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Katyayana ( 4 th c e n t.
D asgupta^considering th is ^
e td
is w e ll w r i t t e n
which was commented upon
i n h is N yaya-Nibandha-prakas^.
1. H is to r y o f I n d i a n.j ( i t ^ a t u r e /
by
2
p p . 4 6 -5 0 .
Satis^jpndjraTV idyabhusana.
G o ld s tu f k e r s
P a n i n i , p . 157.
3.
H is to r y o f I n d ia n P h ilo so p h y , p. 279.
4.
I b i d , p. 307.
A .D .)
i s a n o th e r well-known
o f lo g ic and d i a l e c t i c s .
I n Ak^apada G autam a's ' Nyaya Sutra'', the b a sic
t r e a t i s e on Nyaya, th e a u th o r p o in ts out th e means o f
s a lv a tio n as c o n s is tin g of r i g h t knowledge which can be
o b ta in e d by a c le a r com prehension of th e fo llo w in g s ix te e n
to p ic s ;
dL-'-
Ci)
( i l ) t h e o b j e c t s o f p l i g h t c o g n i t i o n (Prameya) ( i i i ) d o u b t (sainsaya)
(iv?-iHotive
(Prayojana)
(v>
Example ( d r s t a n t a )
(vi)
th eo ry (siddhantal
( v i i V f a c t o r s o f I n f e r e n c e (a v a y a v a )
(viii)
(ix)
C o g i t a t i o n ( t arka)
dem qstrated t r u t h
(x)
(nirnaya)
d i s c u s s i o n (vada''
(xi) d is p u t a t i o n (jalpa^
( x ii ) w rangling
(vitanda)
( x i i i ) F a l l a c i o u s Reasoning (hetvabhasa")
(xiv)
quibble (chala)
(xv)
fu tile
(xvi> g r o u n d o f d e f e a t o r c l i n c h e r ( n i g r a h a s t h a n a )
\'hXXJL-
A f t e r one ha s a c q u i r e d t e
/ c e a s e s , and t h e n d e f e c t s
(dosas), activity
( p r a v r t t i l
a n n i h i l a t i o n le a d s to S a l v a t i o n , th e h i g h e s t good.
T h e r e a r e i n a l l f o u r pramanas ( s o u r c e s of v a l i d
k n o w l e d g e ) a c c o r d i n g t o Gau tam a.
They a r e u e r a e p t i o n
(p ra ty a k s a ), fnference
(anumaha)
, a n a l o g y (upamanajt and
v e r b a l t e s t i m o n y (-/abda) .
P e r c e p t i o n i s d e f i n e d as u n c o n t r a d i c t e d d e t e r m i n a t e
k n o w l e d g e , p ro d u c e d by t h e c o n t a c t o f t h e o b j e c t w i t h the
s e n s e - o r g a n and f r e e f r o m v e r b a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n f e r e n c e
is of th re e kinds
(ii)
(i)
f r o m e f f e c t t o c a u s e ( ^ e s a v a t ) a nd ( i l l )
inference
uk.
o f a r e l i a b l e p e r so n (S p ta) i s word or
v e r b a l te s tim o n y )
(Sabda) .
A f t e r e n u m e r a t i n g and d e f i n i n g t h e p r a m a n a s , Gautama
t u r n s t o t h e p r a m e y a s , w h i c h a r e t w e l v e i n number.
They a r e CD S o u l (atm an )
(ii)
body ( ^ a r i r a )
(iii)
sense-organs
(iv)
things or o b je c ts (artha)
(v)
a p p r e h e n s i o n (b u d d h i )
(Vi's
mind (manas)
(v iD
A ctivity (p ra v rtti)
( v i i i ) d e f e c t ( d o s a !)
(indriya)
(ix ) r e b i r t h
(x)
(p re ty a ^ b h s iv a )
f r u itio n (p la la )
( x i ) p a i n (d u h k h a )
( x i i ) e m a n c i p a t i o n o r u l t i m a t e good. (apavarga'>
T h e re a r e s i x i n d i c a t i o n s o f s o u l . , d e s i r e , a v e r s i o n ,
e f f o r t , p l e a s u r e , p a i n and c o g n i t i o n .
The body i s th e
v e h i c l e o f o r g a n i c a c t i o n s , th e s e n s e - o r g a n s and o b j e c t s .
The f i v e s e n s e - o r g a n s a r e p ro d u c e d fro m t h e f i v e m a t e r i a l
s u b s 4' --------
^vcx , f i r e ,
a i r and e th e r ^ . S m e ll ( o r o d o u r)
c k^\.CLc,ejuis+ic4
t a s t e , c o l o u ^ to u c h and sound a r e t b J f i v e ^ q u a l i t i e s o f
t h e s a i d f i v e e l e m e n t s and t h e s e a r e a l s o t h e o b j e c t s o f
th e s e n s e s .
A p p r e h e n s io n ( u p a l a b d h i ) ^ c o g n i t i o n ( j n a n a )
1
sim u lta n e o u s c o g n itio n s
a r e t h e i n d i c a t i v e s o f m in d .
A c t i v i t y c o n s i s t s i n th e o p e r a t i n g o f s p e e c h , o f m ind,
and o f B o d y .
D e f e c t s a r e t h o s e w h ic h c a u s e th e a c t i v i t y o f man
to w a rd s v i r t u e s o r v i c e s . R e b i r t h c o n s i s t s i n b e in g b o r n
1.
cf.
imdwf-c i
N .S . 1 . 1 . 1 6 .
Release.
It arises
of the first
Adhyaya.
The second Ahnika, after defining the three kinds of
controversy viz. discussion^disputation and wrangling, goes
on to describe hetvabhasas (fallacious reasons) which are
of five-iypes-savyabhicara (inconclusive), viruddha
k
(contradictory) , prakaranasama (neutralised) sa^asama,
(unreal or unproved) and kalatita (mistimed).
Quibble, fmtile rejoinder and clinchers are then
defined at the end of the first Adhyaya.
th e Pu rv ap afcsa o f t h e M&jhiyamika
I ^ d d h a ( - a c c o r d i n g t o T a c a s p a t i h T a t p a r y a t l k a - ) who
s a y s t h a t p e r c e p t i o n and t h e r e s t c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d a s
in s tru m e n ts of c o g n itio n in account of th e im p o s s i b ility
o f c o n n e c t i n g them w i t h any o f t h e t h r e e p o i n t s o f t i .
Then f o l l o w s th e q u e s t i o n o f th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e
d e f i n i t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n * D i s c u s s i n g r w-f e e-h , Gautama w h ile
re iu tin g
t h e view o f t h e B u d d h i s t , who r e j e c t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f th e w h o le s ( a v a y a v i r r i , s a y s t h a t th o u g h we p e r c e i v e o n ly
p a r t s o f t h i n g s , y e t s i n c e t h e r e i s a w h o le , t h e p a r t w i l l
n a t u r a l l y r e f e r oo t h e w h o le .
S i n c e we c a n p u l l and draw
t h i n g s , w h o le s e x i s t and t h e w hole i s n o t m e re ly p a r t s
c o l l e c t e d t o g e t h e r f o r i f i t w ere s o , one c o u ld s a y , "We
have p e r c e i v e d t h e u l t i m a t e p a r t s o r ato m s". Gautama t h e n
g o e s on t o exam ine i n f e r e n c e , t h e n a t u r e o f t i m e , s p e c i a l l y
th e p r e s e n t (
) > A n a lo g y and v e r b a l
te stim o n y .
The sec o n d Ahnifea o f t h e sec o n d A dhyaya d e a l s w i t h
t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e x a c t number o f t h e p ra m a n as and
d i s c u s s e s w h e th e r th e y s h o u ld be r e g a r d e d a s f o u r o n ly
s,
ns.
2 .1 .8 .
the
Tj_.
Jati is defined
according to
i.
irfcr:
NS. 2. 2. 69.
(buddhi), C o g n i t i o n is a q uality of
the mind,
o b je c ts.
sense-organs
or the
i t i s shown t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s n o t a q u a l i t y o f t h e
body.
I n ohe l a s t p o r t i o n o f th e t h i r d A dhyaya we f i n d
s e v e r a l p r o o f s to th e e f f e c t t h a t t h e body i s fo rm ed
2
u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f a d r s t a .
The f i r s t A hnika o f th e f o u r t h Adhayaya a f t e r
d e fin in g
a c t i v i t y and d e f e c t s e x am in es r e b i r t h . P e b i r t h
Can be e s t a b l i s h e d o n ly i f t h e s o u l i s r e g a r d e d a s
e te rn a l.
Then i n th e c o u r s e o f e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f p e r c e p t i b l e t h i n g s i s fr o m p e r c e p t i b l e
t h i n g s , G autama comes t o n o te some v ie w s r e g a r d i n g t h e
Wv Vafsqcw curia
p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i n g s and t h e s e a r e r e f e r r e d to i a s b e in g
3
3
t h e v ie w s o f some ^ ra v a d u k a s . as
T h is p o r t i o n d e a l s w i t h th e f o l l o w i n g t h e o r i e s : ^
tfea4i)the t h i n g s o f t h e w o rld a r e p r o d u c e d o u t o f Sunya
1
2.
3
ajqfacf& rW TSiTO T!
NS. 3 . 2 . 5 6 ,
NS. 3 . 2 . 5 9 .
c f . 3 . ^2. 6^-72.
c f . The i n t r o d u c t o r y b hasjra on NS. 4 , 1 . 1 4 .
set:
qf srren^rnf
jm jrf i
11
"
(V oia^j ( i : 0
t h e w o r ld i s t h e r e s u l t o f c h a n c e 5( i v )
fea-fc a l l
t h i n g s a r e n o n - e t e r n a l , ( v l ttea$ a l l t h i n g s a r e e t e r n a l ,
(va^ tfea-t a l l a re d i v e r s e >( v i: i'
ti o n l a nd ( v l i i )
bfes-t e v e r y t h i n g i s n e g a -
c e r t a i n sw eeping a s s e r t i o n s i n r e g a r d
t o t h e e x a c t number o f t h i n g s .
At th e end o f t h i s n o r t i o n ,
/ r u i t i o n , p a i n and u l t i m a t e good o r f i n a l . t l i U S ^ a r e
ex am in ed .
The sec o n d A h n ik a c o n t a i n s a s h o r t d i s c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g
t h e way i n w h ich e g o ism c e a s e s v i a .
w i t h th e p i s e o f the
t r u e k n o w led g e o f t h e c a u s e s o f d e f e c t s o f t h e n a t u r e o f
p a s s i o n a t e a t t a c h m e n t t o t h i n g s and o b s e s s i o n w i t h them .
The v iew o f th e N i h i l i s t s t h a t # a l l t h i n g s a r e n o n - e x i s t e n t " '
is th en in c id e n t~ a lly re fu te d ;
and so a l s o t h e t h e o r y o f
t h e I d e a l i s t Bauddhas d e n y in g t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d . The p r o c e s s
o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t r u e know ledge i s t h e n d e a l t * w i t h
i n c i d e n t a l m e n tio n b e in g made o f Yoga a s a means o f r i g h t
( t r u e s k n o w le d g e .
The w h o le o f th e f i f t h d d h y a y a t r e a t s d i f f e r e n t k i n d s
of f u t i l e
(-R e jo in d e rs ( J a tiA
sth a n a ).
\
n .
and g ro u n d s o f d e f e a t '(ifig r a h a
12
We t h u s see t h a t t h e c h a p t e r s on P r a m ln a s o r means
o f k n o w led g e (and m a tte rs? c o n n e c te d w i t h th e m ) , and
P ram ey as o r o b j e c t s o f know ledge com prehend m ost o f t h e
p h i l o s o p h y o f G au tam a.
I t s c h ie f end;
lik e t h a t of th e o th e r d a r /a n a s
i s s a l v a t i o n w h ic h i s p ro m is e d t o a l l " ' .
B u t in asQ nuch as
Nyaya i s "! a r e a l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y b a s e d m a in ly on l o g i c a l
2
g r o u n d s / ' 123, ^ i t i n t r o d u c e s t h e s o u r c e s o f t r u e know ledge
and d e a l s w i t h them l o g i c a l l y d e p i c t i n g t h e s e i n severy
m in u te p-oj-niH details.
I n o r d e r t o g e t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h G a u ta m a 's p h i l o s o p h i c a l
v ie w s,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s tu d y c a r e f u l l y h i s d e t a i l e d
tre a tm e n t of so u l,
th e f i r s t and f o r e m o s t o f t h e tw e lv e
p ram ey as ( o b j e c t s o f knowledge'* .
l!!T h e re a r e " ,
as i s n o te d by C h a t t e r j e e and D a t t a ,
3
f o u r v ie w s o f t h e s e l f ( s o u l ) i n I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y " . The
C a r v a k a s h av e a m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f th e s e l f and
-tut
in t h e i r v ie w _ ,^ S e lf i s
1.
o f . Max M u l l e r ' s
t h e l i v i n g body w i t h i t s
co n sc io u sn ess.
'T h e S i x Systems o f I n d i a n
p h i l o s o p h y " f p . 3 6 9 - 3 7 0 .
2.
An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y , p . 37
by C h a t t e r j e e & Da t t a .
13
Ttue ^auddhas accept only a series of point instants of
aV?d'M6
The Vedantic
he strives to obtain
he judges
14
p o ssib le .
Hence a s o u l i s e s t a b l i s h e d , who n e r c e i v e s a
t h i n g , and b e in g p e r m a n e n t, r e c o l l e c t s
th e p e r c e p t i o n .
The p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f p l e a s u r e and p a i n , t h u s b e i n g
remem bered, i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d I h a t t h e s o u l i s t h e e x p e r i e n c e r
o f p l e a s u r e and p a i n i n t h e p a s t , t h e i r rem em berer and t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e r i n th e p r e s e n t .
The d e s i r e
t o know}-.,i .-e-.
a n i n d i c a t i v e o f the p r e s e n c e o f t h e common a g e n t i n t h e
s h a p e o f t h e 1s o u l ' .
The body w h ich i s t h e r e c e p t a c l e o f t h e soul* s
e x p e r i e n c e s o f p l e a s u r e and p a in }
is
th e v e h i c l e o f
1
a c tio n s,
o f t h e s e n s e - o r g a n s and o f o b j e c t s .
The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s :
of as ' I ' )
I s th e s o u l (w hich i s s p o k e n
only, an a g g r e g a t e o f feody, th e s e n s e - o r g a n s ,
Or i s i t s o m e th in g
d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e s e ?
I n f a c t , i t o f t e n h a p p en s t h a t one t h i n g , h a v in g b e e n
a p p re h e n d e d by s i g h t ,
to u c h a l s o ,
thvat
l.
t h a t same t h i n g i s a p p r e h e n d e d by
and t h e p e r c e i v e r h a s th e i d e a i n h i s mind
t h a t t h i n g w h ic h I saw w i t h ny e y e s , I now t o u c h
NS. 1 . 1 . 1 1
w ith th e organ of to u c h ;!
or
the
as
This
, or the S^ense
organs
I f th e
th e re would be no s i n (pat&te%) a c c ru 2
by a p e rso n ;
a liv in g c re a tu re
'p a ta k a '
in the s u t r a .
a s th e feody,
Because in t h a t
k illin g j
o f k i l l i n g as i t would p e r is h ;
1.
2.
th a t is c a lle d
^ ifrx ^ T l
HTcRfTHTsrpg
w ith th e r e s u l t
- NS. 3 . 1 . 1 .
N S. 3 . 1 . .
16
w ith the r e s u l t s , would not be t h a t by whom the k i l l i n g
1
was done.
(brahmacaryavasa)
3
from b i r t h and r e b i r t h .
f o r th e purposes of r e le a s e
1.
w srfcT
f^ n w f
^ fa fmr fen i
- N. B. 3 . 1 . 4 .
2.
fcrwT^fcn^PFr:
3. srfcT^ w t w f '
i _ n#b>
3.1.4.
^ anpfPrPf?: ixwf:
- Ibid.
(seeft) previously^!
M doubt
p cognising;
i. e. the "Hind"1.
eternal or or non-eternal.
The answer to this is that thos-e Base arguments that
h e ^ prove# the Soul's existence, also go to prove its
it>a. pcupljadcu M y
previous existence/ as is clear from the modifications
^
3
undergone by this body.
1.
2.
3
ff^ r ^ lw r iT g
ns.
3.
. . .
sm'^T^ipr f^ig
12
16.
18
And t h i s s o u l must e x i s t even a f t e r t h e p e r i s h i n g
o f t h i s body.
c o u ld not b u t be due to p r e v io u s r e p e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e ,
w hich i s p o s s i b l e on ly d u rin g a p r e v io u s l i f e , ,
So t h a t
from a l l t h i s , i t i s p ro v ed t h a t a f t e r th e d e s t r u c t i o n
of t h a t p r e v io u s body, t h e s o u l c o n tin u e d t o e x i s t .
Here i s a n o t h e r argum ent which p ro v e s t h e e t e r n i t y
o f th e s o u l .
I n th e i n f a n t j u s t b o r n , we p e r c e i v e a
T h is d e s i r e co u ld not
a r i s e e x c e p t ,f r o m r e p e a t e d e x p e r ie n c e i n th e p a s t . I t
i s hence i n f e r r e d t h a t the i n f a n t had a bodjr p r e v io u s
t o t h i s p r e s e n t o n e, i n w hich body,
i t M-d-g^isne th ro u g h
r e p e a t e d e x u e r ie n c e s o f f e e d in g which 4ra#-girve-n r i s e
2
t o i t s n r e s e n t d e s i r e f o r m ilk . T h e r e f o r e , i t f o ll o w s
t h a t what happens i s ^ t h e s o u l , having d e p a r t e d from h i s
p r e v io u s body has become endowed w ith a new b o dy, and
,o n bein g a f f l i c ^ t e d w i t h h u n g e r, remembers h i s r e p e a t e d
f e e d i n g s i n t h e p a s t and a c c o r d i n g l y d e s i r e s th e milk
1.
i 'J v j i n
NS. 3 . 1 . I S .
2. feriTxT'^rnefcrTg
i
-NS. 3. 1. 21
fro m t h e b r e a s t , .
to e x i s t ,
evenjafter th e p e r is h in g o f th e fo rm er body.
And a l s o , th e e t e r n i t y of' t h e s o u l i s p ro v e d b e c a u s e
p e r s o n s f r e e fro m l o n g i n g ! a r e n e v e r fo u n d t o be b o r n . When
a p e rso n is born,
he i s b o r n as b e s e t w i t h l o n g i n g s , t h i s
l o n g i n g c o u l d be due o n ly t o t h e r e c a l l i n g - e J ^ i n d o f t h i n g s
p r e v i o u s l y e x p d r i e n c e d and t h i s
th in g s i n a p re c ed in g l i f e
'p r e v io u s e x p e r ie n c e '
of
c o u ld n o t be p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a
T h e re a r e s i m i l a r l i n k s
and h i s l i f e
p r e c e d i n g t h a t , and
and h i s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h l o n g i n g s a l s o i s w i t h o u t
b e g i n n i n g and fro m t h i s b e g i n n i n g l e s s s e r i e s o f a t t a c h m e n t s
and e o n s e a u e n t b o d i e s ,
i t fo llo w s t h a t th e . so u l i s e t e r n a l .
2
T h is e t e r n a l s o u l i s r e g a r d e d - as v ib h u ( ~ a l l - p e r v a d i n g ) .
The N y iy a a c c e p t s d i f f e r e n t s o u l s i n d i f f e r e n t b o d i e s .
W h e th e r t h e body, w h ich i s t h e r e s e p t a c l e o f t h e H o u l s
e x p e rie n c e s o f p le a s u r e and p a in |
1.
2.
|
S e e NS. 3 . 2 . 1 8 -1 9
i s fo rm e d due t o m a n 's
NS. 3 . 1 . 2 4 .
and t h e B h asy a on i t .
2
acts.
grains of sand,
This cannot be
i.
fsFgf
srfrxspf: srnrf
?
SfcT I
3. 2. 60.
NS. 3.2.60.
I t i s e x p l a i n e d t h a t i n th e absence of
th e n e c e s s a r y i n f l u e n c e o f karm an, no c o n c e p t i o n ta k e s
p l a c e , and when such an i n f l u e n c e i s t h e r e , c o n c e p tio n
does t a k e p l a c e .
If the m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e s be i n d e p e n d e n t ,
1. 6 f . NS,
3 . 2. 63
and t h e Bhasya on i t .
T T fB W g -
NS. 3 . 2. 65
- NS* 3 - 2 - 66
c fllffU A /Tt
<l o a
it does not
1
final Release.
u
But this would involve the accusing of what is not
2
earned
s'l-tU-O-bigm
i.
O
i
t ''"n
ns
___ | r q
. 3 . 2. 71.
Q
7 9
SO
V O tA J L
In fact, if
O M W jt> h S -\ c
d jY Z
uooA,l
4& sawi
it is the eternal soul that departs,
1.
6 f . NB on 3. 2. 78.
2.
fTTcqfsr
3.
ScW^r:
I^
ftTRpS
- NS. 1. 1. 13.
!
- NS. 4. 1. 10.
"
be entirely useless.
: ^wpnrhr:
ffS -P ^ F F T ^ crf-q-: (
cm f d im -fi^W iT ^T d^frr
WfcT I
N B . 4. 1. 10.
26
the time of its origin stands midway between the Satkaryavada of Samkhya and the Pratityasamutpada based on the
KsanikavSda of the Bauddhas.
any permanent substratum.
in this viexi?.
The Samkhya
In^s~~much
it is called aF\t~Tcaryavada.
But the
27
only manifested in the various nerceptible products.
the component
OMA.
It is
sub-
avun
1.
NB. 4. 1. 18.
Causality is thus
There are, as
said above, eight such views, put forth for discussion (ITS.
4. 1. 14-43)
The