1.

Acute Pain
May be related to

Decreased myocardial blood flow

Increased cardiac workload/oxygen consumption

Possibly evidenced by

Reports of pain varying in frequency, duration, and intensity (especially as

condition worsens)

Narrowed focus

Distraction behaviors (moaning, crying, pacing, restlessness)

Autonomic responses, e.g., diaphoresis, blood pressure and pulse rate changes,
pupillary dilation, increased/decreased respiratory rate

Desired Outcomes

Report anginal episodes decreased in frequency, duration, and severity.

Demonstrate relief of pain as evidenced by stable vital signs, absence of muscle

tension and restlessness
Nursing Interventions

Instruct patient to notify nurse immediately when

chest pain occurs.

Rationale
Pain and decreased cardiac
output may stimulate the
sympathetic nervous system to
release excessive amounts of
norepinephrine, which increases
platelet aggregation and release of
thromboxane A2. This potent
vasoconstrictor causes coronary
artery spasm, which can
precipitate, complicate, and/or
prolong an anginal attack.
Unbearable pain may cause
vasovagal response, decreasing

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
BP and heart rate.

Assess and document patient response to

medication.

Provides information about disease

progression. Aids in evaluating
effectiveness of interventions, and
may indicate need for change in
therapeutic regimen.

Identify precipitating event, if any: frequency, duration,

intensity, and location of pain.

Helps differentiate this chest pain,

and aids in evaluating possible
progression to unstable angina.

Observe for associated symptoms: dyspnea, nausea

and vomiting, dizziness, palpitations, desire to
micturate.

Decreased cardiac output (which

may occur during ischemic
myocardial episode) stimulates
sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system, causing a variety
of vague sensations that patient
may not identify as related to
anginal episode.

Evaluate reports of pain in jaw, neck, shoulder, arm,

or hand (typically on left side).

Cardiac pain may radiate. Pain is

often referred to more superficial
sites served by the same spinal
cord nerve level.

Place patient at complete rest during anginal

episodes.

Reduces myocardial oxygen

demand to minimize risk of tissue
injury.

Elevate head of bed if patient is short of breath.

Facilitates gas exchange to

decrease hypoxia and resultant
shortness of breath.

Monitor heart rate and rhythm.

Patients with unstable angina have

an increased risk of acute lifethreatening dysrhythmias, which
occur in response to ischemic
changes and/or stress.

Monitor vital signs every 5 min during initial anginal

attack.

Blood pressure may initially rise

because of sympathetic
stimulation, then fall if cardiac

Nursing Interventions

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output is compromised.
Tachycardia also develops in
response to sympathetic
stimulation and may be sustained
as a compensatory response if
cardiac output falls.

Stay with patient who is experiencing pain or appears

anxious.

Anxiety releases catecholamines,

which increase myocardial
workload and can escalate and/or
prolong ischemic pain. Presence of
nurse can reduce feelings of fear
and helplessness.

Maintain quiet, comfortable environment. Restrict

visitors as necessary.

Mental/emotional stress increases

myocardial workload.

Provide light meals. Have patient rest for 1 hr after

meals.

Decreases myocardial workload

associated with work of digestion,
reducing risk of anginal attack.

Provide supplemental oxygen as indicated.

Increases oxygen available for

myocardial uptake and reversal of
ischemia.

Administer antianginal medication(s) promptly as indicated:

Nitroglycerin: sublingual (Nitrostat), buccal, or oral

tablets, metered-dose spray.

Nitroglycerin has been the standard

for treating and preventing anginal
pain for more than 100 yr. Today it
is available in many forms and is
still the cornerstone of antianginal
therapy.

sublingual isosorbide dinitrate (Isordil)

Rapid vasodilator effect lasts 1030

min and can be used
prophylactically to prevent, as well
as abort, anginal attacks.

Sustained-release tablets, caplets: (Nitrong,

Nitrocap T.D.), chewable tablets (Isordil, Sorbitrate),
patches, transmucosal ointment (Nitro-Dur,
Transderm-Nitro)

Long-acting preparations are used

to prevent recurrences by reducing
coronary vasospasms and reducing
cardiac workload. May cause

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
headache, dizziness, lightheadedness, symptoms that
usually pass quickly. If headache is
intolerable, alteration of dose or
discontinuation of drug may be
necessary. Note: Isordil may be
more effective for patients with
variant form of angina. Reduces
frequency and severity of attack by
producing continuous vasodilation.

Beta-blockers: acebutolol (Sectral), atenolol

(Tenormin), nadolol (Corgard), metoprolol
(Lopressor), propranolol (Inderal)

Reduces angina by reducing the

hearts workload. Note: Often these
drugs alone are sufficient to relieve
angina in less severe conditions.

Calcium channel blockers: bepridil

(Vascor),amlodipine (Norvasc), nifedipine (Procardia),
felodipine (Plendil), isradipine
(DynaCirc),diltiazem (Cardizem)

Produces relaxation of coronary

vascular smooth muscle; dilates
coronary arteries; decreases
peripheral vascular resistance.

Analgesics: acetaminophen (Tylenol)

Usually sufficient analgesia for

relief of headache caused by
dilation of cerebral vessels in
response to nitrates.

Morphine sulphate (MS)

Potent narcotic analgesic may be

used in acute onset because of its
several beneficial effects, e.g.,
causes peripheral vasodilation and
reduces myocardial workload; has
a sedative effect to produce
relaxation; interrupts the flow of
vasoconstricting catecholamines
and thereby effectively relieves
severe chest pain. MS is given IV
for rapid action and
because decreased cardiac
output compromises peripheral
tissue absorption.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
Ischemia during anginal attack may
cause transient ST segment
depression or elevation and T wave
inversion. Serial tracings verify
ischemic changes, which may
disappear when patient is painfree. They also provide a baseline
against which to compare later
pattern changes.

Monitor serial ECG changes.

2. Deficient Knowledge
May be related to

Lack of exposure

Inaccurate/misinterpretation of information

Unfamiliarity with information resources

Possibly evidenced by

Questions; statement of concerns

Request for information

Inaccurate follow-through of instructions

Desired Outcomes

Participate in learning process.

Assume responsibility for own learning, looking for information and asking
questions.

Verbalize understanding of condition/disease process and potential

complications.

Verbalize understanding of /participate in therapeutic regimen.

Initiate necessary lifestyle changes.

Nursing Interventions

Discuss pathophysiology of

Rationale
Patients with angina need to learn why it

Nursing Interventions

Rationale

condition. Stressneed for preventing and

managing anginal attacks.

occurs and what they can do to control it.

This is the focus of therapeutic management
to reduce likelihood of myocardial
infarction and promote healthy heart
lifestyle.

Review significance of cholesterol levels and

differentiate between LDL and HDL factors.
Emphasize importance of periodic
laboratory measurements.

Although recommended LDL is 160 mg/dL,

patients with two or more risk factors
(smoking, hypertension, diabetes mellitus,
positive family history) should keep LDL
130 mg/dL, and those with diagnosis of
CAD need to keep LDL below 100 mg/dL.
HDL below 3545 is considered a risk factor;
a level above 60 mg/dL is considered an
advantage.

Encourage avoidance of situations that may

precipitate anginal episode (stress, intense
physical exertion, large heavy meals
especially during bedtime, exposure to
extreme temperatures).

Doing so would reduce the incidence or

severity of ischemic episodes.

Assist patient and/or SO to identify sources

of physical and emotional stress and discuss
ways that they can be avoided.

This is a crucial step in preventing anginal

attacks.

Review importance of weight control,

cessation of smoking, dietary changes, and
exercise.

Knowledge of the significance of risk factors

provides patient with opportunity to make
needed changes. Patients with high
cholesterol who do not respond to 6-month
program of low-fat diet and regular exercise
will require medication.

Encourage patient to follow prescribed

reconditioning program; caution to avoid
exhaustion.

Fear of triggering attacks may cause patient

to avoid participation in activity that has
been prescribed to enhance recovery
(increase myocardial strength and form
collateral circulation).

Discuss impact of illness on desired lifestyle

and activities, including work, driving, sexual

Patient may be reluctant to resume usual

activities because of fear of anginal attack or

Nursing Interventions

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activity, and hobbies. Provide information,

privacy, or consultation, as indicated.

death. Patient should

take nitroglycerinprophylactically before any
activity that is known to precipitate angina.

Demonstrate how to monitor own pulse and

BP during and after activities, and to
schedule activities, avoid strain and take rest
periods.

Allows patient to identify those activities that

can be modified to avoid cardiac stress and
stay below the anginal threshold.

Discuss steps to take when anginal attacks

occur, (cessation of activity, keeping
rescue NTG on hand, administration of prn
medication, use of relaxation techniques).

Being prepared for an event takes away the

fear that patient will not know what to do if
attack occurs.

Review prescribed medications for

prevention of anginal attacks:

Angina is a complicated condition that often

requires the use of many drugs given to
decrease myocardial workload, improve
coronary circulation, and control the
occurrence of attacks.

Lipid-lowering agents: bile acid

sequestrants, cholestyramine (Questran),
colestipol (Colestid);

These drugs are considered first-line agents

for lowering serum cholesterol levels. Note:
Questran and Colestid may inhibit
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and some
drugs such as Coumadin, Lanoxin, and
Inderal.

nicotinic acid, and HMG-CoA reductase

inhibitors: lovastatin
(Mevacor), simvastatin(Zocor)

The HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors may

cause photosensitivity.

Stress importance of checking with

physician before taking OTC drugs.

OTC drugs may potentiate or negate effects

of prescribed medications.

Discuss ASA and other antiplatelet agents

as indicated.

May be given prophylactically on a daily

basis to decrease platelet aggregation and
improve coronary circulation.

Review symptoms to be reported to

physician: increase in frequency of attacks,
changes in response to medications.

May prolong survival rate of patients with

unstable angina. Knowledge of expectations
can avoid undue concern for insignificant
reasons or delay in treatment of important
symptoms.

Nursing Interventions
Discuss importance of follow-up
appointments.

Rationale
Angina is a symptom of progressive
coronary artery disease that should be
monitored and may require occasional
adjustment of treatment regimen.

3. Anxiety
May be related to

Situational crises

Threat to self-concept (altered image/abilities)

Underlying pathophysiological response

Threat to or change in health status (disease course that can lead to further
compromise, debility, even death)

Negative self-talk

Possibly evidenced by

Expressed concern regarding changes in life events

Increased tension/helplessness

Apprehension, uncertainty, restlessness

Association of diagnosis with loss of healthy body image, loss of place/influence

View of self as noncontributing member of family/society

Fear of death as an imminent reality

Desired Outcomes

Verbalize awareness of feelings of anxiety and healthy ways to deal with them.

Report anxiety is reduced to a manageable level.

Express concerns about effect of disease on lifestyle, position within family and
society.

Demonstrate effective coping strategies/problem-solving skills.

Nursing Interventions

Explain purpose of tests and

procedures:stress testing.

Rationale
Reduces anxiety attributable to fear of
unknown diagnosis and prognosis.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale

Promote expression of feelings and fears.

Let patient/SO know these are normal
reactions.

Unexpressed feelings may create internal

turmoil and affect self-image. Verbalization
of concerns reduces tension, verifies level of
coping, and facilitates dealing with feelings.
Presence of negative self-talk can increase
level of anxiety and may contribute to
exacerbation of angina attacks.

Encourage family and friends to treat patient

as before.

Reassures patient that role in the family and

business has not been altered.

Tell patient the medical regimen has been

designed to limit future attacks and increase
cardiac stability.

Encourages patient to test symptom control,

to increase confidence in medical program,
and to integrate abilities into perceptions of
self.

Administer sedatives, tranquilizers, as

indicated.

May be desired to help patient relax until

physically able to reestablish adequate
coping strategies.

4. Risk for Decreased Cardiac Output

Risk factors may include

Inotropic changes (transient/prolonged myocardial ischemia, effects of edications)

Alterations in rate/rhythm and electrical conduction

Desired Outcomes

Report/display decreased episodes of dyspnea, angina, and dysrhythmias.

Demonstrate increased activity tolerance.

Participate in behaviors/activities that reduce the workload of the heart.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale

Maintain bed or chair rest in position of comfort during acute episodes.

Decreases oxygen
demand therefore
reducing
myocardial

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
workload and risk
of
decompensation.

Monitor vital signs and cardiac rhythm.

Auscultate breath sounds and heart sounds. Listen for murmurs.

Tachycardia may
be present
because of
pain,anxiety,
hypoxemia, and
reduced cardiac
output. Changes
may also occur in
BP
(hypertension or
hypotension)
because of
cardiac response.
ECG changes
reflecting
dysrhythmias
indicate need for
additional
evaluation and
therapeutic
intervention.
S3, S4, or crackles
can occur with
cardiac
decompensation
or some
medications
(especially betablockers).
Development of
murmurs may
reveal a valvular
cause for chest

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
pain (aortic
stenosis, mitral
stenosis) or
papillary muscle
rupture.

Provide for adequate rest periods. Perform self-care activities, as

indicated.

Conserves energy,
reduces cardiac
workload.

Stress importance of avoiding straining down, especially during

defecation.

Valsalva
maneuver causes
vagal stimulation,
reducing heart
rate (bradycardia),
which may be
followed by
rebound
tachycardia, both
of which may
impair cardiac
output.

Encourage immediate reporting of pain for prompt administration of

medications as indicated.

Timely
interventions can
reduce oxygen
consumption and
myocardial
workload and may
minimize cardiac
complications.

Monitor and documents effects or adverse response to medications,

noting BP, heart rate, and rhythm.

Desired effect is to
decrease
myocardial oxygen
demand by
decreasing
ventricularstress.
Drugs with
negative inotropic

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
properties can
decrease
perfusion to an
already ischemic
myocardium.
Combination
ofnitrates and beta
-blockers may
have cumulative
effect on cardiac
output.

Assess for signs and symptoms of heart failure.

Angina is only a
symptom of
underlying
pathology causing
myocardial
ischemia. Disease
may compromise
cardiac function to
point of
decompensation.

Evaluate mental status, noting development of confusion,

disorientation.

Reduced
perfusion of the
brain can produce
observable
changes in
sensorium.

Note skin color and presence and quality of pulses.

Peripheral
circulation is
reduced when
cardiac output
falls, giving the
skin a pale or gray
color (depending
on level of
hypoxia) and

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
diminishing the
strength of
peripheral pulses.

Administer supplemental oxygen as needed.

Increases oxygen
available for
myocardial uptake
to improve
contractility,
reduce ischemia,
and reduce lactic
acid levels.

Monitor pulse oximetry or ABGs as indicated.

Determines
adequacy of
respiratory
function and/or
O2 therapy.

Measure cardiac output and other functional parameters as indicated.

Cardiac index,
preload/afterload,
contractility, and
cardiac work can
be measured
noninvasively
through various
means, including
thoracic electrical
bioimpedance
(TEB) technique.
Useful in
evaluating
response to
therapeutic
interventions and
identifying need
for emergency
care. Note:
Evaluation of

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
changes in heart
rate, BP, and
cardiac output
requires
consideration of
patients circadian
hemodynamic
variability.

Administer medications as indicated:

Calcium channel
blockers: diltiazem(Cardizem), nifedipine (Procardia), verapamil(Cala
n), bepridil (Vascor), amlodipine(Norvasc), felodipine (Plendil),
isradipine (DynaCirc)

Although differing
in mode of action,
calcium channel
blockers play a
major role in
preventing and
terminating
ischemia induced
by coronary artery
spasm and in
reducing vascular
resistance,
thereby
decreasing BP
and cardiac
workload.

Beta-blockers: atenolol (Tenormin), nadolol

(Corgard), propranolol (Inderal), esmolol (Brevibloc);

These
medications
decrease cardiac
workload by
reducing heart
rate and systolic
BP. Note:
Overdosage
produces cardiac
decompensation.

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), other antiplatelet agents: ticlopidine

Useful in unstable

Nursing Interventions

Rationale

(Ticlid); glycoprotein IIb/IIa, abciximab (ReoPro), eptifibatide (Integrilin)

angina, ASA
diminishes platelet
aggregation and
clot formation. For
patients with major
GI intolerance,
alternative drugs
may be indicated.
New antiplatelet
medications are
being used IV in
conjunction with
angioplasty. Oral
forms are under
investigation.

IV heparin

Bolus, followed by
continuous
infusion, is
recommended to
help reduce risk of
subsequent MI by
reducing the
thrombotic
complications of
plaque rupture for
patients
diagnosed with
intermediate or
high-risk unstable
angina. Note: Use
of low-molecularweight heparin is
increasing
because of its
more efficacious
and predictable
effect with fewer

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
adverse effects
(less risk of
bleeding) and
longer half-life. It
also does not
require
anticoagulation
monitoring.

Monitor laboratory studies: PTT, aPTT.

Evaluates therapy
needs and
effectiveness.

Discuss purpose and prepare for stresstesting and cardiac

catheterization, when indicated.

Stress testing
provides
information about
the health and
strength of the
ventricles.

Prepare for surgical intervention, angioplasty with/without

intracoronary stent placement, valve replacement, CABG, if indicated.

Angioplasty (also
called
percutaneous
transluminal
coronary
angioplasty
[PTCA]) increases
coronary blood
flow by
compression of
atheromatous
lesions and
dilation of the
vessel lumen in an
occluded coronary
artery.
Intracoronary
stents may be
placed at the time

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
of PTCA to provide
structural support
within the
coronary artery
and improve the
odds of long-term
patency. This
procedure is
preferred over the
more invasive
CABG surgery.
CABG is the
recommended
treatment when
testing confirms
myocardial
ischemia as a
result of left main
coronary artery
disease or
symptomatic
three-vessel
disease,
especially in those
with left ventricular
dysfunction.
Note: Stent
placement may
also be effective
for the variant form
of angina where
periodic
vasospasms
impair arterial flow.

Prepare for transfer to critical care unit if condition warrants.

Prolonged chest
pain
with decreased

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
cardiac
output reflects
development of
complications
requiring more
emergency
interventions.

Other Possible Nursing Care Plans

Activity intolerancemay be related to imbalance between O2 supply and

demand, possibly evidenced by exertional dyspnea, abnormal pulse/BP response
to activity, and ECG changes.

Decreased cardiac outputmay be related to inotropic changes, alterations in

rate and rhythm possibly evidenced by changes in hemodynamic readings,
dyspnea, restlessness, decrease tolerance for activity, fatigue, diminished
peripheral pulses, cool/pale skin, changes in mental status, and continued chest
pain.

Risk for sedentary lifestylerisk factors may include lack of training or knowledge
of specific exercise needs, safety concerns, and fear of myocardial injury.

Risk for prone-health behaviorrisk factors may include condition requiring longterm therapy/change in lifestyle, multiple stressors, assault to self-concept, and
altered locus of control.

Activity Intolerance

Nursing Diagnosis

Activity intolerance

May be related to

Imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand

Presence of ischemic/necrotic myocardial tissues

Cardiac depressant effects of certain drugs (beta-blockers, antiarrhythmics)

Possibly evidenced by

Alterations in heart rate and BP with activity

Development of dysrhythmias

Changes in skin color/moisture

Exertional angina

Generalized weakness

Desired Outcomes

Demonstrate measurable/progressive increase in tolerance for activity with heart

rate/rhythm and BP within patients normal limits and skin warm, pink, dry.

Report absence of angina with activity.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
Trends determine patients response to

Document heart rate and rhythm and

activity and may indicate myocardial oxygen

changes in BP before, during, and after

deprivation that may require decrease in

activity. Correlate with reports of chest pain

activity level and/or return to bedrest,

or shortness of breath.

changes in medication regimen, or use of

supplemental oxygen.

Encourage rest initially. Thereafter, limit

activity on basis of pain and/or adverse

Reduces myocardial workload and oxygen

cardiac response. Provide nonstress

consumption, reducing risk of complications.

diversional activities.
Instruct patient to avoid increasing

Activities that require holding the breath and

abdominal pressure (straining during

bearing down (Valsalva maneuver) can

defecation).

result in bradycardia (temporarily reduced

cardiac output) and rebound tachycardia

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
with elevated BP.

Explain pattern of graded increase of activity

level: getting up to commode or sitting in
chair, progressive ambulation, and resting
after meals.
Review signs and symptoms reflecting
intolerance of present activity level or
requiring notification of nurse or physician.

Progressive activity provides a controlled

demand on the heart, increasing strength
and preventing overexertion.
Palpitations, pulse irregularities,
development of chest pain, or dyspnea may
indicate need for changes in exercise
regimen or medication.
Provides continued support and/or additional

Refer to cardiac rehabilitation program.

supervision and participation in recovery and

wellness process.

Nursing Diagnosis

Anxiety

Fear

May be related to

Threat to or change in health and socioeconomic status

Threat of loss/death

Unconscious conflict about essential values, beliefs, and goals of life

Interpersonal transmission/contagion

Possibly evidenced by

Fearful attitude

Apprehension, increased tension, restlessness, facial tension

Uncertainty, feelings of inadequacy

Somatic complaints/sympathetic stimulation

Focus on self, expressions of concern about current and future events

Fight (e.g., belligerent attitude) or flight behavior

Desired Outcomes

Recognize feelings.

Identify causes, contributing factors.

Verbalize reduction of anxiety/fear.

Demonstrate positive problem-solving skills.

Identify/use resources appropriately.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
Coping with the pain and emotional trauma
of an MI is difficult. Patient may fear death
and/or be anxious about immediate

Identify and acknowledge patients

environment. Ongoing anxiety (related to

perception of threat and situation.

concerns about impact of heart attack on

Encourage expressions of, and do not deny

future lifestyle, matters left unattended or

feelings of, anger, grief, sadness, fear.

unresolved, and effects of illness on family)

may be present in varying degrees for some
time and may be manifested by symptoms of
depression.
Research into survival rates between type A

Note presence of hostility, withdrawal, and/or

denial (inappropriate affect or refusal to
comply with medical regimen).

and type B individuals and the impact of

denial has been ambiguous; however,
studies show some correlation between
degree or expression of anger or hostility
and an increased risk for MI.

Maintain confident manner (without false

Patient and SO can be affected by

reassurance).

theanxiety/uneasiness displayed by health

team members. Honest explanations can

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
alleviateanxiety.

Observe for verbal and nonverbal signs

ofanxiety (restlessness, changes in vital
signs), and stay with patient. Intervene if
patient displays destructive behavior.

Patient may not express concern directly, but

words and actions may convey sense of
agitation, aggression, and hostility.
Intervention can help patient regain control
of own behavior.
Denial can be beneficial in
decreasing anxietybut can postpone dealing

Accept but do not reinforce use of denial.

with the reality of the current situation.

Avoid confrontations.

Confrontation can promote anger and

increase use of denial, reducing cooperation
and possibly impeding recovery.

Orient patient and/or SO to routine

procedures and expected activities. Promote
participation when possible.

Predictability and information can

decreaseanxiety for patient.
Accurate information about the situation
reduces fear, strengthens nurse-patient

Answer all questions factually. Provide

relationship, and assists patient and SO to

consistent information; repeat as indicated.

deal realistically with situation. Attention

span may be short, and repetition of
information helps with retention.

Encourage patient and SO to communicate

Sharing information elicits support and

with one another, sharing questions and

comfort and can relieve tension of

concerns.

unexpressed worries.
Allows needed time for personal expression

Provide privacy for patient and SO.

of feelings; may enhance mutual support

and promote more adaptive behaviors.

Nursing Interventions
Provide rest periods and/or uninterrupted
sleep time, quiet surroundings, with patient
controlling type, amount of external stimuli.
Support normality of grieving process,
including time necessary for resolution.

Rationale
Conserves energy and enhances coping
abilities.
Can provide reassurance that feelings are
normal response to situation and/or
perceived changes.
Increased independence from staff promotes

Encourage independence, self-care, and

self-confidence and reduces feelings of

decision making within accepted treatment

abandonment that can accompany transfer

plan.

from coronary unit and/or discharge from

hospital.
Helps patient and/or SO identify realistic

Encourage discussion about postdischarge

expectations.

goals, thereby reducing risk of

discouragement in face of the reality of
limitations of condition and/or pace of
recuperation.

Administer anti anxiety and hypnotics as

indicated: alprazolam

Promotes relaxation and rest and reduces

(Xanax), diazepam(Valium), lorazepam

feelings of anxiety.

(Ativan), flurazepam (Dalmane).

4. Risk for Decreased Cardiac Output

Risk factors may include

Changes in rate, rhythm, electrical conduction

Reduced preload/increased SVR

Infarcted/dyskinetic muscle, structural defects, e.g., ventricular aneurysm, septal

defects

Possibly evidenced by

Not applicable. A risk diagnosis is not evidenced by signs and symptoms, as the
problem has not occurred and nursing interventions are directed at prevention.

Desired Outcomes

Maintain hemodynamic stability, e.g., BP, cardiac output within normal range,
adequate urinary output, decreased frequency/absence of dysrhythmias.

Report decreased episodes of dyspnea, angina.

Demonstrate an increase in activity tolerance.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
Hypotension may occur related to ventricular
dysfunction, hypoperfusion of the
myocardium, and vagal stimulation.

Auscultate BP. Compare both arms and

However,hypertension is also a common

obtain lying, sitting, and standing pressures

phenomenon, possibly related to pain,

when able.

anxiety, catecholamine release, and/or

preexisting vascular problems. Orthostatic
(postural) hypotension may be associated
with complications of infarct (heart failure).
Decreased cardiac output results in

Evaluate quality of pulses on both pulse

points.

diminished weak or thready pulses.

Irregularities suggest dysrhythmias, which
may require further evaluation and
monitoring.

Auscultate heart sounds:

Note development of S3

S3 is usually associated with HF, but it may

also be noted with the mitral insufficiency

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
(regurgitation) and left ventricular overload
that can accompany severe infarction.
S4 may be associated with myocardial

S4

ischemia, ventricular stiffening, and

pulmonary or systemic hypertension.
Indicates disturbances of normal blood flow
within the heart: incompetent valve, septal
defect, or vibration of papillary muscle

Presence of murmurs or friction rubs.

and/or chordae tendineae (complication of

MI). Presence of rub with an infarction is
also associated with inflammation:
pericardial effusion and pericarditis.
Crackles reflecting pulmonary congestion

Auscultate breath sounds.

may develop because of depressed

myocardial function.
Heart rate and rhythm respond to
medication, activity, and developing
complications. Dysrhythmias (especially
premature ventricular contractions or

Monitor heart rate and rhythm. Document

progressive heart blocks) can compromise

dysrhythmias via telemetry.

cardiac function or increase ischemic

damage. Acute or chronic atrial flutter may
be seen with coronary artery or valvular
involvement and may or may not be
pathological.

Note response to activity and promote rest

appropriately.

Overexertion increases oxygen consumption

and demand and can compromise
myocardial function.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
Large meals may increase myocardial
workload and cause vagal stimulation,

Provide small and easily digested meals.

resulting in bradycardia or ectopic beats.

Limit caffeine intake and caffeine-containing

Caffeine is a direct cardiac stimulant that

products.

can increase heart rate. Note: New

guidelines suggest no need to restrict
caffeine in regular coffee drinkers.
Sudden coronary occlusion, lethal
dysrhythmias, extension of infarct, and

Have emergency equipment and/or

unrelenting pain are situations that may

medications available.

precipitate cardiac arrest, requiring

immediate life-saving therapies and/or
transfer to CCU.
Increases amount of oxygen available for

Administer supplemental oxygen, as

myocardial uptake, reducing ischemia and

indicated.

resultant cellular irritation and/or

dysrhythmias.
Cardiac index, preload, afterload,
contractility, and cardiac work can be

Measure cardiac output and other functional

parameters as appropriate.

measured noninvasively with thoracic

electrical bioimpedance (TEB) technique.
Useful in evaluating response to therapeutic
interventions and identifying need for more
aggressive and/or emergency care.

Maintain IV or Hep-Lock access as

indicated.
Review serial ECGs.

Patent line is important for administration of

emergency drugs in presence of persistent
lethal dysrhythmias or chest pain.
Provides information regarding progression
or resolution of infarction, status of

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
ventricular function, electrolyte balance, and
effects of drug therapies.

Review chest x-ray.

May reflect pulmonary edema related to

ventricular dysfunction.
Enzymes monitor resolution or extension of
infarction. Presence of hypoxia indicates

Monitor laboratory data: cardiac enzymes,

need for supplemental oxygen. Electrolyte

ABGs, electrolytes.

imbalances: hypokalemia or hyperkalemia,

adversely affects cardiac rhythm and
contractility.
Dysrhythmias are usually treated
symptomatically, except for PVCs, which are
often treated prophylactically. Early inclusion

Administer antidysrhythmic drugs as

indicated.

of ACE inhibitor therapy (especially in

presence of large anterior MI, ventricular
aneurysm, or HF) enhances ventricular
output, increases survival, and may slow
progression of HF. Note: Use of
routinelidocaine is no longer recommended.
Pacing may be a temporary support
measure during acute phase or may be

Assist with insertion and maintenance of

pacemaker, when used.

needed permanently if infarction severely

damages conduction system, impairing
systolic function. Evaluation is based on
echocardiography or radionuclide
ventriculography.

5. Risk for Ineffective Tissue Perfusion

Nursing Diagnosis

Risk for Ineffective Tissue Perfusion

Risk factors may include

Reduction/interruption of blood flow, e.g., vasoconstriction, hypovolemia/shunting,

and thromboembolic formation

Possibly evidenced by

Not applicable. A risk diagnosis is not evidenced by signs and symptoms, as the
problem has not occurred and nursing interventions are directed at prevention.

Desired Outcomes

Demonstrate adequate perfusion as individually appropriate, e.g., skin warm and

dry, peripheral pulses present/strong, vital signs within patients normal range,
patient alert/oriented, balanced I&O, absence of edema, free of pain/discomfort.
Nursing Interventions

Investigate sudden changes or continued

alterations in mentation (changes in LOC,
mentation, stupor).

Inspect for pallor, cyanosis, mottling, cool

and clammy skin. Note strength of peripheral
pulses.
Monitor respirations, note work of breathing.

Rationale
Cerebral perfusion is directly related to
cardiac output and is also influenced by
electrolyte and/or acid-base variations,
hypoxia, and systemic emboli.
Systemic vasoconstriction resulting from
diminished cardiac output may be evidenced
by decreased skin perfusion and diminished
pulses.
Cardiac pump failure and/or ischemic pain
may precipitate respiratory distress;

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
however, sudden or continued dyspnea may
indicate thromboembolic pulmonary
complications.
Decreased intake or persistent nausea may

Monitor intake, note changes in urine output.

Record urine specific gravity as indicated.

result in reduced circulating volume, which

negatively affects perfusion and organ
function. Specific gravity measurements
reflect hydration status and renal function.

Assess GI function, noting anorexia,

decreased or absent bowel sounds, nausea
and vomiting, abdominal
distension,constipation.

Reduced blood flow to mesentery can

produce GI dysfunction, e.g., loss of
peristalsis. Problems may be aggravated by
use of analgesics, decreased activity, and
dietary changes.
Enhances venous return, reduces venous
stasis, and decreases risk of

Encourage active or passive leg exercises,

thrombophlebitis; however, isometric

avoidance of isometric exercises.

exercises can adversely affect cardiac

output by increasing myocardial work and
oxygen consumption.

Assess for Homans sign (pain in calf on

dorsiflexion), erythema, edema.

Instruct patient in application or periodic

removal of antiembolitic hose, when used.

Indicators of deep vein thrombosis (DVT),

although DVT can be present without a
positive Homans sign.
Limits venous stasis, improves venous
return, and reduces risk of thrombophlebitis
in patient who is limited in activity.

Nursing Interventions

Rationale

Monitor laboratory data: ABGs, BUN,

Indicators of organ perfusion and function.

creatinine, electrolytes, coagulation studies

Abnormalities in coagulation may occur as a

(PT, aPTT, clotting times).

result of therapeutic measures.

Administer medications as indicated:

Reduces mortality in MI patients, and is
taken daily. Aspirin also reduces coronary
Antiplatelet agents: aspirin, abciximab

reocclusion after percutaneous transluminal

(ReoPro), clopidogrel (Plavix);

coronary angioplasty (PTCA). ReoPro is an

IV drug used as an adjunct to PTCA for
prevention of acute ischemic complications.
Low-dose heparin is given during PTCA and
may be given prophylactically in high-risk

Anticoagulants: heparin or enoxaparin

(Lovenox);

patients (e.g., atrial fibrillation, obesity,

ventricular aneurysm, or history of
thrombophlebitis) to reduce risk of
thrombophlebitis or mural thrombus
formation.

Oral anticoagulants: anisindione

(Miradon),warfarin (Coumadin);

Used for prophylaxis and treatment of

thromboembolic complications associated
with MI.
Reduces or neutralizes gastric acid,

Cimetidine (Tagamet), ranitidine (Zantac),

preventing discomfort and gastric irritation,

antacids;

especially in presence of reduced mucosal

circulation.

Assist with reperfusion

Thrombolytic therapy is the treatment of

therapy: Administerthrombolytic agents,

choice (when initiated within 6 hr) to dissolve

e.g., alteplase (Activase, rt-PA), reteplase

the clot (if that is the cause of the MI) and

(Retavase), streptokinase (Streptase),

restore perfusion of the myocardium.This

Nursing Interventions

Rationale
procedure is used to open partially blocked

anistreplase (Eminase),urokinase,
(Abbokinase);

coronary arteries before they become totally

blocked. The mechanism includes a
combination of vessel stretching and plaque
compression.
Intracoronary stents may be placed at the

Prepare for PTCA (balloon angioplasty), with

time of PTCA to provide structural support

or without intracoronary stents;

within the coronary artery and improve the

odds of long-term patency.
More intensive monitoring and aggressive

Transfer to critical care.

interventions are necessary to promote

optimum outcome.