HSC Physics Revision Option

David Pham
#
1.

From Quanta to Quarks

discuss the structure of the
Rutherford model of the
atom, the existence of
the nucleus and electron
orbits

discuss Plancks
contribution to the concept
of quantised energy

perform a first-hand
investigation to observe
the visible components of
the hydrogen spectrum

Prior to the development of Rutherfords model, the main hypothesis of atomic

structure was the plum pudding model, which was based on negative charged
embedded in a positive structure. This was developed by J.J. Thomson after his
discovery of the electron.
The Rutherford model of the atom was based upon his alpha-particle scattering
experiments. This involved firing a collimated beam of alpha radiation into a thin
gold foil.
By the plum-pudding model, Rutherford expected most of the alpha particles to
pass through mostly undeflected. However the results were different.

The observation indicated that while most of the particles passed through
undeflected, a small number bounced straight back to the source. Also, a small
number of particles exhibited minor deflection.
This was inconsistent with the plum pudding model and thus Rutherford
proposed his planetary model of the atom. This consisted of a nucleus, around
which electrons orbited (these circular orbits are likened to the solar system).
This nucleus consisted of positive charge and relatively large mass
concentrated into a small volume. The electron clouds do not significantly affect
the movement of alpha particles.
However the presence of these orbiting electrons caused a problem for
physicists. As these electrons are orbiting around a nucleus, they are
accelerating, causing them to lose energy via electromagnetic radiation
(underlying principle of classical physics). This would mean theyd spiral into the
nucleus, creating a lack of electron clouds. Rutherford could not explain this.
Planck, from his studies of the black body radiation and its apparent
inconsistencies with classical physics, attempted to find an elegant solution. The
predictions made by classical physics and the observations of this black body
radiation clashed, especially with regards to the photoelectric effect (refer to
From Ideas to Implementation notes). In order to explain these inconsistencies
he introduced the concept of quantised energy, stating that energy within a black
body is exchanged in small packets called quanta, which each have energy
proportional to its frequency. This ushered in the notion of quantised energy,
which underpins much of modern physics today. Even though Planck was
uncomfortable with this idea, he is credited as the forerunner of quantum
physics.
See Attachments
See Prac Book

define Bohrs postulates

In atomic physics, the Bohr model created by Niels Bohr depicts the atom as a
small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular
orbits around the nucleus similar in structure to the solar system, but with
electrostatic forces providing attraction, rather than gravity. Bohrs model of the
atom was based on his postulates.
Electrons in an atom exist in stationary states, in which they are stable and
do not lose energy. They can only move to other energy states, not in
between (i.e. quantised energy states). This is in opposition to classical
physics (see discussion above) and explains the presence of electron orbits.
No radiation is emitted by these electrons as they accelerate around in
centripetal motion.
The energy of an electron can only be changed if it moves into a different
energy state. This energy change would be accompanied by the emission or
absorption of a photon.

An electron in its stationary state has a quantised angular momentum. It is an

integral multiple of (h-bar is equal to Plancks constant divided by 2)

analyse the significance of

the hydrogen spectrum in
the development of Bohrs
model of the atom

describe how Bohrs

postulates led to the
development of a
mathematical model to
account for the existence
of the hydrogen spectrum:

solve problems and

analyse information using:

The hydrogen spectra is the characteristic set of lines (emission/absorption

spectra) which is unique to hydrogen. This hydrogen spectrum is formed when
electrons move in between energy levels, but this was not known at the time of
observation. However, Bohr realised that the importance of the hydrogen
spectra, and incorporated it as the basis of his theory. He had realised that the
oscillations of electrons in atoms produce the radiation characteristic to each
element. Once he saw Balmers equation he realised how electrons could be
arranged and how quantum ideas could be introduced. He attempted to apply
Plancks quantisation of energy concept to the atom as it seemed a natural
evolution from Rutherfords planetary model.

The model's key success lay in explaining the Balmer formula for the spectral
emission lines of atomic hydrogen; while the Balmer formula had been known
experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical underpinning until the Bohr model
was introduced. The hydrogen spectra was explained by Bohr as the movement
of electrons through different energy levels. Not only did the Bohr model explain
the reason for the structure of the Balmer formula, but it provided a justification
for its empirical results in terms of fundamental physical constants. Note the
angular momentum quantisation this allows one to derive the empirical Balmer
equation by analysing electron transfers to and from the 2nd electron shell.
Bohrs postulates led to the derivation of an equation which could account for
the hydrogen spectra. From his angular momentum quantisation condition, it
could be derived that:

Also, from his 2nd postulate, electrons could only lose energy through moving
from one level to another. And from Plancks quantum theory:

Therefore, after equating the two:

We see this is equivalent to the Balmer-Rydberg equation, as

process and present

diagrammatic information
to illustrate Bohrs
explanation of the Balmer
series

discuss the limitations of

the Bohr model of the
hydrogen atom
analyse secondary
information to identify the
difficulties with the
Rutherford-Bohr model,
including its inability to
completely explain:
the spectra of larger
atoms
the Zeeman effect

As such we can see how Bohrs postulates lead to the development of the
mathematical model to account for the existence of the hydrogen spectrum,
confirming the previously empirical Balmer-Rydberg equation.
Skill
We note how Bohrs model was developed with emphasis on Balmers empirical
formula for the Balmer series of hydrogen.
Bohrs model of the atom explained the
emission spectra of single-electron
atoms via the transfer of electrons
between energy shells. He explained the
Balmer series/equation, using the
derivations from his angular momentum
conservation and 2nd postulate, which
stated that the only energy change came
from electron movement between
stationary states.
From these conditions Bohr could derive
an equation equivalent to Balmer
equation, and he could derive the
constant from physical values. The
Balmer series corresponded to the
electron transfers to the 2nd energy level,
and was in the visible spectrum.
Subsequently more series were
discovered, illustrated above. These had
wavelengths outside of the visible
spectrum.

The Bohr model of the atom had several deficiencies. It has the following
limitations:
It could not predict or explain the spectra of larger, multi-valent atoms
(however it could predict the spectra of larger single-valent atoms such as the
helium ion, by modifying the value of E1 appropriately). This is because it fails
to account for the presence of other electrons, which modifies the mechanics
of electron transition.
It could not account for the existence of hyperfine or fine spectral lines. These
are very thin lines which were observed with better instruments. There must
have been some splitting of the energy levels and the Bohr model could not
explain this. Later on this was found to be caused by relativistic and subtle
effects, as well as electron spin.

 the existence of
hyperfine spectral lines
the relative intensity of
spectral lines

2.

describe the impact of de

Broglies proposal that any
kind of particle has both
wave and particle
properties
explain the stability of the
electron orbits in the Bohr
atom using de Broglies
hypothesis
solve problems and
analyse information using:

It could not explain the Zeeman effect. This is the phenomenon in which
spectral lines split when the elemental gas is placed in a magnetic field. This
was later explained by electron spin and orbital magnetic fields.
It could not explain the relative intensity of spectral lines. The Bohr model
could not explain why some transitions are favoured over others.
In addition, there were other shortcomings. For example, the model was a
strange mix of quantum and classical physics, which are mutually incompatible.
As such, it is now considered an obsolete scientific theory, as it has been
superseded by more accurate models.
Louis de Broglies doctoral thesis dealt with wave-particle duality that is, he
proposed that all particles have a wave nature and all waves had a particle
nature. In this he argued that nobody had managed to perform an experiment
conclusively depicting light as a particle or a wave, and that the explanation of
this was that particles and waves are intrinsically linked.
He was able to take this idea and develop it mathematically.
By noting that
and
Thus
and
As
then
Thus as
then
Therefore, the de Broglie wavelength of a particle
is given by:
Skill
Initially de Broglies theory was deemed to have little physical significance.
However, de Broglie had initiated the revolution in which other scientists would
develop quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a branch of modern
physics dealing with the behaviour of matter and energy on the scale of atoms
and subatomic particles or waves. In this theory, particles have both a wave and
particle nature. The acceptance by the general physics community of quantum
mechanics is due to its accurate prediction of the physical behaviour of
systems, including systems where Newtonian mechanics or general relativity
fails. Through a century of experimentation and applied science, quantum
mechanical theory has proven to be very successful and practical in describing
many phenomena.
Bohrs model of the atom, as previously explored, is inadequate in fully
describing and explaining the inner workings of atoms. However, with the
advent of de Broglies hypothesis this could be explained, as de Broglie
proposed that electrons had a wave nature. He proposed that the orbits of
electrons in the hydrogen atom were similar to standing waves in a ring.
Standing waves are special in that they do not allow energy to propagate that
is, electrons cannot lose energy if they are in a standing wave. As de Broglie
proposed that electrons set up a standing wave around its orbit, we can see that
they do not lose energy, explaining Bohrs stationary states.
In order for a standing wave to be present in a ring, the circumference needs to
be an integral multiple of the wavelength. Otherwise, the vibrations quickly
cancel out as destructive interference occurs.
as opposed to

We shall calculate the condition necessary for the standing wave, by

considering the de Broglie wavelength of the electron and the condition that
there is an integral number of wavelengths in a ring.
and
So
thus

define diffraction and

identify that interference
occurs between waves that
have been diffracted

describe the confirmation

of de Broglies proposal by
Davisson and Germer

This equates to Bohrs quantisation of angular momentum condition (his 3rd

postulate).
As such, we can see how de Broglie explained the unexpected stability of
electrons in Bohrs orbits with the wave nature of electrons, as they set up a
standing wave in which they do not lose energy. Subsequently, with further
research and development of atomic theory some of the shortcomings of the
Bohr model could be explained.
This allows for us to account for the stability of electrons in Bohrs model and
provide a basis for his quantisation condition. It also subsequently led to the
development of quantum physics and the new quantum mechanical model of
the atom today, overcoming/explaining the shortcomings of the Bohr model.
Quantum theory, as discussed above, is a very powerful physical theory and
widely in use today. Thus we can see the enormous impact of de Broglies work
on wave-matter duality.
Diffraction is the phenomenon when a wave encounters an obstacle and has its
path disrupted. It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small
obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings. It occurs when
light passes through a very finely ruled grating or passes through a small
opening, or passes a barrier.
It is not easy to observe because the dimensions of the barrier or opening must
be comparable to the wavelength of the light. In this course we are mainly
concerned with diffraction gratings. These cause interference between the
waves that have been diffracted, due to wavefront interactions. Each slit only
allows one point on the wave to propagate, and by Huygens law the pattern
below is observed. For example, a diffraction grating causes interference:

A series of alternating bright and dark spots can be seen due to alternating
constructive (wavefronts coincide in phase) and destructive interference
(wavefronts out of phase).
Davisson and Germer were able to confirm the wave-matter duality principle, by
observing that electrons had a wave nature (that is, they showed interference
properties once thought to be exclusive to waves).

3.

gather, process, analyse

and present information
and use available evidence
to assess the contributions
made by Heisenberg and
Pauli to the development
of atomic theory

define the components of

the nucleus (protons and
neutrons) as nucleons
and contrast their
properties

Initially these two scientists were examining the scattering of electrons by the
surface of nickel. Even though it appeared smooth, at a microscopic level this
nickel was rough and caused haphazard scattering of electrons.
Davisson and Germer stumbled onto the diffraction of electrons by accident.
After annealing a piece of nickel, they unwittingly created large single crystal
sections which could act as diffraction gratings. Now the results were much
different to before. Being familiar with x-ray diffraction and de Broglie theory,
they recognised the diffraction of electrons. As diffraction is a property of waves,
not matter, this was taken as confirmation that electrons had wave properties,
showing that de Broglies proposal of wave-matter duality was true.
Heisenberg and Pauli both contributed to our understanding of atomic theory in
varying ways.
Heisenbergs most famously quoted contribution is the development of the
Uncertainty Principle.
The value of the indeterminacy varies from source to source

^^ use this
This implies that quantum mechanics is non-deterministic in nature, and
uncertainty is inherent. Quantum mechanics deals with probabilities rather than
discrete values.
Heisenberg also developed a completely mathematical model of quantum
physics. He viewed the atom in terms of its observable properties, rather than as
a visual model. He also applied quantum physics to the nucleus, eventually
allowing other scientists to expand on this theory.
Paulis main contribution to atomic theory is his exclusion principle. This states
that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers. It explained the electron configuration of elements, their properties and
periodicity. Electrons are built from the ground-state upwards (aufbau principle)
rather than clustering in the lowest state. It is an integral part of quantum theory.
In addition, Pauli also applied quantum mechanics (with difficulty) to the
hydrogen atom, deriving Balmers equation and Rydbergs constant, showing
how the empirical equation is consistent with quantum theory.
Pauli also predicted the existence of the neutrino to explain the discrepancy
between the beta decay energies. This was done to ensure that the law of
conservation of energy remained consistent (the particle is now known as an
antineutrino).
As such, the contributions of both these scientists to atomic theory allow us to
expand our knowledge of how the world works on a quantum scale.
Nucleons are the particles present in a nucleus, and they are a subset of
baryons. These include protons and neutrons. They are subatomic particles,
and were initially thought to be fundamental particles (but we now know they are
composed of quarks). Some of the more relevant properties:
Proton
Neutron
Nucleon Property
Mass
938 MeV
940 MeV
1.673 x 10-27 kg
1.675 x 10-27 kg

Charge

discuss the importance of

conservation laws to
Chadwicks discovery of
the neutron

+1
0
0C
+1.602 x 10-19 C
Quark Composition
u,u,d
u,d,d
Spin
+1/2
+1/2
Magnetic Moment
2.79 nuclear magnetons
-1.91 nuclear magnetons
They are both bound by the strong nuclear force into atomic nuclei.
Bothe and Becker had initially identified an unknown form of radiation. To
observe this, they fired alpha particles (from polonium) at a sheet of beryllium.
This unknown radiation seemed to be similar to gamma rays, as they had
exceptionally high energy and penetrating power. However their energy and
penetrating power was higher than previously observed gamma rays.
The Joliot-Curies performed a further experiment to determine the nature of this

radiation. They allowed this unknown radiation to strike a sheet of (proton-rich)

paraffin wax, causing protons to be knocked out (these protons had very high
energy). This was important, because as protons have charge, their momentum
and kinetic energy could be measured (an electric/magnetic field can be applied
to measure these). The values of proton energy/momentum would be compared
to the incident unknown radiation. As momentum and energy are conserved, the
initial momentum and energy of the radiation can be calculated.
It is also noteworthy that for a proton to be ejected at 5MeV then the equivalent
incident gamma radiation would need 50MeV energy. However, the energy of
alpha particles was noted to be 5MeV only. This would have been inconsistent
with the principle of conservation of energy.

define the term

transmutation
describe nuclear
transmutations due to
natural radioactivity

perform a first-hand
investigation or gather
secondary information to
observe radiation emitted
from a nucleus using
Wilson Cloud Chamber or
similar detection device

Using the principles of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum,

Chadwick could calculate the momentum and kinetic energy of the incident
radiation. By comparing these values, he could identify the nature of this
unknown radiation. He suggested that in fact the new radiation consisted of
uncharged particles, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his
suggestion. He made measurements of the recoil of nuclei of hydrogen and
nitrogen after interactions with his proposed neutron. The measurements were
difficult (and they also involved elastic collisions conservation of energy, and
conservation of momentum) but it led to a predicted mass similar to that of a
proton.
Transmutation is the process in which once element is changed to another,
either artificially or naturally. Natural transmutation occurs when radioactive
elements spontaneously decay over time to transform to more stable elements.
Some examples of naturally occurring radiation include alpha, beta and gamma
radiation.
Alpha
+
Mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2
Beta
+
No change in mass number, atomic number increases by 1
*
Gamma
+
No change in mass or atomic number
Less commonly encountered are spontaneous nuclear fission, positron
emission, and neutron emission. Electron capture results in the spontaneous
emission of an X-ray.

The cloud chamber is a device used to detect ionising radiation. It is a

supercooled, supersaturated chamber containing water or alcohol vapour. The
diagram above is of a diffusion cloud chamber, while the Wilson cloud chamber
relies on expansion (not the apparatus above).
In Wilson's original chamber the air inside the sealed device was saturated
with water vapor, then a diaphragm is used to expand the air inside the
chamber. This cools the air and water vapor starts to condense. When an
ionizing particle passes through the chamber, water vapor condenses on the
resulting ions and the trail of the particle is visible in the vapor cloud.
The diffusion cloud chamber differs from the expansion cloud chamber in that
it is continuously sensitized to radiation, and in that the bottom must be cooled
to a rather low temperature, generally as cold as or colder than dry ice.
Alcohol vapor is also often used due to its different phase transition
temperatures. Dry-ice-cooled cloud chambers are a common demonstration
and hobbyist device; the most common fluid used in them is isopropyl alcohol.
The bubble chamber similarly reveals the tracks of subatomic particles, but as
trails of bubbles in superheated liquid. Bubble chambers can be made
physically larger than cloud chambers, and since they are filled with much
denser material, they reveal the tracks of much more energetic particles.
These factors rapidly made the bubble chamber the particle detector of
choice, so that cloud chambers were effectively superseded in fundamental
research by the start of the 1960s.
When ionising radiation (alpha or beta) passes through this chamber, it ionises
the surrounding vapour. This causes the vapour to condense about that location,
due to the vapours supersaturated state. The trails are formed by the continued
propagation of ionising radiation through the chamber, as they have high energy.
The trails are characteristic to the form of radiation. For example, alpha particles
have broad, straight paths while beta particles have thinner tracks and are more
easily deflected. This is due to their mass and charge alpha particles are more
highly charged than beta particles, so they affect the vapour in a larger range
(thicker tracks). They are also more massive and thus are deflected less easily
than electrons (electrons path bends due to collisions).
Alpha particles, which are relatively heavy, will produce straight dense trails
(below, left). Beta particles are light and leave wispy, irregular trails (below,
center). When there is no radiation source, cosmic rays may enter the chamber,
producing thin misty trails (below, right).

discuss Paulis suggestion

of the existence of neutrino
and relate it to the need to
account for the energy
distribution of electrons
emitted in -decay

Magnetic fields can also be applied to study the movement of these particles, as
they are charged. Alpha and beta particles will curve in the opposite directions.
Gamma rays do not produce readily visible tracks because they do not interact
strongly with matter (do not ionise atoms readily).
See attachments
When alpha particles are emitted from a source they have the exact same
energies no matter what. However, it was noted by physicists that beta particles
were often emitted with varying energies, even though they were from the same
source. There was also debate as to whether the energies were continuous or
line spectra, as equipment was not sufficiently sensitive.

It was established by Chadwick (using a Geiger point counter to detect beta

particles) that they had continuos spectra, using an apparatus similar to shown
below.
so

Even though these beta particles were emitted from the same source under the
same conditions they had differing amounts of energy, especially as both
decays produced the same nucleus.
In an attempt to resolve these problems, Pauli suggested the existence of
another sub-atomic particle, which accompanied beta decay and could account
for the varying levels of energy. The neutrino postulated Wolfgang Pauli to
preserve conservation of energy, conservation of momentum, and conservation
of angular momentum in beta decay, the decay of a neutron into a proton, an
electron and an (now known as) antineutrino. Pauli theorized that an undetected
particle was carrying away the observed difference between the energy,
momentum, and angular momentum of the initial and final particles. This particle
would be very penetrating, extremely difficult to detect, and be neutral. The
existence or otherwise of this particle could not be established, but later on
Fermi was able to explain beta decay, through his famous paper. He applied
Paulis suggestion of a new particle and deduced its properties.
They have either zero or very small mass
They are neutral
They travel close to the speed of light (if they have mass) or at the speed of
light, if they are massless
They possess both momentum and energy (accounting for the differing
energies of electrons in beta decay)
They have an intrinsic spin
They have very high penetrating power and interact very little with matter
beta-minus decay

beta-plus decay

Eventually the neutrino was detected through inverse beta decay that is,

evaluate the relative

contributions of
electrostatic and
gravitational forces
between nucleons
account for the need for
the strong nuclear force
and describe its properties

A proton would interact with an antineutrino to form a neutron and a positron.

Cowan and Reines detected the presence of these antineutrinos with this
method. As such, the presence of antineutrinos and hence neutrinos in general
was confirmed.
The nuclei of atoms are obviously held together by attractive forces as they
dont spontaneously fly apart. Scientists originally thought that the force of
gravity between nucleons would balance the electrostatic repulsion. However,
we shall calculate the magnitude of the forces which protons and neutrons
experience in the nucleus.

Calculate the forces between two protons

Thus the magnitude of electrostatic repulsion between two protons is much
greater than the attractive force of gravity by magnitude of around 1036
Clearly the attractive force of gravity is much smaller than the repulsive force of
electrostatics (even if we take into account the extra attractive force from the
presence of uncharged neutrons). This would result in nuclei spontaneously
flying apart, except that this does not occur in nature. Thus there must be
another force (stronger than electrostatic repulsion) which holds the nuclei
together.
This force is known as the strong nuclear force. The properties of this strong
nuclear force:
It is independent of charge, and acts between nucleons (protons and
neutrons).
At normal internucleon distances, it is a very strong attractive force (much
more than the electrostatic repulsion). However at very small distances (less
than the diameter of the nucleon, about 0.4 fm) it changes from an attractive
to repulsive force. Also, the Coulomb force between protons has a much
larger range and becomes the only significant force between protons when
their separation exceeds about 2.5 fm.
It acts over a small range only (~10-15m) and its strength rapidly decreases
after this. Proton repulsion occurs between each proton in a nucleus but the
strong nuclear force only acts between adjacent nucleons.

explain the concept of a

mass defect using
Einsteins equivalence
between mass and energy
solve problems and

It prefers to bind pairs of nucleons with opposite spin, and pairs of pairs
whose spin is each zero (e.g. alpha particle is exceptionally stable).
The exchange particle associated with the strong nuclear force is the pi
meson, which has mass (thus it works over a short distance only while the
massless photon allows the electromagnetic force to extend infinitely)
It was noted that the sum of the individual masses of nucleons was greater than
whole that is, some mass appeared to be missing from the complete nucleus.
For example, a deuterium ion has a mass of 2.014102 u while the mass of a
proton and neutron is 2.01649 u. Thus, it appears to be missing a mass of
0.002388 u. This missing mass can be converted into a value for energy, by
E=mc2. In this case, the binding energy is 2.224 MeV.

analyse information to
calculate the mass defect
and energy released in
natural transmutation and
fission reactions

This is known as the binding energy, and it is the energy which holds the
nucleus of an atom together. It comes from the mass defect of atoms. To break
the nucleus apart, we would need to supply an amount of energy greater than
the binding energy. It also means that if we were to combine a proton and
neutron to form deuterium, then 2.224 MeV of energy would be released. We
can also analyse the binding energy per nucleon by taking the total binding
energy and dividing it by the total number of neutrons and protons combined.
It is this concept of binding energy and mass defect which allows for energy
changes in nuclear reactions. To release energy, we would combine or split
nuclei in such a way that the mass of the products would be less than the mass
of the reactants, such that energy would be released. The only way that this
mass would be less would have to be accounted for by the concept of mass
defect as the numbers of nucleons is conserved.
A practical example:
The atomic masses:
139
1
La 138.8061 u
n 1.008665 u
95
1
Mo 94.9057 u
p 1.007276 u
235
0
U 235.0439 u
e 0.00054858 u
The mass deficit of the products relative to reactants is 0.3196 u. This means
that the energy released in the nuclear reaction is 297.7 MeV.

describe Fermis initial

experimental observation
of nuclear fission

From this graph we note that either splitting high-mass nuclei or fusing lighter
nuclei will increase the binding energy per nucleon. This means that energy is
released to the environment. Nuclear energy is based on this concept.
Skill
Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy unstable nucleus splits to form
two lighter nuclei, each of which are more stable. Fermi observed nuclear fission
first, but these results were initially not understood and were only interpreted
correctly years later. Fermi bombarded atoms of uranium with neutrons and
assumed that the product was the element 93, because beta radiation was
detected. While this would be true for U-238, Fermis sample had excess U-235
and from this some nuclear fission occurred.
It was noted that the experiment, when performed in different parts of the room,
had differing results. Noticeably, activity was greater when the substance being
irradiated was left on a wooden rather than marble table. To further test this,
Fermi intended to use a block of lead between the neutron source and the target
but at the last moment switched it for paraffin. This greatly increased the
intensity of radiation and thus Fermi discovered why slow neutrons are better
than fast neutrons at irradiation (they spend more time in the vicinity of the
nucleus and are thus more easily captured).
Later on, Hahn would perform the experiment and Meitner would correctly
identify the process as fission. From this it was realised that much energy could
be extracted from nuclear fission.

describe Fermis
demonstration of a
controlled nuclear chain
reaction in 1942

compare requirements for

controlled and uncontrolled
nuclear chain reactions

Fermi created the first artificial nuclear reactor (atomic pile, named the Chicago
Pile-1) in 1942 as part of a demonstration of the viability of nuclear reactions as
an energy source. He aimed to show that a nuclear reactor could be selfsustaining.
His atomic pile consisted of 50 tonnes of natural uranium in 22,000 slugs, and
dispersed through 400 tonnes of graphite (as 40,000 graphite bricks). Graphite
was chosen as the moderator because it was the only one available in sufficient
purity. It contained critical mass of the fissile material, together with control rods,
and was built as a part of Manhattan Project research. The controls consisted of
cadmium-coated rods that absorbed neutrons. Withdrawing the rods would
increase neutron activity in the pile to lead to a self-sustaining chain reaction.
Re-inserting the rods would dampen the reaction.
The test occurred on December 2 1942. Initially many control rods were inserted
into the pile. They would be slowly withdrawn until a self-sustaining reaction was
reached.
9:45 am
The control rods began to be slowly withdrawn, with Fermi
performing calculations from the trace on the chart recorder.
11:45 am
The automatic control rod, set at a too-low level, was set off. A
break for lunch was then called.
2:00 pm
The process resumed.
3:25 pm
Fermi predicted that the trace would not level off and a few
minutes later the reaction became self-sustaining. It stayed
that way for 28 minutes, after which it was dampened by
reinserting the control rods.
Nuclear fission is known to require one neutron only, and yet in the process of
splitting several neutrons are emitted. For example,

These two possible decay chains produce more neutrons than they require.
Also, each fission produces a large amount of energy.

If a sample of uranium is irradiated, then for each uranium atom split, three more
are split after that. An uncontrolled nuclear reaction involves a nuclear reaction
which progresses exponentially as the rate of reaction increases with each step.
This occurs when the excess neutrons from the fission are free to propagate
further fissions. As each fission releases energy, an uncontrolled reaction would
release enormous amounts of energy in a short amount of time. This is useful in
applications such as nuclear bombs as the large amount of energy can be put to

destructive use.
To create an uncontrolled reaction we need a critical mass of fissile material
that is, material of sufficient density to sustain a chain reaction with a ratio of
exit:input neutrons of greater than 1:1. Also, for use in bombs, this material
needs to be subcritical during transport but be able to go critical at will. Some
examples of nuclear bombs and uncontrolled chain reactions are explored later
on.
In controlled reactions, however, the number of emitted neutrons is controlled
such that each fission results (on average) in only one other fission. For
example:

As such, the reaction has exactly a 1:1 ratio and produces a steady stream of
energy. These types of reaction are used in nuclear reactors today, extracting
energy at a steady rate. They control the reaction by absorbing excess neutrons
with control rods and ensuring that neutrons cause fission with moderators
(these slow neutrons down to fissile speeds). These control rods can be moved
in or out depending on how much the reaction needs to be slowed down. See
below point on principles of nuclear reactors.
If the neutrons are absorbed too readily, however, the ratio dips below 1:1 and
the nuclear chain reaction dies out quickly. This is not productive.
4.

explain the basic principles

of a fission reactor

Fuel:
fissionable material used (e.g. U-235) as source of neutrons
need critical mass to create self-sustaining reaction
usually present as fuel rods to allow easy insertion and removal
Regulation:
moderators used to slow neutrons down for easier capture (thermal neutrons)
-> the moderator is made of a material which does not absorb them but slows
them down (e.g. heavy water, graphite, normal water bad as it absorbs
neutrons itself to make heavy water)
can be alternating such that a neutron from one fuel rod passes through
moderator then goes into another fuel rod
fission reaction controlled to allow only one neutron from fission reaction to
cause further fission -> others are absorbed by control rods (material absorbs
neutrons without fission, e.g. cadmium) to prevent nuclear explosion
in event of emergency excess control rods can be dropped down under gravity
to dampen reaction
Energy use:
heat energy from reaction form kinetic energy of fission is removed by a

describe some medical

and industrial applications
of radio-isotopes
identify data sources, and
gather, process, and
analyse information to
describe the use of:
a named isotope in
medicine
a named isotope in
agriculture
a named isotope in
engineering

describe how neutron

scattering is used as a
probe by referring to the
properties of neutrons

coolant (e.g. heavy water, Na(l), CO2) which is used for work (e.g. pressurized
steam to drive turbines)
this coolant needs to exchange heat with another coolant as it is radioactive
Shielding:
enormous amounts of radiation produced from nuclear fission, so radiation
shields needed
reflect escaping neutrons back into core, protecting walls from damage
(graphite and lead)
protect workers from harmful gamma radiation (shield of thick concrete
absorbs radiation)
Radio-isotopes are useful in many areas, such as medicine, agriculture and
engineering.
Medicine:
Iodine-123 is also used to study and treat thyroid disorders, as the thyroid gland
is the only major user of iodine in the body, which uses it to produce the
hormone thyroxin. It is a beta and gamma radiator, with a relatively safe half-life
of 13 hours. After a drink of radioactive NaI or a capsule, the patients iodine
uptake is measured, and compared to healthy iodine uptake levels within a few
hours. A different value to this could indicate a malfunction. This difference can
be analyzed by a doctor to determine whether there exists a possibility for
thyroid cancer. Larger doses of I-131 can be used for radiation therapy to treat
tumours in the thyroid.
Industry:
The use of radioisotopes in industry includes those in agriculture and
engineering.
Agriculture:
Phosphorus-32 is often used as a tracer in plants to track the movement of
nutrients, especially useful when tracking the uptake of fertilisers. P-32 is a beta
emitter with a half-life of 14.3 days and P-32 can be incorporated chemically as
part of fertilisers and weed-killers, and radiation detectors can monitor the
amount of chemical inside the plant, as opposed to that administered dose.
Phosphorus is important to plant growth and the half-life of 14.3 days is on a
good time scale to study chemical uptake. It allows farmers and agriculturalists
to optimise the production and use of fertilisers and weedicides, saving money
and optimising production.
Engineering:
The penetrating power of radiation allows it to detect faults in metals due to
metal fatigue, hairline cracks, or poor welding. More radiation passes through
areas with less thickness, and this method is used on pipelines, boiler welds,
and metal fatigue in aircraft. Radioisotopes (e.g. Co-60, Sr-90) are convenient
for this purpose as they can be inserted without dismantling. Co-60 is used
because it is an emitter of gamma rays which will penetrate metal parts. It has a
half-life of 5.3 years and can be used in a chemically inert form held inside a
sealed container. This enables the equipment to have a long lifetime and not
require regular maintenance, leading to lower costs and higher efficiency.
Neutrons can be effectively used as a probe to study the structure and
properties of matter. They are produced from a nuclear reactor. The main tools
for neutron analysis of matter are the spectrometer and diffractometer. Neutrons
have a number of properties which make them useful:
The neutron has a wave nature, and the de Broglie wavelength of thermal
neutrons is comparable to the spaces between atoms. This allows
interference patterns to be formed as the lattice acts as a diffraction grating.
The neutron has a magnetic moment, which allows it to be used to study
materials or structures with magnetic properties.
Neutrons interact strongly with nuclei of atoms, which allows them to be used
as a probe to study the structure of nuclei, especially different isotopes of the
same element.
The neutron has similar vibrational energies to atoms in solids and liquids
and as such can be used to study the movement of atoms in molecules.
Neutrons can be used to study matter non-destructively.
Thus scientists can use neutrons to study the structure of matter effectively.

identify ways by which

physicists continue to
develop their
understanding of matter,
using accelerators as a
probe to investigate the
structure of matter

Physicists can develop their understanding of the structure of matter through

probing the nucleus with particle accelerators as well as neutrons (discussed
above). A particle accelerator is a device that uses electric fields to propel
electrically-charged particles to high speeds and to contain them. Accelerators
give high energy to subatomic particles, which then collide with targets. Beams
of high-energy particles are useful for both fundamental and applied research in
the sciences. For the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of
matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the
highest possible energies. Out of the collisions and interactions come many
other subatomic particles that pass into detectors. From the information gathered
in the detectors, physicists can determine properties of the particles and their
interactions. Some examples of these particle accelerators can be:
Linear Accelerator

Linear accelerators consist of an alternating power supply connected to a series

of lengthening tubes. The changing electric field is setup such that the particles
are accelerated down to a target. Initially the ion source has an opposite charge
to the nearest tube, and is accelerated towards it. As the particle travels through
the tube and exits it, the polarity changes such that the tube behind the particle
repels it and the tube ahead attracts it. This continues on, and each tube must
increase because the period between frequency changes remains constant while
the speed increases.
As such, the particle can be accelerated to very high velocities. However, one
disadvantage of these is the sheer length required to attain sufficiently high
velocities.
Cyclotron

A cyclotron accelerates charged particles through the dees. A magnetic field

exists going through the page such that the particles are subject to a force
perpendicular to their direction of motion. This causes circular motion. The
electric field is set up such that the dees have alternating charge, and the
particle accelerates as it moves between the dees (the radius increases due to
speed increase). Eventually the particle is accelerated to high speeds and exits

the cyclotron.
Synchotron
Synchotrons are the main type of accelerator used today. A radio frequency
electric field is used to accelerate the particles around a circuit of constant
diameter, providing a kick. A steadily strengthening magnetic field keeps these
particles moving in a constant diameter. They require less energy to run, but a
disadvantage is that only one batch of particles can be accelerated at a time.
discuss the key features
The standard model of matter consists of a number of aspects, each of which
and components of the
should be mentioned in exams. It was developed to explain subatomic particles
standard model of matter,
using interactions and classes of particles, as many had been discovered and
including quarks and
was beginning to be difficult to keep track of (especially interactions). It is a
leptons
mathematical description of the particles, their kinematics, and the interactions
between them (reducing this to several laws). The types of particles involved
are:
Hadrons
particles affected by strong nuclear force
Baryons hadrons with half-integer spin (e.g. proton, neutron) (3 quarks)
Mesons hadrons with zero or integer spins (quark and antiquark)
Fermions
particles obeying Pauli exclusion principle with half integer spin
Leptons particles not experiencing strong nuclear force, and half-integer spin (e.g.
electron)
Quark
quarks carry colour charge and interact via the strong force.
Bosons
force-carrying particles (photons, gluons, gravitons)
There are six accepted types (flavours) of quark and six flavours of lepton,
both of which are elementary particles.
Protons consist of uud quarks and neutrons are made of ddu quarks.
Baryons are made of 3 quarks, and mesons are made of a quark and an
antiquark.
Lepton
Quark
Generation Name
Charge
Name
Symbol
Charge
1
electron neutrino
0
up
u
+2/3
electron
-1
down
d
-1/3
2
muon neutrino
0
charm
c
+2/3
muon
-1
strange
s
-1/3
3
tau neutrino
0
top
t
+2/3
tau
-1
bottom
b
-1/3
The Standard Model predicted the existence of W and Z bosons, the gluon, the
top quark and the charm quark before these particles had been observed. Their
predicted properties were experimentally confirmed with good precision.
The model also deals with force-mediating particles. It suggests that all the
fundamental forces result from the exchange of these force mediating particles
between the matter particles.
electromagnetic
photon
weak nuclear force
various bosons
strong nuclear
gluon
gravity
graviton?
However the force carrying-particle for gravity is undiscovered. This remains a
problem with the model.
Shortcomings
incompatible with gravity and general theory of relativity
provides no reasoning for numbers (e.g. 6 quarks, 6 leptons)
cannot explain masses
cannot explain whether there are more fundamental particles (e.g. leptoquark?)
gather, process and
Outline:
analyse information to
Code name for US project to develop atomic bomb
assess the significance of
German scientists had discovered nuclear fission, raising possibility of nuclear
the Manhattan Project to
bomb, so America began its own project
society
Japan caused America to enter the war
Fermi demonstrated nuclear reactor in 1942, and by 1945 some bombs were
made and two were dropped

Two subcritical masses of nearly pure U-235

are separated. Detonation of the explosive
charge forces the two masses together at high
speeds. This is now super-critical and a
nuclear explosion occurs.

A slightly subcritical mass of Pu-239 is

surrounded by a shell of explosives. These
are triggered, compressing the plutonium into
critical density. This creates a nuclear
explosion.

Positive Impacts
conclusion of WWII
greater understanding of nuclear energy
invention of nuclear power plants to produce energy
application of nuclear physics to medicine, industry and agriculture for benefit
of all
Negative Impacts
the bombs were very expensive to develop (leading to questions of legitimacy
of these expenditures)
enabled USA not USSR to control postwar policy by eliminating Japan
some scientists objects to its use, staining Americas reputation
beginning the arms race (Cold War), expending large amounts of money
which can be used elsewhere
excess of nuclear weapons being developed
led to development of even more powerful, destructive weapons
mass annihilation of people at Nagasaki and Hiroshima
nuclear fallout from testing sites and drop zones, leading to mutations
ethical dilemmas raised about nuclear research