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Compressor cascade :
For a compressor cascade, the static pressure will rise across
the cascade, i.e.
Lift =
Lift coefficient,
where
line
Lift coefficient,
Above discussion is based on Kutta-Joukowski theorem
Assumption - Inviscid flow
In reality, we face viscous flow together with formation of
wakes. Thus, the viscous flow is the cause of drag which in turn
affect the lift .
The loss in
components:
total
pressure
consists
of
two
The lift will be reduced due to the effect of drag which can be
expressed as:
Effective lift =
The lift has decreased due to viscosity,
Actual lift coefficient
where,
=drag coefficient,
Drag =
Effective lift =
Actual lift coefficient,
The drag increases the lift. Thus, thedrag is an useful
component for work.
Also we get
[Approximation:
i.e.in
the expression for lift, the
effect of drag is ignored]
-maximum, if
The value of
for which efficiency is
maximum,
Nature of variation of
provides
Cascade Nomenclature
In the above figure, the dotted line indicates the camber line
and 'a' is the distance from the leading edge for maximum
Compressor Cascade
The different geometric angles, blade setting and their
relationship with the flow angles for a compressor cascade are
defined below.
Turbine Cascade
The different geometric angles and the blade setting of a
turbine cascade are shown in the figure below.
Again,
Defining
We find that the stage work ratio is
(13.2)
Figure 13.2 illustrates a combined (inlet to and exit from the
rotor ) velocity diagram of a turbine stage.
Thus,
i.e,
The Eq (13.3) gives the expression for
angles associated with the rotor blade.
(13.3)
in terms of gas
(13.4)
is a dimensionless parameter, which is called the "blade
loading capacity" or "temperature drop coefficient". In gas
turbine design,
is kept generally constant across a stage
and the ratio
is called "the flow coefficient" .
Thus, Eq (13.4) can be written as,
(13.5)
As the boundary layer over the blade surface is not very
sensitive in the case of a turbine, the turbine designer has
considerably more freedom to distribute the total stage
pressure drop between the rotor and the stator. However,
locally on the suction surface of the blade there could be a
zone of an adverse pressure gradient depending on the turning
and on the pitch of the blades. Thus, the boundary layer could
grow rapidly or even separate in such a region affecting
adversely the turbine efficiency. Figure 13.3 illustrates the
schematic of flow within the blade passage and the pressure
distribution over the section surface depicting a zone of
diffusion. Different design groups have their own rules, learned
(14.1)
or,
Turbine stage in which the entire pressure drop occurs in the
nozzle are called "impulse stages". Stages in which a portion of
the pressure drop occurs in the nozzle and the rest in the rotor
are called reaction stages. In a 50% reaction turbine, the
enthalpy drop in the rotor would be half of the total for the
stage.
An impulse turbine stage is shown in Fig14.1, along with the
velocity diagram for the common case of constant axial
velocity. Since no enthalpy change occurs within the rotor, the
energy equation within the rotor requires that
. If the
axial velocity is held constant, then this requirement is satisfied
by
i.e.
Then,
(14.2)
The Eq (14.2) illustrates the effect of the nozzle outlet angle on
the impulse turbine work output.
It is evident, then, that for large power output the nozzle angle
should be as large as possible. Two difficulties are associated
with very large . For reasonable axial velocities (i.e.,
reasonable flow per unit frontal area), it is evident that
large
creates very large absolute and relative velocities
throughout the stage. High losses are associated with such
velocities, especially if the relative velocity
is supersonic. In
practice, losses seem to be minimized for values
of
around
. In addition, one can see that for
large
the absolute exhaust velocity will have
a swirl in the direction opposite to U. While we have not
introduced the definition of turbine efficiency as yet, it is clear
that, in a turbojet engine where large axial exhaust velocity is
desired, the kinetic energy associated with the tangential
motion of the exhaust gases is essentially a loss. Furthermore,
application of the angular momentum equation over the entire
engine indicates that exhaust swirl is associate with an
(undesirable) net torque acting on the aircraft. Thus the desire
is for axial or near-axial absolute exhaust velocity (at least for
the last stage if a multistage turbine is used). For the special
case
of
constant
and
axial
exhaust
velocity
and
For a given power and rotor speed, and for a given peak
temperature, Eq. (14.2) is sufficient to determine approximately
the mean blade speed (and hence radius) of a single-stage
impulse turbine having axial outlet velocity. If , as is usually the
case, the blade speed is too high (for stress limitations), or if
the mean diameter is too large relative to the other engine
components, it is necessary to employ a multistage turbine in
which each stage does part of the work.
Degree of reaction
i.e
or,
or,
or,
(14.3)
Degree of reaction
Thus, for the same blade speed and for axial outlet velocities,
the impulse stage work is twice that of the 50% reaction stage.
However, we can expect the impulse stage to have somewhat
greater loss, since the average fluid velocity in the stage is
higher and the boundary layer on the suction side of the rotor
blades may be significantly thicker and closer to separation,
depending on the turning angle and blade spacing. The 50%
reaction stage is not uniquely desirable, of course. One can use
any degree of reaction (greater then zero) to design a turbine of
acceptable performance.
The gas flow angles at inlet and exit of blades can be
expressed in terms of
and .
For the rotor blade, the relative total enthalpy remains constant
and we have,
or,
Thus,
(14.4)
(14.5)
Solving Eq.13.5 and Eq.14.5, we have
(14.6)
(14.7)
and from geometric relation
(14.8)
(14.9)
Hence, from given values of
flow angles and the blade layout.
(14.10)
Which is the expression for R in terms of the exit air angles. For
the special case of symmetrical blading ,
and we
have
we have
, i.e.
. Now for
and it follows
Again for zero exit swirl, the blade loading capacity, Eq.13.5
reduces to
(14.12) since
Equations (14.11) and (14.12) have been used in plotting Fig
(14.3), which pertains to design conditions only.
Here we see that for a given stator outlet angle, the impulse
stage requires a much higher axial velocity ratio than does the
50% reaction stage. In the impulse stage all flow velocities are
higher, and that is one reason why its efficiency is lower than
that of the 50% reaction stage.
(15.1)
(15.2)
Thus
The actual turbine work can be expressed as,
(15.4)
or,
STAGE EFFICENCY
(15.5)
(15.6)
Turbine Performance
For a given design of turbine operating with a given fluid at
sufficiently high Reynolds member, it can be shown from the
dimensional analysis as,
oxides of nitrogen
, carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned
hydrocarbons (UHC) and these must be controlled to very low
levels. Over the years, the performance of the gas turbine has
been improved mainly by increasing the compressor pressure
ratio and turbine inlet temperature (TIT). Unfortunately this
results in increased production of
. Ever more stringent
emissions legislation has led to significant changes in
combustor design to cope with the problem.
Probably the only feature of the gas turbine that eases the
combustion designer's problem is the peculiar interdependence
of compressor delivery air density and mass flow which leads to
the velocity of the air at entry to the combustion system being
reasonably constant over the operating range.
For aircraft applications there are the additional limitations of
small space and low weight, which are, however, slightly offset
by somewhat shorter endurance requirements. Aircraft engine
combustion chambers are normally constructed of light-gauge,
heat-resisting alloy sheet (approx. 0.8 mm thick), but are only
expected to have a life of some 10000 hours. Combustion
chambers for industrial gas turbine plant may be constructed on
much sturdier lines but, on the other hand, a life of about
100000 hours is required. Refractory linings are sometimes
used in heavy chambers, although the remarks made above
regarding the effects of hard carbon deposits breaking free
apply with even greater force to refractory material.
Turbojet Engine
Turboprop Engine
Turbofan Engine
Ramjet Engine
At low speeds, propeller propulsion is more efficient than jet
propulsion. Conventional propellers, however, become
inefficient and noisy at flight speeds higher than 0.5 or 0.6
times the speed of sound. In contrast, turbojet and turbofan
engines can function efficiently and quietly at flight speeds as
high as 0.85 times the speed of sound. Turbojets can also
operate at supersonic flight speeds. Ramjet, which is the
simplest of all air-breathing engines can operate at a higher
speed than turbojet engines and is mostly suitable for
supersonic flight.
1. Turbojet Engine
2. Turboprop Engine
3. Turbofan Engine
4. Ramjet Engine