retaining them. If the trapped air is not allowed to escape, it
is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material
and squeezed into the corners of the cavity, where it prevents lling and can also cause other defects. The air can
even become so compressed that it ignites and burns the
surrounding plastic material.[9]:147
To allow for removal of the moulded part from the mould,
the mould features must not overhang one another in the
direction that the mould opens, unless parts of the mould
are designed to move from between such overhangs when
the mould opens (using components called Lifters).
82
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
ing interchangeable inserts, one mould may make several Mould storage Manufacturers go to great lengths to
variations of the same part.
protect custom moulds due to their high average costs.
More complex parts are formed using more complex The perfect temperature and humidity level is maintained
moulds. These may have sections called slides, that move to ensure the longest possible lifespan for each custom
into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form mould. Custom moulds, such as those used for rubber inhumidity
overhanging part features. When the mould is opened, jection moulding, are stored in temperature and
[17]
controlled
environments
to
prevent
warping.
the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using stationary angle pins on the stationary mould half.
These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause the slides
Tool materials
to move backward when the moving half of the mould
opens. The part is then ejected and the mould closes. The
Tool steel is often used. Mild steel, aluminum, nickel or
closing action of the mould causes the slides to move forepoxy are suitable only for prototype or very short pro[9]:268
ward along the angle pins.
duction runs.[1] Modern hard aluminum (7075 and 2024
Some moulds allow previously moulded parts to be rein- alloys) with proper mould design, can easily make moulds
serted to allow a new plastic layer to form around the rst capable of 100,000 or more part life with proper mould
part. This is often referred to as overmoulding. This maintenance.[18]
system can allow for production of one-piece tires and
wheels.
Two-shot or multi-shot moulds are designed to overmould within a single moulding cycle and must be processed on specialized injection moulding machines with
two or more injection units. This process is actually an injection moulding process performed twice and therefore
has a much smaller margin of error. In the rst step, the
base color material is moulded into a basic shape, which
contains spaces for the second shot. Then the second material, a dierent color, is injection-moulded into those
spaces. Pushbuttons and keys, for instance, made by this
process have markings that cannot wear o, and remain
legible with heavy use.[9]:174
Machining
Moulds are built through two main methods: standard
machining and EDM. Standard machining, in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection moulds. With technological development,
CNC machining became the predominant means of making more complex moulds with more accurate mould details in less time than traditional methods.
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark erosion process has become widely used in mould making. As well as allowing the formation of shapes that
are dicult to machine, the process allows pre-hardened
moulds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required. Changes to a hardened mould by conventional
drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften
the mould, followed by heat treatment to harden it again.
EDM is a simple process in which a shaped electrode,
usually made of copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered
In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mould a series onto the mould surface (over a period of many hours),
of dierent parts in the same tool. Some toolmakers call which is immersed in paran oil (kerosene). A voltage
these moulds family moulds as all the parts are related. applied between tool and mould causes spark erosion of
Examples include plastic model kits.[16]:114
the mould surface in the inverse shape of the electrode.[19]
A mould can produce several copies of the same parts
in a single shot. The number of impressions in the
mould of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with one impression will often be called a
single impression (cavity) mould.[15]:398 A mould with 2
or more cavities of the same parts will likely be referred
to as multiple impression (cavity) mould.[15]:262 Some extremely high production volume moulds (like those for
bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.
83
the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type
plunger, the plastic is forced into a heated chamber,
where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted
plastic is forced through a nozzle that rests against the
mould, allowing it to enter the mould cavity through a
gate and runner system. The mould remains cold so the
plastic solidies almost as soon as the mould is lled.[1]
4.5.6
Injection process
Traditionally, the injection portion of the molding process was done at one constant pressure to ll and pack
the cavity. This method, however, allowed for a large
variation in dimensions from cycle-to-cycle. More commonly used now is scientic or decoupled moulding, a
method pioneered by RJG Inc.[23][24][25] In this the injection of the plastic is decoupled into stages to allow better control of part dimensions and more cycle-tocycle (commonly called shot-to-shot in the industry) consistency. First the cavity is lled to approximately 98%
full using velocity (speed) control. Although the pressure
should be sucient to allow for the desired speed, pressure limitations during this stage are undesirable. Once
the cavity is 98% full, the machine switches from velocity control to pressure control, where the cavity is packed
out at a constant pressure, where sucient velocity to
Small injection moulder showing hopper, nozzle and die area
reach desired pressures is required. This allows part diWith injection moulding, granular plastic is fed by a mensions to be controlled to within thousandths of an
forced ram from a hopper into a heated barrel. As inch or better.[26]
84
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Tolerances
Moulding tolerance is a specied allowance on the deviAlthough most injection moulding processes are covered
ation in parameters such as dimensions, weights, shapes,
by the conventional process description above, there are
or angles, etc. To maximize control in setting tolerances
several important moulding variations including, but not
there is usually a minimum and maximum limit on thicklimited to:
ness, based on the process used.[14]:439 Injection moulding typically is capable of tolerances equivalent to an IT
Die casting
Grade of about 914. The possible tolerance of a thermoplastic or a thermoset is 0.200 to 0.500 millimeters.
Metal injection moulding
In specialised applications tolerances as low as 5 m on
Thin-wall injection moulding
both diameters and linear features are achieved in mass
production. Surface nishes of 0.0500 to 0.1000 m or
[22]:1718
Injection moulding of liquid silicone rubber
better can be obtained. Rough or pebbled surfaces are
also possible.
A more comprehensive list of injection moulding processes may be found here:
Process troubleshooting
Like all industrial processes, injection moulding can produce awed parts. In the eld of injection moulding,
troubleshooting is often performed by examining defective parts for specic defects and addressing these defects with the design of the mould or the characteristics of
the process itself. Trials are often performed before full
production runs in an eort to predict defects and determine the appropriate specications to use in the injection
process.[3]:180
When lling a new or unfamiliar mould for the rst time,
where shot size for that mould is unknown, a technician/tool setter may perform a trial run before a full production run. He starts with a small shot weight and lls
gradually until the mould is 95 to 99% full. Once this
is achieved, a small amount of holding pressure will be
applied and holding time increased until gate freeze o
(solidication time) has occurred. Gate freeze o time
can be determined by increasing the hold time, and then
weighing the part. When the weight of the part does not
change, it is then known that the gate has frozen and no
more material is injected into the part. Gate solidication time is important, as it determines cycle time and
the quality and consistency of the product, which itself
The power required for this process of injection moulding depends on many things and varies between materials used. Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide states
that the power requirements depend on a materials specic gravity, melting point, thermal conductivity, part
size, and molding rate. Below is a table from page 243 of
the same reference as previously mentioned that best illustrates the characteristics relevant to the power required
for the most commonly used materials.
85
choice depends upon the type of product, as well as the [10] Injection Molding. custompart.net. CustomPartNet.
general layout of the manufacturing equipment. Vision
[11] Injection Molding Applications. Engineers Edge: Sosystems mounted on robots have greatly enhanced quallutions by Design. Engineers Edge, LLC. Retrieved 30
ity control for insert moulded parts. A mobile robot can
January 2013.
more precisely determine the placement accuracy of the
metal component, and inspect faster than a human can.[28] [12] Rosato, Donald V.; Rosato, Marlene G. (2000). Concise
Encyclopedia of Plastics. Springer.
4.5.10
Gallery
4.5.11
See also
Extrusion moulding
Fusible core injection molding
Hobby injection molding
Matrix molding
4.5.12
References
[1] Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K.; Alting, Leo (1994).
Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide. Industrial
Press, Inc.
[2] Application Overview: Injection Molding. Yaskawa
America, Inc. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
[3] Malloy, Robert A. (1994). Plastic Part Design for Injection
Molding. Munich Vienna New York: Hanser.
[4] "Injection Molding", Meridian Products Corporation, Retrieved April 26, 2016.
[7] About Injection Molding. Xcentric Mold & Engineering, Inc. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
Manufacturing engineering and mechanical properties of plastic parts INTEMA (Research Institute),
Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata CONICET
Injection molding interactive Video
History of Injection Mold Making A Brief History
86
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
4.6.2 History
In the 1970s, Joseph Henry Condon and others at Bell
Labs developed the Unix Circuit Design System (UCDS),
quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or as- automating the laborious and error-prone task of manusembly using three-dimensional computer aided design ally converting drawings to fabricate circuit boards for the
(CAD) data.[1][2] Construction of the part or assembly is purposes of research and development.
usually done using 3D printing or additive layer manu- In the 1980s U.S. policy makers and industrial manfacturing technology.[3]
agers were forced to take note that Americas dominance
3D model slicing
87
made forays into more demanding laser-eected device
designs.[11]
4.6.4 References
[1] eFunda, Inc. Rapid Prototyping:
Efunda.com. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
An Overview.
The technologies referred to as Solid Freeform Fabri- [5] sculpture exhibition School of the Art Institute of Chicago
http://blogs.saic.edu/sugs/exhibitions/artifact/
cation are what we recognize today as Rapid Prototyping, 3D Printing or Additive Manufacturing: Swainson
(1977), Schwerzel (1984) worked on polymerization of [6] Revolutionary New Electric Car Built and Tested in One
Year with Objet1000 Multi-material 3D Production Sysa photosensitive polymer at the intersection of two comtem
puter controlled laser beams. Ciraud (1972) considered
magnetostatic or electrostatic deposition with electron [7] history
of
laser
Additive
Manufacturbeam, laser or plasma for sintered surface cladding.
ing
http://www.lia.org/blog/2012/04/
These were all proposed but it is unknown if working
the-history-of-laser-additive-manufacturing/
machines were built. Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute was the rst to publish [8] JTEC/WTEC Panel Report on Rapid Prototyping in Europe and Japan pg.24
an account of a solid model fabricated using a photopoly[2]
mer rapid prototyping system (1981). Even at that early [9] SME Wolhers/
date the technology was seen as having a place in manufacturing practice. A low resolution, low strength output [10] Hayes, Jonathan (2002) Concurrent printing and thermographing for rapid manufacturing: executive summary.
had value in design verication, mould making, producEngD thesis, University of Warwick.. Accessed 18 Oction jigs and other areas. Outputs have steadily advanced
tober 2013
[9]
toward higher specication uses.
Innovations are constantly being sought,to improve [11] Will 3D Printing Push Past the Hobbyist Market?", Fiscal Times, 2 September 2013. Accessed 18 October 2013
speed and the ability to cope with mass production
[10]
A dramatic development which RP
applications.
shares with related CNC areas is the freeware opensourcing of high level applications which constitute an en- 4.6.5 Bibliography
tire CAD-CAM toolchain. This has created a community
Wright, hakim farhad. (2015). 21st Century Manuof low res device manufacturers. Hobbyists have even
facturing. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
88
4.6.6
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
External links
4.7 Molding
For other uses, see Mold (cooking implement).
Molding or moulding (see spelling dierences) is the
removal of the hardened/set substance from the mold easier. Typical uses for molded plastics include molded
furniture, molded household goods, molded cases, and
structural materials.
Types of molding include:
Blow molding
Powder metallurgy plus sintering
Stone mold of the Bronze Age used to produce spear tips.
Compression molding
Extrusion molding
Injection molding
Laminating
Reaction injection molding
Matrix molding
Rotational molding (or Rotomolding)
Spin casting
Transfer molding
Thermoforming
Vacuum forming, a simplied version of thermoforming
4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP
4.7.1
Gallery
89
says William Haseltine, founder of Rockville, Maryland.
Microfabrication, microelectronics and microuidics offer the prospect of modeling sophisticated in vitro physiological responses under accurately simulated conditions.
4.8.1 Lab-on-chip
A lab-on-a-chip is a device that integrates one or several laboratory functions on a single chip that deals with
handling particles in hollow microuidic channels. It has
been developed for over a decade. Advantages in handling particles at such a small scale include lowering uid
volume consumption (lower reagents costs, less waste),
increasing portability of the devices, increasing process
control (due to quicker thermo-chemical reactions) and
decreasing fabrication costs. Additionally, microuidic
ow is entirely laminar (i.e., no turbulence). Consequently, there is virtually no mixing between neighboring streams in one hollow channel. In cellular biology
convergence, this rare property in uids has been leveraged to better study complex cell behaviors, such as cell
motility in response to chemotactic stimuli, stem cell differentiation, axon guidance, subcellular propagation of
biochemical signaling and embryonic development.[2]
4.7.2
References
4.7.3
See also
Casting
Cookware and bakeware
4.8 Organ-on-a-chip
An organ-on-a-chip (OC) is a multi-channel 3-D
microuidic cell culture chip that simulates the activities,
mechanics and physiological response of entire organs
and organ systems, a type of articial organ.[1] It constitutes the subject matter of signicant biomedical engineering research, more precisely in bio-MEMS. The convergence of labs-on-chips (LOCs) and cell biology has
permitted the study of human physiology in an organspecic context, introducing a novel model of in vitro
multicellular human organisms. One day, they will perhaps abolish the need for animals in drug development
and toxin testing.
Although multiple publications claim to have translated
organ functions onto this interface, the movement towards this microuidic application is still in its infancy.
Organs-on-chips will vary in design and approach between dierent researchers. As such, validation and optimization of these systems will likely be a long process.
Organs that have been simulated by microuidic devices
include the heart, the lung, kidney, artery, bone, cartilage,
skin and more.
4.8.3 Organs
90
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Lung-on-a-chip The device consists of three hollow microchannels, and only the middle channel contains a horizontal porous
membrane, coated on either side by either an endothelium or an
epithelium tissue. The side channels are connected to a vacuum
and can therefore simulate the stretching of the membrane. The
contraction of the diaphragm triggers the intrapleural pressure
to decrease, leading to an expansion of alveoli. This is the phenomenon essentially mimicked by this lung-on-a-chip.
The compartmentalization of the channels facilitates not only the ow of air as a uid which
delivers cells and nutrients to the apical surface
of the epithelium, but also allows for pressure
dierences to exist between the middle and
side channels. During normal inspiration in
a humans respiratory cycle, intrapleural pressure decreases, triggering an expansion of the
alveoli. As air is pulled into the lungs, alveolar epithelium and the coupled endothelium in
4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP
91
The design and fabrication process of this particular microuidic device entails rst covering the edges of a glass surface with tape (or
any protective lm) such as to contour the substrates desired shape. A spin coat layer of
PNIPA is then applied. After its dissolution,
the protective lm is peeled away, resulting
in a self-standing body of PNIPA. The nal
steps involve the spin coating of protective surface of PDMS over the cover slip and curing. Muscular thin lms (MTF) enable cardiac muscle monolayers to be engineered on
a thin exible substrate of PDMS.[10] In order to properly seed the 2D cell culture, a
microcontact printing technique was used to
lay out a bronectin brick wall pattern on
the PDMS surface. Once the ventricular myocytes were seeded on the functionalized substrate, the bronectin pattern oriented them to
generate an anisotropic monolayer.
After the cutting of the thin lms into two rows
with rectangular teeth, and subsequent placement of the whole device in a bath, electrodes
stimulate the contraction of the myocytes via a
eld-stimulation thus curving the strips/teeth
in the MTF. Researchers have developed a correlation between tissue stress and the radius of
curvature of the MTF strips during the contractile cycle, validating the demonstrated chip as
a platform for quantication of stress, electrophysiology and cellular architecture.[9]
Kidney-on-a-chip
Renal cells and nephrons have already been simulated by
microuidic devices. Such cell cultures can lead to new
insights into cell and organ function and be used for drug
92
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
screening.[11] A kidney-on-a-chip device has the potential to accelerate research encompassing articial replacement for lost kidney function. Nowadays, dialysis requires patients to go to a clinic up to three times per week.
A more transportable and accessible form of treatment
would not only increase the patients overall health (by increasing frequency of treatment), but the whole process
would become more ecient and tolerable.[12] Articial
kidney research is striving to bring transportability, wearability and perhaps implantation capability to the devices
through innovative disciplines: microuidics, miniaturization and nanotechnology.[13]
Example nephron-on-a-chip
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and is
composed of a glomerulus and a tubular component.[14]
Researchers at MIT claim to have designed a bioarticial device that replicates the function of the nephrons
glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule and loop of
Henle.
Each part of the device has its unique design, generally
consisting of two microfabricated layers separated by a
membrane. The only inlet to the microuidic device is
designed for the entering blood sample. In the glomerulus section of the nephron, the membrane allows certain
blood particles through its wall of capillary cells, composed by the endothelium, basement membrane and the
epithelial podocytes. The uid that is ltered from the
capillary blood into Bowmans space is called ltrate or
primary urine.[15]
4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP
93
in yellow are used to adjust the positioning of the organ in the inspection zone by applying sub-atmospheric pressures at each end;
in red is the superfusion channel, used to deliver nutrients to the
abluminal wall of the artery.
An organ-based microuidic platform has been developed as a lab-on-a-chip onto which a fragile blood vessel can be xed, allowing for determinants of resistance
logical and metabolic activity of the organ by delivering
artery malfunctions to be studied.
a constant sustaining medium over the abluminal wall. A
The artery microenvironment is characterized by sur- thermoelectric heater and a thermoresistor are connected
rounding temperature, transmural pressure, and luminal to the chip and maintain physiological temperatures at the
& abluminal drug concentrations. The multiple inputs artery inspection area.
from a microenvironment cause a wide range of mechanical or chemical stimuli on the smooth muscle cells The protocol of loading and securing the tissue sample
(SMCs) and endothelial cells (ECs) that line the ves- into the inspection zone helps understand how this apsels outer and luminal walls, respectively. Endothelial proach acknowledges whole organ functions. After imcells are responsible for releasing vasoconstriction and mersing the tissue segment into the loading well, the loadvasodilator factors, thus modifying tone. Vascular tone ing process is driven by a syringe withdrawing a constant
is dened as the degree of constriction inside a blood ow rate of buer solution at the far end of the loading
vessel relative to its maximum diameter.[21] Pathogenic channel. This causes the transport of the artery towards
concepts currently believe that subtle changes to this its dedicated position. This is done with closed xation
microenvironment have pronounced eects on arterial and superfusion in/outlet lines. After stopping the pump,
tone and can severely alter peripheral vascular resistance. sub-atmospheric pressure is applied through one of the
The engineers behind this design believe that a spe- xation channels. Then after sealing the loading well
cic strength lies in its ability to control and simulate shut, the second xation channel is subjected to a subheterogeneous spatiotemporal inuences found within the atmospheric pressure. Now the artery is symmetrically
microenvironment, whereas myography protocols have, established in the inspection area, and a transmural presby virtue of their design, only established homogeneous sure is felt by the segment. The remaining channels are
superfusion are admicroenvironments.[20] They proved that by delivering opened and constant perfusion and [20]
justed
using
separate
syringe
pumps.
phenylephrine through only one of the two channels providing superfusion to the outer walls, the drug-facing side
constricted much more than the drug opposing side.
The artery-on-a-chip is designed for reversible implantation of the sample. The device contains a microchannel
network, an artery loading area and a separate artery inspection area. There is a microchannel used for loading
the artery segment, and when the loading well is sealed, it
is also used as a perfusion channel, to replicate the process
of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary bed in
the biological tissue.[22] Another pair of microchannels
serves to x the two ends of the arterial segment. Finally, the last pair of microchannels is used to provide
superfusion ow rates, in order to maintain the physio-
4.8.4 Human-on-a-chip
Researchers are working towards building a multichannel 3D microuidic cell culture system that compartmentalizes microenvironments in which 3D cellular
aggregates are cultured to mimic multiple organs in the
body.[23] Most organ-on-a-chip models today only culture
one cell type, so even though they may be valid models for
studying whole organ functions, the systemic eect of a
drug on the human body is not veried.
In particular, an integrated cell culture analog (CCA)
94
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
As these devices become more and more accessible, the
complexity of the design increases exponentially. Systems will soon have to simultaneously provide mechanical perturbation and uid ow through a circulatory system. Anything that requires dynamic control rather than
just static control is a challenge, says Takayama from the
University of Michigan.[27]
testing
with
cell culture systems that aim to create models that replicate aspects of the human body as closely as possible and
give examples that demonstrate their potential use in drug
development, such as identifying synergistic drug interactions as well as simulating multi-organ metabolic interactions. Multi compartment micro uidic-based devices, particularly those that are physical representations
of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models that represent the mass transfer of compounds in compartmental models of the mammalian body, may contribute to improving the drug development process.
4.8. ORGAN-ON-A-CHIP
Mathematical pharmacokinetic (PK) models aim to estimate concentration-time proles within each organ on the
basis of the initial drug dose. Such mathematical models
can be relatively simple, treating the body as a single compartment in which the drug distribution reaches a rapid
equilibrium after administration. Mathematical models
can be highly accurate when all parameters involved are
known. Models that combine PK or PBPK models with
PD models can predict the time-dependent pharmacological eects of a drug. We can nowadays predict with
PBPK models the PK of about any chemical in humans,
almost from rst principles. These models can be either
very simple, like statistical dose-response models, or sophisticated and based on systems biology, according to
the goal pursued and the data available. All we need for
those models are good parameter values for the molecule
of interest.
Microuidic cell culture systems such as micro cell culture analogs (CCAs) could be used in conjunction
with PBPK models. These CCAs scaled-down devices, termed also body-on-a-chip devices, can simulate multi-tissue interactions under near-physiological
uid ow conditions and with realistic tissue-to-tissue
size ratios can simulate multi-tissue interactions under
near-physiological uid ow conditions and with realistic
tissue-to-tissue size ratios. Data obtained with these systems may be used to test and rene mechanistic hypotheses. Microfabricating devices also allows us to customdesign them and scale the organs compartments correctly
with respect to one another.
95
4.8.6
References
[17] X. Mu, W. Zheng, L. Xiao, W. Zhang, X. Jiang, Engineering a 3D vascular network in hydrogel for mimicking
a nephron. Lab Chip 13, 1612 (2013)
[18] D. C. Eaton and J. P. Pooler, Vanders Renal Physiology,
McGraw-Hill, 2009 (2013)
[2] Dongeun Huh, Geraldine A. Hamilton and Donald E. Ingber (2011), From 3D cell culture to organs-on-chips
[3] Diviya D. Nalayanda, Christopher Puleo, William B. Fulton, Leilani M. Sharpe, Tza-Huei Wang, Fizan Abdullah (2009), An open-access microuidic model for lungspecic functional studies at an air-liquid interface
96
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
[22] N. Marieb, K. Hoehn (2006), Human Anatomy & Physiology 7th Ed.
[23] C. Luni, E. Serena, N. Elvassore (2014), Human-on-chip
for therapy development and fundamental science, Curr
Opin Biotech 25, 45-50
[24] K. Viravaidya and M. L. Shuler (2004), Biotechnol. Prog.,
20, 590-597
[25] C. Zhang, Z. Zhao, N. Rahim, D. Noort, H. Yu (2009),
Towards a human-on-chip: Culturing multiple cell types
on a chip with compartmentalized microenvironments
[26] 3D Printing Organs
4.9.1 Overview
4.8.7
External links
Micro-mass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with Alcian blue
97
4.9.2
Examples
Bioarticial windpipe: The rst procedure of regenerative medicine of an implantation of a bioarticial organ.
In vitro meat: Edible articial animal muscle tissue
cultured in vitro.
Bioarticial liver device: several research eorts
have produced hepatic assist devices utilizing living
hepatocytes.
Types of cells
Cells are often categorized by their source:
Laboratory-grown penis[15]
Oral mucosa tissue engineering
Foreskin[16]
Autologous cells are obtained from the same individual to which they will be reimplanted. Autologous cells have the fewest problems with rejection
and pathogen transmission, however in some cases
98
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Stem cells are undierentiated cells with the ability
to divide in culture and give rise to dierent forms
of specialized cells. According to their source stem
cells are divided into adult and embryonic stem
cells, the rst class being multipotent and the latter
mostly pluripotent; some cells are totipotent, in the
earliest stages of the embryo. While there is still a
large ethical debate related with the use of embryonic stem cells, it is thought that another alternative
source - induced stem cells may be useful for the repair of diseased or damaged tissues, or may be used
to grow new organs.
4.9.4 Scaolds
Mouse embryonic stem cells
might not be available. For example, in genetic disease suitable autologous cells are not available. Also
very ill or elderly persons, as well as patients suffering from severe burns, may not have sucient
quantities of autologous cells to establish useful cell
lines. Moreover, since this category of cells needs
to be harvested from the patient, there are also some
concerns related to the necessity of performing such
surgical operations that might lead to donor site infection or chronic pain. Autologous cells also must
be cultured from samples before they can be used:
this takes time, so autologous solutions may not be
very quick. Recently there has been a trend towards
the use of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and fat. These cells can dierentiate into a variety of tissue types, including bone, cartilage, fat,
and nerve. A large number of cells can be easily
and quickly isolated from fat, thus opening the potential for large numbers of cells to be quickly and
easily obtained.
Allogeneic cells come from the body of a donor of
the same species. While there are some ethical constraints to the use of human cells for in vitro studies,
the employment of dermal broblasts from human
foreskin has been demonstrated to be immunologically safe and thus a viable choice for tissue engineering of skin.
Xenogenic cells are these isolated from individuals
of another species. In particular animal cells have
been used quite extensively in experiments aimed at
the construction of cardiovascular implants.
Syngenic or isogenic cells are isolated from genetically identical organisms, such as twins, clones, or
highly inbred research animal models.
Primary cells are from an organism.
Secondary cells are from a cell bank.
This animation of a rotating carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure. Carbon nanotubes are among the numerous candidates
for tissue engineering scaolds since they are biocompatible,
resistant to biodegradation and can be functionalized with
biomolecules. However, the possibility of toxicity with nonbiodegradable nano-materials is not fully understood.[18]
Materials
Many dierent materials (natural and synthetic,
biodegradable and permanent) have been investigated.
Most of these materials have been known in the medical
eld before the advent of tissue engineering as a research
topic, being already employed as bioresorbable sutures.
Examples of these materials are collagen and some
polyesters.
99
terials with hydrophilic and more biocompatible hydrogels. While these hydrogels have a superior biocompatibility, they lack the structural integrity of PLA, PCL, and
PGA. By combining the two dierent types of materials,
researchers are trying to create a synergistic relationship
that produces a more biocompatible tissue scaolding.[20]
Scaolds may also be constructed from natural materials: in particular dierent derivatives of the extracellular
matrix have been studied to evaluate their ability to support cell growth. Proteic materials, such as collagen or
brin, and polysaccharidic materials, like chitosan[21] or
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), have all proved suitable in
terms of cell compatibility, but some issues with potential
immunogenicity still remains. Among GAGs hyaluronic
acid, possibly in combination with cross linking agents
(e.g. glutaraldehyde, water-soluble carbodiimide, etc.),
is one of the possible choices as scaold material. Functionalized groups of scaolds may be useful in the delivery of small molecules (drugs) to specic tissues. Another form of scaold under investigation is decellularised tissue extracts whereby the remaining cellular
remnants/extracellular matrices act as the scaold. Recently a range of nanocomposites biomaterials are fabricated by incorporating nanomaterials within polymeric
matrix to engineer bioactive scaolds.[22]
A 2009 study by Ratmir et al. aimed to improve in vivolike conditions for 3D tissue via stacking and de-stacking
layers of paper impregnated with suspensions of cells in
extracellular matrix hydrogel, making it possible to control oxygen and nutrient gradients in 3D, and to analyze
molecular and genetic responses.[23] It is possible to manipulate gradients of soluble molecules, and to characterize cells in these complex gradients more eectively
than conventional 3D cultures based on hydrogels, cell
spheroids, or 3D perfusion reactors.[24] Dierent thicknesses of paper and types of medium can support a variety of experimental environments. Upon deconstruction,
these sheets can be useful in cell-based high-throughput
screening and drug discovery.[24]
100
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
bath of a liquid suitable for dissolving the porogen:
water in the case of sodium chloride, saccharose
and gelatin or an aliphatic solvent like hexane for
use with paran. Once the porogen has been fully
dissolved, a porous structure is obtained. Other
than the small thickness range that can be obtained,
another drawback of SCPL lies in its use of organic
solvents which must be fully removed to avoid any
possible damage to the cells seeded on the scaold.
Gas foaming To overcome the need to use organic solvents and solid porogens, a technique using gas as
a porogen has been developed. First, disc-shaped
structures made of the desired polymer are prepared
by means of compression molding using a heated
mold. The discs are then placed in a chamber where
they are exposed to high pressure CO2 for several
days. The pressure inside the chamber is gradually
restored to atmospheric levels. During this procedure the pores are formed by the carbon dioxide
molecules that abandon the polymer, resulting in a
sponge-like structure. The main problems resulting
from such a technique are caused by the excessive
heat used during compression molding (which prohibits the incorporation of any temperature labile
material into the polymer matrix) and by the fact that
the pores do not form an interconnected structure.
Emulsication/Freeze-drying This technique does not
require the use of a solid porogen like SCPL. First, a
synthetic polymer is dissolved into a suitable solvent
(e.g. polylactic acid in dichloromethane) then water is added to the polymeric solution and the two
liquids are mixed in order to obtain an emulsion.
Before the two phases can separate, the emulsion
is cast into a mold and quickly frozen by means of
immersion into liquid nitrogen. The frozen emulsion is subsequently freeze-dried to remove the dispersed water and the solvent, thus leaving a solidied, porous polymeric structure. While emulsication and freeze-drying allow for a faster preparation
when compared to SCPL (since it does not require a
time consuming leaching step), it still requires the
use of solvents. Moreover, pore size is relatively
small and porosity is often irregular. Freeze-drying
by itself is also a commonly employed technique for
the fabrication of scaolds. In particular, it is used
to prepare collagen sponges: collagen is dissolved
into acidic solutions of acetic acid or hydrochloric
acid that are cast into a mold, frozen with liquid nitrogen and then lyophilized.
101
structure is designed using CAD software. The
porosity can be tailored using algorithms within the
software.[27] The scaold is then realized by using ink-jet printing of polymer powders or through
Fused Deposition Modeling of a polymer melt.[28]
A 2011 study by El-Ayoubi et al.
investigated
3D-plotting technique to produce (biocompatible and
biodegradable) poly-L-Lactide macroporous scaolds
with two dierent pore sizes via solid free-form fabrication (SSF) with computer-aided-design (CAD), to explore therapeutic articular cartilage replacement as an
alternative to conventional tissue repair.[29] The study
found the smaller the pore size paired with mechanical stress in a bioreactor (to induce in vivo-like conditions), the higher the cell viability in potential therapeutic
functionality via decreasing recovery time and increasing
transplant eectiveness.[29]
102
quite dicult to get cells to reassemble into the complex structures that make up our natural tissues. While
cells aren't easily stackable, building blocks are. So the
micromasonry starts with the encapsulation of living cells
in polymer cubes. From there, the blocks self-assemble
in any shape using templates.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
or hormones like insulin, self-organizing into branched
pancreatic organoids that resemble the pancreas.[35]
Bioreactors
103
actor known as ProtoTissue[38] that uses gas exchange
to maintain high oxygen levels within the cell chamber;
improving upon previous bioreactors, because the higher
oxygen levels help the cell grow and undergo normal cell
respiration.[41]
Long ber generation
physiological environment in order to promote cell or tissue growth in vitro. A physiological environment can
consist of many dierent parameters such as temperature and oxygen or carbon dioxide concentration, but can
extend to all kinds of biological, chemical or mechanical
stimuli. Therefore, there are systems that may include
the application of forces or stresses to the tissue or even
of electric current in two- or three-dimensional setups.
In academic and industry research facilities, it is typical
for bioreactors to be developed to replicate the specic
physiological environment of the tissue being grown (e.g.,
ex and uid shearing for heart tissue growth).[37] Several
general-use and application-specic bioreactors are also
commercially available, and may provide static chemical
stimulation or combination of chemical and mechanical
stimulation.
The Bioreactors used for 3D cell cultures are small plastic cylindrical chambers with regulated internal humidity
and moisture specically engineered for the purpose of
growing cells in three dimensions.[38] The bioreactor uses 4.9.7 See also
bioactive synthetic materials such as polyethylene tereph Covidien
thalate membranes to surround the spheroid cells in an en[24][39]
vironment that maintains high levels of nutrients.
Biomedical engineering
They are easy to open and close, so that cell spheroids
can be removed for testing, yet the chamber is able to
Biological engineering
maintain 100% humidity throughout.[40] This humidity is
Biomolecular engineering
important to achieve maximum cell growth and function.
The bioreactor chamber is part of a larger device that ro ECM Biomaterial
tates to ensure equal cell growth in each direction across
Induced stem cells
three dimensions.[40] MC2 Biotek has developed a biore-
104
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Molecular self-assembly
Soft tissues
Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine International Society
Xenotransplantation
4.9.8
Notes
[1] Whitney G. A.; Jayaraman K.; Dennis J. E.; Mansour J. M. (2014). Scaold-free cartilage subjected
to frictional shear stress demonstrates damage by cracking and surface peeling. J Tissue Eng Regen Med.
doi:10.1002/term.1925.
[2] Langer Lab: Professor Robert Langer.
[3] The Laboratory for Tissue Engineering and Organ Fabrication - Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA.
[4] Langer
R;
Vacanti
JP
(May
1993).
Tissue engineering.
Science 260 (5110):
9206.
Bibcode:1993Sci...260..920L.
doi:10.1126/science.8493529. PMID 8493529.
[5] MacArthur BD; Oreo RO (January 2005).
Bridging the gap.
Nature 433 (7021):
19.
Bibcode:2005Natur.433...19M. doi:10.1038/433019a.
PMID 15635390.
[6] NSF: Abt Report on The Emergence of Tissue Engineering as a Research Field"".
[7] Anthony J. Atala, MD, Urology.
[8] Doctors grow organs from patients own cells, CNN, 3
April 2006
[9] Lab-grown cartilage xes damaged knees - health - 5 July
2006 - New Scientist Space
[10] Whitney GA (August 2012). Methods for Producing
Scaold-Free Engineered Cartilage Sheets from Auricular and Articular Chondrocyte Cell Sources and Attachment to Porous Tantalum. BioResearch Open Access 1
(4): 157165. doi:10.1089/biores.2012.0231. Retrieved
Oct 2013.
[11] Macchiarini P; Jungebluth P; Go T; et al.
(December 2008). Clinical transplantation of a tissueengineered airway. Lancet 372 (9655): 202330.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61598-6. PMID 19022496.
[12] Zilla, Peter; Howard Greisler (1999). Tissue Engineering Of Vascular Prosthetic Grafts. R.G. Landes Company.
ISBN 1-57059-549-6.
[13] Tissue Engineering.
[14] Creating articial bone marrow. The Economist. 7 January 2009.
[18] Newman, Peter; Minett, Andrew; Ellis-Behnke, Rutledge; Zreiqat, Hala (November 2013). Carbon nanotubes: their potential and pitfalls for bone tissue regeneration and engineering.
Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 9 (8): 11391158.
doi:10.1016/j.nano.2013.06.001. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
[19] Wang, J; Wang, K; Gu, X; and Luo, Y. Polymerization of
Hydrogel Network on Microber Surface: Synthesis of
Hybrid Water-Absorbing Matrices for Biomedical Applications ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2016
[20] Bosworth, L. A.; Turner, L. A.; Cartmell, S. H. State
of the art composites comprising electrospun bres coupled with hydrogels: a review. Nanomedicine 2013, 9,
322335.
[21] Hwa Park Jung; Schwartz Zvi; Olivares-Navarrete
Rene; Boyan Barbara D.; Tannenbaum Rina (2011).
Enhancement of surface wettability via the modication of microstructured titanium implant surfaces
with polyelectrolytes.
Langmuir 27: 59765985.
doi:10.1021/la2000415.
[22] Gaharwar, AK; Peppas, NA; Khademhosseini, A (March
2014). Nanocomposite hydrogels for biomedical applications.. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 111 (3):
44153. doi:10.1002/bit.25160. PMC 3924876. PMID
24264728.
[23] Ratmir D.; et al. (2009). Paper-Supported 3D Cell Culture for Tissue-Based Bioassays. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
106 (44): 1845718462. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910666106.
[24] Prestwich GD (2008). Evaluating drug ecacy and toxicology in three dimensions: using synthetic extracellular
matrices in drug discovery. Acc Chem Res 41 (1): 139
148. doi:10.1021/ar7000827. PMID 17655274.
[25] Cassidy JW (2014). Nanotechnology in the regeneration
of complex tissues. Bone and Tissue Regeneration Insights 5: 2535. doi:10.4137/BTRI.S12331.
[26] Nam, Yoon Sung; Park, Tae Gwan (1999).
Biodegradable polymeric microcellular foams by
modied thermally induced phase separation method.
Biomaterials 20 (19): 17831790. doi:10.1016/S01429612(99)00073-3. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
[27] CAD/CAM-assisted breast reconstruction. Biofabrication 3: 034114. Sep 2011. doi:10.1088/17585082/3/3/034114. PMID 21900731.
[28] Jennifer Elissee; Peter X. Ma (2005). Scaolding In Tissue Engineering. Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 1-57444-5219.
[29] Lee, Genee; Paraic A Kenny1, Eva H Lee1 & Mina J Bissell (29). Three-dimensional culture models of normal
and malignant breast epithelial cells. Nature Methods 4:
359365. doi:10.1038/nmeth1015
[30] Biomarkers for simplifying HTS 3D cell culture
platforms for drug discovery:
the case for cytokines. Drug Discov Today 16: 2937. Apr 2011.
doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.009. PMID 21277382.
[31] Microscale Assembly Directed by Liquid-Based Template. Advanced Materials 26: 59365941. Sep 2014.
doi:10.1002/adma.201402079. PMID 24956442.
[32] Mironov V; Boland T; Trusk T; Forgacs G; Markwald
RR (April 2003). Organ printing: computer-aided jetbased 3D tissue engineering. Trends Biotechnol. 21 (4):
15761. doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(03)00033-7. PMID
12679063.
[33] Printing a human kidney.
[34] Synthetic sandwich culture of 3D hepatocyte monolayer.
Biomaterials 29: 290301.
Jan 2008.
doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.09.016.
PMID
17964646.
[35] New 3D method used to grow miniature pancreas
model. KurzweilAI. doi:10.1242/dev.096628. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[36] Greggio, C.; De Franceschi, F.; Figueiredo-Larsen, M.;
Gobaa, S.; Ranga, A.; Semb, H.; Lutolf, M.; GrapinBotton, A. (2013). Articial three-dimensional niches
deconstruct pancreas development in vitro. Development
140 (21): 44524462. doi:10.1242/dev.096628. PMID
24130330.
[37] Lee, EL; von Recum, HA (2010). Cell culture platform
with mechanical conditioning and nondamaging cellular
detachment. J Biomed Mater Res A 93: 4118.
[38] MC2 Biotek - 3D Tissue Culture - The 3D ProtoTissue
System".
[39] Spheroid-based drug screen: considerations and practical approach.
Nat Protoc 4: 30924.
2009.
doi:10.1038/nprot.2008.226. PMID 19214182.
[40] Marx, Vivien (11 April 2013). A Better Brew. Nature
[41] Grith, Linda G., and Melody A. Swartz. Capturing
complex 3D tissue physiology in vitro. Nature Reviews
Molecular Cell Biology 7.3 (2006): 211-224.
[42] Hiroaki Onoe, Teru Okitsu, and Akane et al. Itou. Metrelong cell-laden microbres exhibit tissue morphologies
and functions. Nature Materials, 12(6):584 590, 2013
4.9.9
References
105
doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000153847.47301.80.
PMC 2754569. PMID 15687132.
Ma, Peter X. (May 2004). Scaolds for tissue fabrication. Materials Today: 3040.
Holmes TC; de Lacalle S; Su X; Liu G; Rich A; et
al. (June 2000). Extensive neurite outgrowth and
active synapse formation on self-assembling peptide scaolds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97
(12): 672833. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6728H.
doi:10.1073/pnas.97.12.6728. PMC 18719. PMID
10841570.
Semino CE; Kasahara J; Hayashi Y; Zhang S
(2004). Entrapment of migrating hippocampal
neural cells in three-dimensional peptide nanober
scaold.
Tissue Eng.
10 (3-4): 643
55. doi:10.1089/107632704323061997. PMID
15165480.
Mikos AG; Temeno JS (2000). Formation of
highly porous biodegradable scaolds for tissue engineering (PDF). Electronic Journal of Biotechnology 3: 1149. doi:10.2225/vol3-issue2-fulltext-5.
National Science Foundation (U.S.A.) (2004). The
Emergence of Tissue Engineering as a Research
Field. Retrieved 28 April 2006.
Nerem, R.M. (2000). Vacanti, Joseph; Lanza, R.
P.; Langer, Robert S., eds. Principles of tissue engineering (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press. ISBN
0-12-436630-9.
{4.
Fountain, Henry.
A First:
Organs Tailor-Made With Bodys Own Cells.
New york Times.
15 Sept.
2012.
http:
//www.nytimes.com/2012/09/16/health/research/
scientists-make-progress-in-tailor-made-organs.
html?pagewanted=all&_r=0}
106
Institute for Chemical Process and Environmental
Technology Tissue engineered (TE) corneas
Organ Printing Multi-site NSF-funded initiative
Team Research Tissue Engineering and Medical
Research Programmes
LOEX Center Universit Laval Initiative for Tissue
Engineering
Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions B on
Tissue Engineering the Heart
Journal of Tissue Engineering
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Chapter 5
Related
5.1 Molecular assembler
A typical nanofactory would t in a desktop box, in the vision of K. Eric Drexler published in Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation (1992),
a notable work of "exploratory engineering". During
In another paper published in March 2015, also in Science, chemists at the University of Illinois report a
platform that automates the synthesis of 14 classes of
Likewise, the term molecular assembler has been small molecules, with thousands of compatible building
used in science ction and popular culture to refer to blocks.[5]
a wide range of fantastic atom-manipulating nanomachines, many of which may be physically impossible
in reality. Much of the controversy regarding molec- 5.1.1 Nanofactories
ular assemblers results from the confusion in the use
of the name for both technical concepts and popu- A nanofactory is a proposed system in which
lar fantasies. In 1992, Drexler introduced the related nanomachines (resembling molecular assemblers, or
but better-understood term molecular manufacturing, industrial robot arms) would combine reactive molecules
which he dened as the programmed chemical synthesis via mechanosynthesis to build larger atomically precise
of complex structures by mechanically positioning reac- parts. These, in turn, would be assembled by positioning
tive molecules, not by manipulating individual atoms.[3] mechanisms of assorted sizes to build macroscopic
This article mostly discusses molecular assemblers in (visible) but still atomically-precise products.
107
108
CHAPTER 5. RELATED
Biological evolution proceeds by random variation combined with culling of the less-successful variants and reproduction of the more-successful variants. Production
of complex molecular assemblers might be evolved from
simpler systems since A complex system that works is
invariably found to have evolved from a simple system
that worked. . . . A complex system designed from
scratch never works and can not be patched up to make it
work. You have to start over, beginning with a system that
works.[9] However, most published safety guidelines include recommendations against developing ... replicator
designs which permit surviving mutation or undergoing
evolution.[10]
Most assembler designs keep the source code external
to the physical assembler. At each step of a manufacturing process, that step is read from an ordinary computer le and broadcast to all the assemblers. If any assembler gets out of range of that computer, or when the
link between that computer and the assemblers is broken,
or when that computer is unplugged, the assemblers stop
replicating. Such a broadcast architecture is one of the
safety features recommended by the "Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology", and a map of the
137-dimensional replicator design space[11] recently published by Freitas and Merkle provides numerous practical
methods by which replicators can be safely controlled by
good design.
5.1.2
Self-replication
Molecular assemblers have been confused with selfreplicating machines. To produce a practical quantity
of a desired product, the nanoscale size of a typical science ction universal molecular assembler requires an extremely large number of such devices. However, a single such theoretical molecular assembler might be programmed to self-replicate, constructing many copies of
itself. This would allow an exponential rate of production. Then after sucient quantities of the molecular assemblers were available, they would then be reprogrammed for production of the desired product. However, if self-replication of molecular assemblers were not
restrained then it might lead to competition with naturally
occurring organisms. This has been called ecophagy or
the grey goo problem.[8]
5.1.4
Regulation
109
5.1.7 In ction
Main article: Nanotechnology in ction
Molecular assemblers are a popular topic in science ction, for example, the matter compiler in The Diamond
Age and the cornucopia machine in Singularity Sky. The
5.1.5 Formal scientic review
replicator in Star Trek might also be considered a molecular assembler. A molecular assembler is also a key eleIn 2006, U.S. National Academy of Sciences released the
ment of the plot of the computer game Deus Ex (called a
report of a study of molecular manufacturing as part of
"universal constructor" in the game).
a longer report, A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the
[15]
National Nanotechnology Initiative The study commit- In the political sci- comic series Transmetropolitan,
tee reviewed the technical content of Nanosystems, and written by Warren Ellis, machines called Makers are
in its conclusion states that no current theoretical analy- used to replicate and reform matter. Each morning, Maksis can be considered denitive regarding several ques- ers sweep the streets for garbage, gathering the matter to
tions of potential system performance, and that optimal recycle it into more useful objects. The main character
paths for implementing high-performance systems cannot also uses a Maker in his apartment to instantly produce a
be predicted with condence. It recommends experimen- pair of glasses which take photos, as well as other objects
such as clothing.
tal research to advance knowledge in this area:
Although theoretical calculations can be made
today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and thermodynamic eciencies of such
bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be
reliably predicted at this time. Thus, the
eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products, while they can
be calculated in theory, cannot be predicted
with condence. Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to systems which
greatly exceed the thermodynamic eciencies
and other capabilities of biological systems
cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Research funding that is based on the ability of
investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide
long-term vision is most appropriate to achieve
this goal.
110
CHAPTER 5. RELATED
Ecophagy
Santa Claus machine
3D Printing
5.1.9
References
Nanofactory technology
5.1.10
External links
Chapter 6
111
112
Greatrate, Manueldrama, Psubhashish, Widr, Heyandy889, Knives182, Anupmehra, Parthdu, CasualVisitor, Sameenahmedkhan, Glenjiman, Rapatan, IBrow1000, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Strike Eagle, Calabe1992, DBigXray, Technical 13, Jessica.yau, BG19bot,
Beckyc24, Mohamed CJ, Fi63321, 2botmodelmaker, Larsona, Juro2351, John Cummings, Mr.TAMER.Shlash, Nospildoh, ElphiBot,
Frze, Jonathan Mauer, Zipzip50, Canoe1967, Phaneza, Praefulgidus, Sparthorse, DPL bot, John2bob, Bigmanbiggerman, Greenjackalope, Superfatcatgriz, Iliahs, Ginger Maine Coon, Fotoriety, 2botmarketing, Nanobliss, ThirthtonThithtertinton, 220 of Borg, Johnoly99,
Makergear, AeroAlonso, Aisteco, Josephwoh, Usearch, Lindalise, Carliitaeliza, BattyBot, 3dfuture, Citing, Guanaco55, Harrington0007,
Autodidaktos, StarryGrandma, CelticWarrior49, MahdiBot, Cjripper, Cyberbot II, The Illusive Man, Jmcneil747, ChrisGualtieri, Embrittled, JNevil, EuroCarGT, Jos.scheepers, Felixphew, Paulaoceans, Serveradar2, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Uuu201, ExOne3D, Deezmaker, EagerToddler39, Kmm25, Blacksnark, Dexbot, Cervanza, Crc2012, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, 15mehr, Airwolf3d, Cerabot~enwiki, CLEChick,
TwoTwoHello, Purplematty, Lugia2453, SFK2, Graphium, Tropicanamarie, CarolineKaup, MeliesArt, Janpih~enwiki, Eventorbot, Luli17,
Ralphvb, Sam cfd, RandomLittleHelper, Signalbox, Hussulo, Joeinwiki, BlueRoll18, Austinn26, RaulyPatel01, Gaspardbos, Theos Little Bot, Wjmcneil747, Troutmagnicent, Janus Savimbi, JulieAsarkofReece, Inntellektt, Dogenx, Franois Robere, Needle Mush, Andrewmtravels, Chibigold, Peabodybore, Tentinator, Everymorning, Amykam32, CosmosSoup, Rebstei, Rosenblumb1, Mskramer, EvergreenFir, Paul Whittaker Inovar, Bonmarly13, Backendgaming, Awartski, Sukumaar mane, SpecialGuy, Suswaltz, Kyle.maddox10,
Branda.quintana, Alyssacles, Apeman2, Batboys, Comp.arch, Corinnecory, Koza1983, Thevideodrome, Ugog Nizdast, Soxtherobot,
Tehben1, VelocityRap, Geekgirl72, Stephendavion, Mandruss, Ginsuloft, Manospeed, Rocco49228, Rcrumpf, Shashanksays123, RomyBallieux, RAF910, Acalycine, Cimorthing, MaloneyTim, M brinklow, TylerGreenberg, JohnAlexanderStewart, Noyster, DarkestElephant, Wilro, Nutterbutter54, UY Scuti, Stamptrader, YodasSpecies, Atanasov anton, Mauricio.delgado, Shellytel, Matsci2, daligrh,
Kingnyancatjack, ScienceFanatic100, Kylo Ren, Supercell121, No longer a penguin, Itsalleasy, Wynnm5, Sliverpool9, Ralph80, HyDavo,
Mindblaster6, TheEpTic, Suli92, Jeromic, Norseman08, Tonystarkman, HackerTon, Pezminer12, NastyMan99, Mr. Smart LION, Lagoset,
Adele0622, Robo3dprinter, JBCVS, Filedelinkerbot, Jrrfunding, SustainabilityAndy, Rory Top, Fyddlestix, Robinluniya, Ke48273, The
Original Fil, SpanglishArmado, Biggermig, Stakall, Xinai520, Kinetic37, Lor, Verdana Bold, JezGrove, StephaniePBorger, Active 3D,
Info202nal, Astevens9, 3dgeek, Smfrayne, KH-1, Mario Casteln Castro, Ununuhuh, Merad17, Randomuser0122, ChamithN, Wolftribe,
Nataraj.e, Mehari79, Alexliow, Cw585, Lgao33, Jvnap426, Kitty Hazel, Dorivaldo de C. M. dos Santos, Zppix, Cellogoodbye, Pgold009,
Kisg24, Amustaf2, JimmyWagger, Seamusprs, Highty1, Blistro, Sarr Cat, UnknownHenson, Mike Shostak, Swelch12, Gurragb, Jalbo01,
Evanslyne, Wins.rajan, Travis836, Puramix, Zortwort, Jfc4me, Claudio.cantone, CV9933, Cm300883, Truasami, ETwomey, Condius
Cabo, Nickschwing, Adamiszczu, Krubinstein325, Kourousis, Fdm11, Innite0694, Bananaforreal, Cassie meyer, Ivorycoasty, Empowering you, Gabrishl, GerraldGoogle, Nemesis2473, Macon11268865799?!', YesPretense, Alistairgray42, He3dwendy, ChemWarfare, ITGURU2015, Mackalna, Wikiowl66, TheEditor867, R3sJAP155M, Peter3dsmith, Tripl5.creative, Mebakassahun, ProprioMe OW, Bijayabikramsamal, Eric2718, Researchmoz.us, Berting Li, Tlterp, Kaliardor, OrganicEarth, Orbit4447, JayLoerns, Fahnjim, Ahouston5,
Pos333, ChrisGuinvlx268, Shyannawalls, Msarraci, Lol master 6969, Casales1, Immcim2c, Blakenyguen, Suaveuser, Wdornenburg, Kristenhinzee, Piyush0fc, Jaxcab, Gui le chat, Gangdong0518, C10H16N5O13P3, DatGuy, BarnyardOwl, Retu44, Amy JC123, Exa100, Linuxliam, Donovanj2, AllBestFaith, MinalK92, Rugpcbe, Print3db, Crisstian1, Zayan1992, Daimand, 3Dnasa, Chillatulit, Optomec, Fmadd,
207 Peter, Osingh1, Goodreads5398, PCoastgirl and Anonymous: 812
3D bioprinting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_bioprinting?oldid=729386713 Contributors: Bearcat, Ceyockey, Pol098,
BD2412, Malcolma, Jona, Lenoxus, Magioladitis, Nyq, Jim.henderson, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Oshwah, Lostraven, XLinkBot, Yobot,
Anypodetos, AnomieBOT, Silviakuna, Trappist the monk, Dcirovic, Jenks24, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Donat B, 220 of Borg, Dexbot,
FoCuSandLeArN, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Wuerzele, Paul2520, OccultZone, Fixuture, Casvdschee, Zehranasser, SpanglishArmado,
Kenzie ick, 3dprint, KH-1, Teach380, Cassie meyer, Juanfran 44, GSS-1987, VenoZaur, Zk3098a, Dannycabrera, Blin1095, Lara.kamal
and Anonymous: 31
3D modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_modeling?oldid=728403685 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Zundark, Frecklefoot, DopeshJustin, Pnm, Zanimum, Raven in Orbit, Furrykef, Robbot, Orangemike, Chowbok, Kusunose, Eep, Mike Rosoft, Imroy, Rich Farmbrough, Plugwash, Hagerman, Mdd, TheRealFennShysa, Versageek, BD2412, DeadlyAssassin, TeaDrinker, Kri, Chobot,
DVdm, Shell Kinney, Bovineone, ALoopingIcon, Germancorredorp, DeadEyeArrow, Tonywalton, Je Silvers, SmackBot, Rojomoke,
Ohnoitsjamie, Saumier, Clarkalastair, Addshore, Kyosuke Aoki, Daggett, Minna Sora no Shita, Ckatz, 16@r, Domozy~enwiki, Beetstra,
Dicklyon, Xionbox, David C, Hu12, CapitalR, Jafet, George100, A.mounir86, Zarex, OMGsplosion, Alanbly, Dancter, B, HitroMilanese,
Roberta F., rate, Wascally wabbit, Mojo Hand, Greg L, Mk*, Myolus, MER-C, PhilKnight, SiobhanHansa, Freshacconci, Magioladitis, JamesBWatson, Twsx, Bernd vdB~enwiki, ChibiKareshi, David Eppstein, Oicumayberight, Supernicky, Hans Dunkelberg, Cspan64,
Hodlipson, AntiSpamBot, Tarinth, M-le-mot-dit, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Useight, Tkgd2007, JohnBlackburne, Bacchus87, Philip Trueman, BotKung, Wiae, Flat Pyramid, Billinghurst, Commator~enwiki, Minimac93, Mayashing, TheBendster, NHRef, Caltas, Yintan,
Bentogoa, Jvs, Dhateld, Parametric66, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Sabinaroze, Rilak, Austral blizzard, Remag Kee, Jessicalorenwilson,
Boing! said Zebedee, Lampak, Excirial, Alexbot, Gabbs1, Zomno, SchreiberBike, Stepheng3, Michael751, Ouzari, Johnuniq, Apparition11, Edgeloop, XLinkBot, ProfDEH, Salam32, Gaius3, Addbot, DennisVRBE, MrOllie, Ahershberger, Luckas-bot, Yobot, SpunkyBob, WikiDan61, Novusspero, TaBOT-zerem, Pcap, Rpf 81, Serioussamp, Instantaneous, Victorbabkov, Ricosenna, Sid2089, VitruV07,
Amaury, Helensmith943, Gnomonworkshop, Some standardized rigour, Skhedkar, FrescoBot, VS6507, Pinky deamon, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, M.J. Moore-McGonigal PhD, P.Eng, Georgefox123, Rafeec, Jschnur, MastiBot, MedicineMan555, LpGod, Xewp, Chromatikoma,
Meo, Marius Kalytis, Vrenator, RPSJK, Ytiuqibu, Kfeet, MAXXX-309, John of Reading, Fu Kung Master, Hirsutism, Quincy2010,
Jmencisom, Baiutti, Dcirovic, Ssentinull, Anir1uph, Stefano001, Holdendesign, Enanko, Jonpolygon, Johnspencer, Ego White Tray, BioPupil, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Satellizer, Susiw, Antiqueight, Theopolisme, Lowercase sigmabot, CGItems, BG19bot, Dsajga,
Kimolyn, Nospildoh, Xlr8u2, Alokz, Game-Guru999, LeMisanthrope, Carrotpeeler, Wannabemodel, Usearch, DoctorKubla, Codename
Lisa, CGSignal, Luyu823, Shark.printshop, Lugia2453, Xurxor, Eddieheinz, , Bsirmacek, Mamadoutadioukone, UnTrueOrUnSimplied, Koza1983, Wikiuser13, Tehben1, Ginsuloft, Depardizayn, Atanasov anton, Tooth557, Jenny1278, TheEpTic, Radiomansun,
Carocad, Ptb1997, Brian4231, Sambanics, Trent9, Neatsfoot, Pirzada moon chishti, Ebigelow, Lukasinski base, , Abet Peasons,
Nickschwing, Plamenbarzev, Knife-in-the-drawer, BD2412bot, PLMshark, Raidokaldma, Le thi mai thao, Fmadd, Finalxii and Anonymous: 190
3D scanner Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_scanner?oldid=729281244 Contributors: SimonP, Meekohi, Flamurai, Haakon,
Julesd, Ciphergoth, BAxelrod, David.Monniaux, Fuelbottle, Micru, Mboverload, Khalid hassani, Bobblewik, Valmi, Discospinster, MarkS,
Tgies, Quietly, Alansohn, DanielLC, Snowolf, TheRealFennShysa, Waldir, BD2412, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, Vanhoosear, Windharp, Samuel
Wiki, DMahalko, Manop, Eleassar, ALoopingIcon, Thiseye, TransUtopian, Xorx, Allens, SmackBot, Davepape, Verne Equinox, Nowic,
Pmkpmk, Xaosux, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Edgar v. Hinber, RDBrown, Thumperward, Whispering, OrphanBot, Radagast83, Jthg,
Dreadstar, Ggpauly, DMacks, Sbmehta, IronGargoyle, JHunterJ, Dicklyon, SiliconeGraphox, MegaMan2OO6, BrianMcM, Kencf0618,
MPOxy, 3dscanguru, Behmod, CmdrObot, Pit-yacker, Cydebot, Dancter, Snaboofypop, Altazo, Thijs!bot, JimRao, Headbomb, David-
6.1. TEXT
113
mack, Davidhorman, AntiVandalBot, Gh5046, Barek, JamesBWatson, Liberio, Oicumayberight, Jack007, CommonsDelinker, Rlsheehan, Hodlipson, AhmadSherif, KylieTastic, STBotD, Drlanman, DASonnenfeld, Seot, TXiKiBoT, Swati 4444, Melsaran, Don4of4, Cuddlyable3, Alborz Fallah, Billinghurst, Sressler, Garett Long, PeterBecker, VVVBot, Szhang77, The Symbolic Icon, KoenDelaere, Awalford,
Cubic333, Alice1921, Capitalismojo, PerryTachett, Wigirav, Inition, MoCellMan, Mx3, DuendeThumb, Ashleekuriakose, PixelBot, Squid
tamer, Rimefrost, DumZiBoT, Haitham123sa, Fiskbil, Addbot, Lancshero, Lightfarmer, Fgnievinski, Droter, LaaknorBot, Ahershberger,
WikiDreamer Bot, Luckas-bot, Davygeek, Yobot, WikiDan61, Klusek, Mstormin, Henry97~enwiki, Asarkof, Citation bot, Victorbabkov,
Cteutsch, DSisyphBot, FerretPotatoHead, Spikeyang, NOrbeck, Steve006, Alainr345, Safetyrst123, Gvassena, Edgars2007, FrescoBot,
Nacho Insular, Mikrosha, Pottercomuneo, Phil livingston, Citation bot 1, Killian441, Zfukltd, SpaceFlight89, HMallison, Trappist the
monk, Iweber2003, Hermarchos, Industrialtrac, Faraon x, RjwilmsiBot, Argip, Redcom1229, EmausBot, Misteroups, Mo pete 42, Yt95,
Finn Bjrklid, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Massestephanie, So Say We All, Petrb, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Dapplications, Ghostkeeper,
CasualVisitor, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, Dsajga, BendelacBOT, Golan123, PhnomPencil, Nospildoh, Brandignity, Ugophy2, A*search, Nanobliss, Usearch, BattyBot, Dahundaba, Briankh, Azizunreal79, Mogism, Dgirardeau, SFK2, Themashayekh, Furqanfurkan,
Shmulikb76, Koza1983, Redress perhaps, BITW 01, Anke01, Paren8esis, Mr. Smart LION, Lagoset, Salilgoel, Filedelinkerbot, Approach123, Canopusgao, Adamtanderson, Latosh Boris and Anonymous: 219
List of common 3D test models Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_3D_test_models?oldid=728011249 Contributors: Ldo, Bearcat, Alan Liefting, Erich666, Waldir, SteveBaker, Kri, Aljullu, Widefox, Andy Dingley, Geometrian, Trivialist, ClueBot
NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Codename Lisa, Sleap, Nepluno and Anonymous: 9
Contour crafting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_crafting?oldid=730622812 Contributors: Jeq, Khalid hassani, A2Kar,
4v4l0n42, Mindmatrix, GregorB, CharlesC, YurikBot, Bovineone, Tony1, SmackBot, Alex earlier account, Chris the speller, N2e, Cydebot,
NuclearWarfare, Addbot, Timurite, AnomieBOT, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, ZroBot, , Ego White Tray, Virtualerian, Me,
Myself, and I are Here, JWilson0923 and Anonymous: 9
Direct metal laser sintering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_metal_laser_sintering?oldid=710542139 Contributors: SimonP, Nurg, Khalid hassani, Snwright, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Snori, DMacks, Mgiganteus1, P199, Wizard191, N2e, Gaijin42, Hcobb, Guy Macon, Lfstevens, Fabrictramp, Lightmouse, Robenel, Three-quarter-ten, XLinkBot, AnomieBOT, Mikhael 666
mikhailovich, Jonesey95, Skippy84, Misconceptions2, GoingBatty, Ginger smiles, Plasticspro, Sachinvenga, Growmetal, Iitpkp, CasualVisitor, Greenjackalope, Themoother, Oafyman, Paul Whittaker Inovar, LCS check, AutoNoOpenMined, Spaghettimachine, Tstetler,
Oluwa2Chainz and Anonymous: 25
D-Shape Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Shape?oldid=706488653 Contributors: Edward, Khalid hassani, Bender235, GregorB,
Rjwilmsi, Malcolma, SmackBot, N2e, Cydebot, Headbomb, Nyq, Grundle2600, Blanchardb, Mdnahas, Tide rolls, AnomieBOT, Alvin
Seville, GliderMaven, John of Reading, , Ego White Tray, AlysonStoner5804, Virtualerian, ChrisGualtieri, Zapdos222,
Monkbot, InvertedVantage and Anonymous: 1
Electron beam freeform fabrication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_beam_freeform_fabrication?oldid=721751448
Contributors: Brianhe, Tony1, Clayhalliwell, Kmarinas86, Nagle, Cydebot, Headbomb, Guy Macon, Ohms law, GimmeBot, Cnilep,
Dabomb87, Alagrave, Spino, XLinkBot, Addbot, Mephiston999, Legobot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, Willardconnor, Jay1229, Dani7341,
Danim, Canoe1967, Secondhand Work, Franois Robere, Suswaltz, CityEditors, AndrewV77 and Anonymous: 6
Fused deposition modeling Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_deposition_modeling?oldid=730687389 Contributors:
Dreamyshade, Bryan Derksen, Ronz, Nurg, DavidCary, BenFrantzDale, RapidAssistant, Khalid hassani, Chowbok, Ehudshapira,
KillerChihuahua, Bender235, Jaberwocky6669, Alga, John Vandenberg, Oarih, Halsteadk, Bhtooefr, BRW, Jim Mikulak, DV8 2XL,
CharlesC, Rjwilmsi, Missmarple, Graibeard, Gurch, Raelx, Jzylstra, Whale~enwiki, Tony1, Terber, A Doon, SmackBot, Jurriaan van
Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Edgar181, Thumperward, Jamesfeltz, Tsca.bot, Blokkendoos, Quaeler, Zureks, N2e, GargoyleMT, Twohlers,
Magunator, Cydebot, Matrix61312, Plaasjaapie, Headbomb, Guy Macon, Ninahale, Quickparts, .snoopy., Nikevich, Tgeairn, Valbyrne,
VolkovBot, Fran Rogers, Andy Dingley, Mike the Mix, TheBendster, ImageRemovalBot, Slightlymighty, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Journals88, Three-quarter-ten, Scalhotrod, Svachani, Mimarx, Addbot, Mplsap1970, Lightbot, , Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace,
AnomieBOT, Efa, Cubansmoothie, LilHelpa, Algspd, Karensams, Cleanstation-SRS, Grantmidnight, Stratocracy, Eugene-elgato, Some
standardized rigour, Peterquale, GliderMaven, Gwideman, Mstrogo, Jerd10, Macgeiger, Misconceptions2, Teapeat, ClueBot NG,
OpticalBlimp, IBrow1000, John Cummings, Canoe1967, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, EuroCarGT, Rocknail, Ruby Murray, Dbrown9141,
HyDavo, Clmthomas, Tbessler, Lagoset, Monkbot, Rory Top, WhatAboutThis0000, Mogie Bear, Sarr Cat, BrandoOk, ChemWarfare,
Eric2718, Humbug26, Orbit4447, Arjunpatel07, Royal222, Utters11, FlukeyJam056 and Anonymous: 75
Laminated object manufacturing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminated_object_manufacturing?oldid=686975516 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, Zinnmann, Khalid hassani, Chowbok, CharlesC, Jurriaan van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Betacommand, Sbmehta,
Wizard191, Cydebot, .snoopy., VolkovBot, Addbot, GrinDavid, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Univremonster, Materialscientist, Jesus Ultra,
WikitanvirBot, Rapatan, Nanobliss, Epicgenius, Spaghettimachine and Anonymous: 11
Laser engineered net shaping Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_engineered_net_shaping?oldid=711401393 Contributors:
Michael Hardy, Delirium, Ehn, BenFrantzDale, Khalid hassani, Chowbok, PDH, Drajput, DV8 2XL, Srleer, BirgitteSB, SmackBot,
Jurriaan van Hengel, NCurse, Onceler, Pilotguy, Wizard191, Twohlers, Cydebot, Guy Macon, Magioladitis, J Dezman, Andy Dingley,
Ezrado, Addbot, Themfromspace, J04n, D'ohBot, Mean as custard, AutoNoOpenMined, Rory Top, Industrias Viwa and Anonymous: 8
Magnetic 3D bioprinting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_3D_bioprinting?oldid=704096417 Contributors: Nyq,
AnomieBOT, MrX, Josve05a, BG19bot, BattyBot, Athomeinkobe, Datdyat, Zehranasser, SpanglishArmado, 3alisonobrien, BethNaught
and Anonymous: 3
Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_bed_and_inkjet_head_3D_printing?oldid=
714526745 Contributors: Edward, Bearcat, Khalid hassani, SoWhy, Malcolma, Tony1, Argento, Cydebot, Headbomb, Mkmori, Bonadea,
Cnilep, Mortense, Tassedethe, Yobot, 4ndyD, John of Reading, Ego White Tray, Gavin.perch, Helpful Pixie Bot, Zhaoyebai, Gorthian,
Comp.arch, Monkbot, Spaghettimachine, KH-1, KarenHillwood89 and Anonymous: 4
Stereolithography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereolithography?oldid=725718453 Contributors: Eloquence, Bryan Derksen,
Ronz, BenFrantzDale, Khalid hassani, Alves~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, Pmsyyz, ArnoldReinhold, Mofochickamo, Alansohn, DV8 2XL,
Je3000, Tabletop, Miroku Sanna, Seidenstud, Graibeard, Lotu, YurikBot, Jzylstra, DRosenbach, Jurriaan van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Thumperward, Ado, Tsca.bot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jklin, Dr. Crash, Hu12, Wizard191, Iridescent, JohnCD, GargoyleMT, Twohlers, Rmallins, Njlowrie, Cydebot, Kupirijo, JFreeman, Sochwa, Headbomb, Bill0756, Guy Macon, Ninahale, Gatemansgc, Quickparts, .snoopy., MastCell, Sarahj2107, David Eppstein, KPD~enwiki, Lchrzan, Trusilver, Rlsheehan, 4johnny, FrummerThanThou, Kovo138, KylieTastic, VolkovBot, LokiClock, Sweetpea2007, Anonymous Dissident, Joshwilf, TheBendster, Frogpussy,
114
ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, 7Piguine, GorillaWarfare, Tjfr, Grrlfox, Johnson25006, Three-quarter-ten, Rhododendrites, Iohannes Animosus, SchreiberBike, Svachani, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Scjules, Rdiger Marmulla, Addbot, MaterialGeeza, MrOllie, Jacobcolt, Yobot,
WikiDan61, Themfromspace, Laserproto, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Unara, Materialscientist, Techdoctor, Stratocracy, Firozinasab, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Fgcity, DrilBot, Tom.Reding, Mstrogo, Callanecc, Diannaa, GodfriedToussaint, Hunterp46, Bilbo571, Amcnicoll, Rocketrod1960, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Anagogist, Hallzer73, BG19bot, Epizarroso, 3dsystems, Phaneza, Adlhancock, Usearch,
Harrington0007, Stephenpnock, Tty780,
, Binarysequence, Koza1983, Hellowikielf, Rory Top, Jonguam, Ksaosa, Greatedits1,
Distransient, Ashley.delmar, Daimand and Anonymous: 109
Selective heat sintering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_heat_sintering?oldid=687997387 Contributors: Bearcat, Yamla,
Mgiganteus1, Yobot, Xqbot, Tomsdearg92, Crosstemplejay, Faizan, Spaghettimachine, Rory Top and Anonymous: 2
Selective laser sintering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_sintering?oldid=714526189 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
XJaM, Ronz, Ehn, Jeq, Nurg, DocWatson42, BenFrantzDale, Everyking, Khalid hassani, Gzornenplatz, Sam Hocevar, Addicted2Sanity,
Adashiel, D6, Alansohn, Cdc, Jim Mikulak, Scm83x, Nightscream, Graibeard, DirkvdM, Srleer, Meawoppl, Jzylstra, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, Ms2ger, Cyrus Grisham, Mlibby, SmackBot, Jurriaan van Hengel, LaurensvanLieshout, Thumperward, Snori,
Sadads, Thief12, Mion, Mgiganteus1, Ehheh, P199, Wizard191, GargoyleMT, Twohlers, Cydebot, MrMacMan, Plaasjaapie, Thijs!bot,
Bloger, Guy Macon, Ninahale, Albany NY, Quickparts, .snoopy., Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Dorftrottel, VolkovBot, AlysTarr, TheBendster, Flyer22 Reborn, Slightlymighty, 7Piguine, Tjfr, Alexbot, Three-quarter-ten, Rimefrost, Svachani, Addbot, Mortense, MaterialGeeza,
FSIM, Themfromspace, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Johnkm77, I dream of horses, Calmer Waters, Zachareth, EmausBot, Hunterp46,
ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Nobletripe, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thea10, Paul Whittaker Inovar, Flynn Milligan, Mindblaster6, Vieque, Rory Top
and Anonymous: 70
Selective laser melting Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_laser_melting?oldid=710541670 Contributors: Fred Bauder,
Julesd, Bearcat, Khalid hassani, Snori, P199, Wizard191, Cydebot, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Phil Bridger, Lightmouse, Rapidmfg,
Three-quarter-ten, PixelBot, Arjayay, Addbot, Mortense, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, Misconceptions2, Donner60, Bk314159,
Growmetal, Eg0u4092, O.Koslowski, Greenjackalope, Djblacky1, Mogism, Wuerzele, RomyBallieux, BHauron, Rory Top, KLBelgium,
TM1927, Jpmaterial and Anonymous: 10
Volumetric printing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumetric_printing?oldid=613210957 Contributors: Dravecky, Bensci54,
OccultZone and Smfrayne
3D printed rearms Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printed_firearms?oldid=728869730 Contributors: Furrykef, Tothebarricades.tk, Rich Farmbrough, Anastrophe, Gilliam, Derek R Bullamore, OnBeyondZebrax, N2e, Gaijin42, Headbomb, Magioladitis, Rwessel, Andy Dingley, Meters, Lightbreather, XLinkBot, AnomieBOT, Miguel Escopeta, RjwilmsiBot, Josve05a, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, BattyBot, HistoricMN44, Everymorning, Doctor Papa Jones, Rezin, RollaTroll, FourViolas, Amnichole and Anonymous: 12
3D-printed spacecraft Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D-printed_spacecraft?oldid=729728078 Contributors: JorisvS, N2e, TAnthony, Jdaloner, BG19bot and Anonymous: 1
Building printing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_3D_printing?oldid=730798576 Contributors: Khalid hassani, Bender235, Vegaswikian, Natkeeran, Elkman, KVDP, Chris the speller, Derek R Bullamore, N2e, Headbomb, Xhienne, Awilley, Niceguyedc,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Tom.Reding, K6ka, , Wingman4l7, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG, Virtualerian, IjonTichyIjonTichy,
Lagoset, Monkbot, Insertcleverphrasehere, Ndijks, Trogluddite, Marthe2201, Fahnjim, Kees08 and Anonymous: 12
Critical making Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_making?oldid=729540731 Contributors: Giraedata, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite,
Welsh, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Garnethertz, Grhabyt, Headbomb, Doctorhawkes, Magioladitis, Micahcowan, Ost316, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Eumolpo, Dewritech, Dcirovic, Jaobar, BG19bot, BattyBot, Kaelab3, Mr RD, Zhengya3, Junohk, Guddan08, Nivea Vivek, Rupaliarora, Jayatis, Soniya Bhase, Nayana Gupta ADP and Anonymous: 9
Injection molding Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_moulding?oldid=724509398 Contributors: Christopher Mahan,
Olivier, Michael Hardy, GRAHAMUK, Reddi, N-true, Altenmann, Greudin, MPF, BenFrantzDale, Dratman, Wouterhagens, Markus
Kuhn, Macrakis, AlanCox, Rohini, LucasVB, Fpahl, Togo~enwiki, Chrisbolt, Discospinster, Vsmith, Art LaPella, Duk, Foobaz, Alansohn, Eleland, Ynhockey, Clubmarx, Drbreznjev, Angr, Firsfron, Tabletop, Kelisi, SCEhardt, CharlesC, Fleetham, RxS, Jclemens, Melesse, Josh Parris, Bill37212, Graibeard, Fivemack, Ffaarr, Pfctdayelise, Jak123, Gurch, Czar, SteveBaker, MoRsE, DVdm, Bgwhite,
Cactus.man, YurikBot, Shiznitay, Gertlex, Gaius Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Bdowler, Sanguinity, Joel7687, Adamsmith, Scs, Ducati38,
Lockesdonkey, BeastRHIT, CLW, Phgao, Sagsaw, CWenger, Micnet, Veinor, SmackBot, C.Fred, Britiju, Canthusus, Edgar181, Gilliam,
Psiphiorg, Lindosland, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Thunderbird62, Baa, DHN-bot~enwiki, A. B., Errans, Teemeah, OrphanBot,
Alice.haugen, Nakon, Drphilharmonic, Doodle77, DMacks, Arielco, Ged UK, Peterlewis, Capmo, AnotherBrian, Beetstra, Wizard191,
Mikael V, J Di, Ehsankiani, Tawkerbot2, Viyer, Knipptang, Van helsing, Hignatz, GargoyleMT, INVERTED, KeeserSilver, Funnyfarmofdoom, Swoolverton, Mblumber, Sir Kenny, Gogo Dodo, Chrislk02, Epbr123, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, Tsomkes, AntiVandalBot, -m-i-k-e-y-, Charleslo, Dan D. Ric, MER-C, Petronas, Kevin Crystal, Magioladitis, Quickparts, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Meredyth,
Nyq, Richard Bartholomew, Nikevich, Sasha l~enwiki, Kel.jackson, Grahamjwebster, Adrian J. Hunter, Ciaccona, LorenzoB, Galvanist,
War wizard90, GoTLG, STBot, Grumpylump, CarlFeynman, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, Keith D, R'n'B, Nono64, Rareandrsts, Tgeairn,
Rlsheehan, Hans Dunkelberg, Team saint lucia, Waldo1967, Igrowsolutions, AntiSpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, Bobianite, Rythem,
STBotD, Reelrt, VolkovBot, ABF, Search4.0, Joneddyking, Soliloquial, Larry R. Holmgren, Barneca, Wolfnix, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT,
NipokNek, Amirsarmad, Leafyplant, Gytrem, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Dz93x5, Vladsinger, Lerdthenerd, Andy Dingley, Brianpmurphy,
Falcon8765, Turgan, Spinningspark, Shipikiw, Hansjef, Mendeleev, Red, Lylegordon, Elagace, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Hertz1888, Bryantliu,
Prillen, Lesterdan, Radon210, Wizzard2k, Xtruderdood, Benea, Asker-Asker, TechTube, Maelgwnbot, Bogarmiki, WikiLaurent, Oodam,
Keykoder, Frank0625, Escape Orbit, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, John hofman, Mild Bill Hiccup, Declair,
Fr0gmanJon, DragonBot, Plastech~enwiki, Excirial, BeamerNZ, BOTarate, Kakofonous, Thingg, Error 128, SoxBot III, Cmgoogin,
XLinkBot, Mawaisabbas, Matt Coburn, Travlaki, Eoghan88, Addbot, Aukauk, Aistivy, Jpmonroe, AkhtaBot, MrOllie, Trood0099, Krano,
Deathpuppy, LuK3, Margin1522, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Green Ambush, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Malo0178, Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, Jackliuhn, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Capricorn42, JcCoPM, There are no names left, Richardofoakshire, Amaury, Tim5021,
Alainr345, Blue tooth7, Locobot, Jaxkoyle, Steven.SRK, MAEstudent, Kevinreganwashere, Jasonmillett, Mexipnuttj, Nobody017, Chupabarro, Bstring5, Mechanicalrocks, Blaueziege, iedas, Kierkkadon, Brockey, JoshuaTopSpot, DES402UOFA, LarryDavis55, Idyllic
press, Weetoddid, Wmcleod, Gangsta1337~enwiki, Kagnie2, OgreBot, Pinethicket, Hammondwb, Tjmoel, Aaron.peachey4, Merlion444,
Reinhard Bosshard, Vrenator, DelLeslie, WikiTome, Weedwhacker128, Suusion of Yellow, Jhessian Zombie, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
DCerulo, RjwilmsiBot, Mr Cool is here, X2a, EmausBot, Efcmagnew, WikitanvirBot, Help4wikis, Wikipelli, F, JackieBM, BrianSnasSSI, Tolly4bolly, Massestephanie, Sugar-Baby-Love, MacStep, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Hi-Qos, Petrb, Mankarse, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, IDESinc, Widr, Electriccatsh2, Danhuama, Plasticexrusionline, BG19bot, Murry1975, Dsajga, Jennifer Grigsby, Slinkblot,
6.1. TEXT
115
Youngermouldhwh, Crh23, Probity incarnate, DPL bot, Repentsinner, Greenjackalope, Vanischenu, Vijayratnakumar, Andrewgprout,
PrabhakarPurushothaman, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Samarthcdesai86, TheJesus doesnothate, Antonme3000, Dexbot, Napf,
Paul Kuklych, Geraldlovesdonkeys, Fluydog655, Retrolord, Mcs109, Nuclear Optimism, Crispulop, Monochrome Monitor, Marigold100,
Ugog Nizdast, Polymermold, Lvlarty, Ginsuloft, Pbznyyankeez, Taojialibian, Gravuritas, Mikeyd277, Thatonewikiguy, Dalans15, Jarforth,
Aurinko17, Biblioworm, Blitz1234, Sparkah, Svenwustho, Matthargis33, Jpanzar, Writerlauren, KH-1, Ballpointbiro, Yugamjai, Ian
(Wiki Ed), Orduin, SvanLeeuwen, Bob on drugs, Jack rayn, TroyLinehan, Jonasisamathgod123, Vkweb99, KasparBot, Ccorniuk, Soisyc
Croisic, Keiran Wake, Thomasnetrpm, JRabbit28, HimsDabral, GetSeriousSEM and Anonymous: 571
Rapid prototyping Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping?oldid=727036225 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Deb, Rsabbatini, Michael Hardy, Skysmith, Goatasaur, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Extro, CatherineMunro, Pratyeka, Ehn, Vroman, Mydogategodshat,
Timwi, Itai, Dpbsmith, Robbot, Tualha, Ancheta Wis, Psb777, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, Orangemike, Ssd, Zinnmann, Gracefool,
Rdsmith4, Ehudshapira, Sonett72, Brianhe, Rama, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, DCEdwards1966, Pearle, Melaen, Danhash, Staeiou, Jim
Mikulak, DV8 2XL, Oleg Alexandrov, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Cheesdude, Pol098, Knuckles, CharlesC, Btyner, Graham87, BD2412,
Nightscream, Vegaswikian, Haya shiloh, Graibeard, Lotu, Ian Pitchford, Gurch, DVdm, YurikBot, Wavelength, Bhny, ALoopingIcon,
Gorie, Ndavies2, Scope creep, Zzuuzz, Nelson50, Teryx, Euke, Luk, SmackBot, Jurriaan van Hengel, KocjoBot~enwiki, Britiju, Gilliam,
Ohnoitsjamie, Anwar saadat, Qwasty, Thumperward, Warpling, Guyjohnston, Freddyballo, Andreareinhardt, Man pl, CyrilB, Dicklyon,
TastyPoutine, Wizard191, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Joostvandeputte~enwiki, CmdrObot, Dycedarg, Zureks, GargoyleMT, Twohlers, Cydebot, BillWeiss, Pascal.Tesson, Plaasjaapie, Satori Son, Thijs!bot, Nslsmith, LachlanA, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Guy Macon, Seaphoto,
Zigo1232, Masonba2000, Smartse, Alphachimpbot, Leuko, Skomorokh, Txomin, Albany NY, GoodDamon, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Quickparts, .snoopy., VoABot II, MastCell, Dvmorris, Lchrzan, Trusilver, Sageofwisdom, Rlsheehan, Murmurr, Vamcc, FrummerThanThou, Hodlipson, El monty, Quack 688, KylieTastic, Emalone, VolkovBot, DSRH, Sammiek23, Jay-so~enwiki, Philip Trueman,
Sweetpea2007, Manufacturing, Duncan A Wood, Inventis, Madhero88, Kuczora, Andy Dingley, BrownBot, TheBendster, SieBot, 4wajzkd02, Frogpussy, Zo86, Foxtrotman, JackTheo, Emesee, Maxx88~enwiki, Firey4342, Arrk, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Three-quarter-ten, Arjayay, Dekisugi, BOTarate, Chaosdruid, Michael751, Aitias, Cassedu, Svachani, DumZiBoT,
Scjules, Dthomsen8, James.barkley, Crazysane, MaterialGeeza, Jackienaylor, MrOllie, RTG, Roux, Lightbot, , Zorrobot, Jarble,
Gadibareli, Dengzhifan, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Asarkof, A123a, Techdoctor, Xqbot,
Capricorn42, Karensams, Almish80, J04n, Omnipaedista, GliderMaven, Anaday, Kagnie2, Squid661, MondalorBot, Akkida, X2bf3,
Jhuglen, EmausBot, Helium4, CaptRik, , Jasonjonesjones, ClueBot NG, Danim, CasualVisitor, KLBot2, Jessica.yau, BG19bot,
Dsajga, M0rphzone, Vinaymn87, Nospildoh, MusikAnimal, Compfreak7, Veob66MI, Fspiceland, Usearch, Autodidaktos, Khazar2, Amirthinker, Mogism, Matheus Faria, Lingob, JulieAsarkofReece, Paul Whittaker Inovar, Hamoudafg, VelocityRap, Rcrumpf, ArdenM29,
Lagoset, KH-1, Musa Raza, OrganicEarth and Anonymous: 202
Molding (process) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molding_(process)?oldid=698162601 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Gracefool,
H Padleckas, Iwilcox, Rama, Longhair, Smalljim, Grutness, Spangineer, Angr, Firsfron, Polyparadigm, Kelisi, Bluemoose, Graibeard,
Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Janke, Ndavies2, SmackBot, Britiju, VMS Mosaic, Abrahami, Capmo,
AndyAndyAndy, Wizard191, Mikiemike, Thijs!bot, X201, I already forgot, BenC7, Raggiante~enwiki, MartinBot, Glrx, Verdatum, Hans
Dunkelberg, Johnbod, Joshua Issac, FuegoFish, Macedonian, Drunkenmonkey, Andy Dingley, AlleborgoBot, ConfuciusOrnis, Lightmouse,
Abhinav, Mild Bill Hiccup, Lantay77, Three-quarter-ten, Jovianeye, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Tide rolls, Timurite, Yobot, Daniele Pugliesi,
Materialscientist, Inbamkumar86, Callanecc, Blaznlilwayne, Sugar-Baby-Love, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, MerlIwBot, Doorknob747,
Atomician, Probity incarnate, AntanO, Alexgower, Mysterious Whisper, Portraitofabride, 8Cisaboss, YiFeiBot, Lagoset, Gronk Oz, Degenerate prodigy, Starwars az and Anonymous: 48
Organ-on-a-chip Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ-on-a-chip?oldid=726498653 Contributors: Pascal666, Beland, Rich Farmbrough, Giraedata, Woohookitty, Racklever, JaGa, R'n'B, Adavidb, Skullers, SimonTrew, SchreiberBike, XLinkBot, Yobot, Frederic Y
Bois, MWMG, Mark Arsten, Timothy.ruban, Wikiacad, 4Jays1034, Sidelight12, Bluedudemi, Harry mu and Anonymous: 6
Tissue engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_engineering?oldid=729360320 Contributors: Taw, Edward, D, Jiang,
Dysprosia, Wik, Astronautics~enwiki, Vespristiano, Naddy, COGDEN, Hadal, Marcika, Kukkurovaca, Just Another Dan, Trevor MacInnis, ClockworkTroll, CALR, Rich Farmbrough, Nina Gerlach, Kanzure, Arthena, Mysdaao, ClockworkSoul, Axeman89, , Berserker79,
Oleg Alexandrov, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Uncle G, Kmg90, SCEhardt, Plrk, V8rik, Olbrich~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Strangethingintheland, Ligulem, Bedrupsbaneman, ElKevbo, FlaBot, Latka, Kolbasz, Bgwhite, Uriah923, RobotE, Gaius Cornelius, Cquan, Welsh, Elkman,
JeramieHicks, SmackBot, Zenchu, Edgar181, Ga, M stone, Schmiteye, Chris the speller, Bluebot, RDBrown, Thumperward, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, JonHarder, Keantom, DMacks, StN, Victor D, ArglebargleIV, BrownHairedGirl, Storm Horizon, Soution, Dl2000,
Hu12, JYi, Nehrams2020, Freecat, DLLHell, Harold f, Leujohn, Cydebot, Ladida, Mato, Anthonyhcole, Thijs!bot, Rory rocket, Mojo
Hand, Caenwyr, Headbomb, Marek69, Ctecohio, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, TimVickers, Lfstevens, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Genomaniac, Hdynes, Animum, Bmeguru, Talon Artaine, DerHexer, JaGa, Vigyani, Roastytoast, Jgrevich, Pekaje, EdBever, Jayden54, Mbbradford, Hut 6.5, SJP, D man is a Les, 2help, Martial75, Jamiejoseph, Rei-bot, Clarince63, Delv0n2, Lamro, Cnilep, Doc
James, AlleborgoBot, Corrector of Spelling, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Toddst1, Jasgrider, Nopetro, Zharradan.angelre, Magnathe, Arthana,
ClueBot, Kai-Hendrik, Mheidara, Fabiogogo, Excirial, Rida12525, Eeekster, Estdd123, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Ark25, Muro Bot,
Mmmwid2001, DumZiBoT, Dsvyas, NellieBly, Addbot, Shalvata, Yobot, Choij, ThaddeusB, Rudolf.hellmuth, Materialscientist, Citation
bot, 78.26, E0steven, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Tom.Reding, Silicon Beach Comber, Otc core, Bismuthe, Armando-Martin,
RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, Nayshool, Ahaque89, Mmeijeri, Dcirovic, BrianSnasSSI, AManWithNoPlan, TomasMartin, Mattdalby, Ventus55, L Kensington, Autobiograft101, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Virtualerian, Bart simpson rules, FutureTrillionaire, Ak8978,
Wiki-minor, Achowat, Conifer, CTiger41, ChrisGualtieri, Ajay zalavadia, Ybreaki, Navysealbuy88, Paansing, Dexbot, Everything Is Numbers, P.arashnia, SFK2, Dmitry Dzhagarov, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Marcela louis, Joeinwiki, Camyoung54, Sendelbach29, Alt1979,
Amr94, Lizia7, UY Scuti, Kloppy52, Fixuture, Gaharwar, Andrewmyersvt, Zfox417, Monkbot, SkateTier, FoodLovers2014, Cabrisbois,
DRCP1, Faraday Telsa, Eatmyjorts, Keatymore, 1115crocodileov, KasparBot, Lin.chr, Marco and Gabriel, Gadiscymraes and Anonymous:
190
Molecular assembler Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_assembler?oldid=720942231 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Ahoerstemeier, Ehn, Smith03, Omegatron, King Art, Sappe, Vespristiano, Fuelbottle, David Gerard, Curps, Guanaco, Hannes Karnoefel,
JRR Trollkien, Apotheon, CesarFelipe, Sam Hocevar, DMG413, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Dmeranda, Bender235, Kjoonlee, Kanzure,
Etxrge, Zxcvbnm, Alai, Zbxgscqf, Rsmith, Benlisquare, WriterHound, Hairy Dude, Arado, Mike Treder, Kkmurray, Dieseldrinker, NHSavage, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, M stone, Betacommand, Ppntori, Toughpigs, DRahier, KaiserbBot, GVnayR, Polonium, Vampus, Paul
venter, Harold f, Basawala, Cydebot, KrakatoaKatie, Knotwork, Kawaputra, Oicumayberight, Drjem3, Pekaje, Antony-22, Sbierwagen,
Netmonger, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Karjam, Plastikspork, Kwizy, Coccyx Bloccyx, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, Anthonydelaware,
Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Carl086, Xqbot, FrescoBot, Tom.Reding, Skyerise, Alph Bot, ZroBot,
116
Kni2, , Virtualerian, Star A Star, Cyberbot II, Leafonesky, Spacelion88, Comp.arch, Dersman, Fixuture, SoerenMind, Maplestrip,
Spectra239 and Anonymous: 62
6.2 Images
File:3310_-_Athens_-_Sto_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Mould_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall'Orto,_Nov_9_2009.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/3310_-_Athens_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Mould_-_Photo_by_
Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giovanni Dall'Orto.
File:3D_Plus_3DBuilding.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/3D_Plus_3DBuilding.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:3D_Printed_Macrognathism.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/3D_Printed_Macrognathism.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: 3D model: Own work Photo by User:leylosh Original artist: Nevit Dilmen (<a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Nevit' title='User talk:Nevit'>talk</a>)
File:3D_scanned_interior_of_St_Joseph{}s_Church,_Subiaco.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/
3D_scanned_interior_of_St_Joseph%27s_Church%2C_Subiaco.ogv License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Vimeo: St. Josephs Church Original artist: SPACESCAN (original video), Kollision (edits)
File:3d_tRNA.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/3d_tRNA.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Vossman
File:3dprinter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/3dprinter.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Wuzur using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Rsabbatini at English Wikipedia
File:84530877_FillingSys_(9415669149).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/84530877_FillingSys_
%289415669149%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: 84530877_FillingSys Original artist: OKFoundryCompany from Richmond,
USA
File:9.12.17_Coordinate_measuring_machine.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/9.12.17_
Coordinate_measuring_machine.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vulture19
File:Airwolf_3d_Printer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Airwolf_3d_Printer.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: http://airwolf3d.com Original artist: Eva Wolf
File:Alcian_stain_micromass.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Alcian_stain_micromass.jpg License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was en:User:Cquan at en.wikipedia
File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0
Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist:
Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock)
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:An_early_concept_design_of_the_ERIS_instrument.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/An_
early_concept_design_of_the_ERIS_instrument.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/ann13054a/
Original artist: ESO/ERIS Phase A team
File:Arduino_processing_file.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d1/Arduino_processing_file.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
Zhengya3
File:Artery-on-a-Chip_and_Detail_of_Inspection_Area.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/
Artery-on-a-Chip_and_Detail_of_Inspection_Area.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Timothy.ruban
File:Beryllium-copper_mold.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Beryllium-copper_mold.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: in 2009
Previously published: none Original artist: Blue tooth7
File:BigRep-One.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/BigRep-One.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gui le chat
File:Bioreaktor.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Bioreaktor.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HIA
File:Bronze_Age_spear_tip_mould_IMG_5123.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Bronze_Age_
spear_tip_mould_IMG_5123.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama
File:Bronze_spearhead_mold.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Bronze_spearhead_mold.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Gaius Cornelius assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:CT_Scan_of_Dale_Mahalko{}s_brain-skull.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/CT_Scan_of_
Dale_Mahalko%27s_brain-skull.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dale Mahalko
File:Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Chodowiecki_
Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DANIEL CHODOWIECKI 62 bisher unverentlichte Handzeichnungen
zu dem Elementarwerk von Johann Bernhard Basedow. Mit einem Vorworte von Max von Boehn. Voigtlnder-Tetzner, Frankfurt am
Main 1922. (self scanned from book) Original artist: Daniel Chodowiecki
6.2. IMAGES
117
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/Fab%40Home_Model_2_3D_
File:Factory.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Factory.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Selfmade, taken from Image:1 9 2 9.svg Original artist: Howard Cheng
File:First_replication.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/First_replication.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fullerene_Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Fullerene_
Nanogears_-_GPN-2000-001535.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Great Images in NASA: Home - info - pic Original artist:
NASA
File:Gefprothese.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Gef%C3%A4%C3%9Fprothese.JPG License:
CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HIA
File:Guardians_of_Time_sculpture_Manfred_Kielnhofer_3d_printing.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/4e/Guardians_of_Time_sculpture_Manfred_Kielnhofer_3d_printing.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Kronberger4
File:Herzklappe.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Herzklappe.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HIA
File:Hokusai-fuji7.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Hokusai-fuji7.png License: Public domain Con)
tributors: Jim Breens Ukiyo-E Gallery - Hokusai Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai (
File:Hole_inspection_using_periscope.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Hole_inspection_using_
periscope.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Optimet
File:Hyperboloid_Print.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Hyperboloid_Print.ogv License: CC BY
3.0 Contributors: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1213kMys6e8
Original artist: Video: OhmEye. Object le: MaskedRetriever
File:I_robot_car.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/I_robot_car.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Original artist: Eirik Newth
File:Injection_molding_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Injection_molding_diagram.svg
License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ariel cornejo
File:Injection_moulding.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Injection_moulding.png License: CC BY
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Brockey (Original text: Created by Brendan Rockey, University of Alberta Industrial
Design, for Injection Molding Wikipedia article)
118
6.2. IMAGES
119
File:Printing_in_progress_in_a_3D_printer.webm Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Printing_in_
progress_in_a_3D_printer.webm License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Subhashish Panigrahi
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Rapid_prototyping_slicing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Rapid_prototyping_slicing.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Materialgeeza
File:Real_Stanford_Dragon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Real_Stanford_Dragon.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rodja Trappe
File:RepRap_'Mendel'.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/RepRap_%27Mendel%27.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://vimeo.com/6865848 - video from open-source RepRap project Original artist: CharlesC
File:Robot_3D_print_timelapse_on_RepRapPro_Fisher.webm Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/
Robot_3D_print_timelapse_on_RepRapPro_Fisher.webm License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
r5nDrae3gJg Original artist: RepRapPro
File:SLA_3D_Printed_PCB.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/SLA_3D_Printed_PCB.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Binarysequence
File:SLA_produced_part.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/SLA_produced_part.JPG License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wizard191
File:Schematic_of_a_Nephron-on-a-Chip_Device_with_Cross-Sections_of_3_functional_units.jpg
Source:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Schematic_of_a_Nephron-on-a-Chip_Device_with_Cross-Sections_of_3_
functional_units.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Timothy.ruban
https:
120