Trends and issues in mathematics curriculum research

By
Wun Thiam Yew

Activity 1
Discuss in pairs (5 minutes):

What is mathematics curriculum?

Activity 2
Discuss in pairs (5 minutes):

What are the trends and issues in mathematics curriculum?

Introduction
Mathematics curriculum was chosen as a theme for the Seventy-second NCTM
Yearbook (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010). Why?
because of the present interest in curriculum revision. they furnish a basis that
will help us to find better ways of determining how the proper content should be

selected, arranged, and presented. (Reeve, 1927, p. vii)

Mathematics curriculum has long been a topic of keen interest in mathematics
education (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. ix).

National Philosophy of Education

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards developing the potential of
individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are
intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious based
on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce
Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral
standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal
well being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the
family, society and the nation at large.

Mathematics Syllabus for Secondary School

Aim
Objectives
Content organization

Aim of the Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum

The mathematics curriculum of the secondary school aims to develop individual
who are able to think mathematically and who can apply mathematical knowledge
effectively and responsibly in solving problems and making decisions. This will
enable the individual to face the challenges in everyday life that arise due to the
advancement of science and technology.

Objectives of the Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum

The mathematics curriculum of the secondary school enables students to:

1. understand the definitions, concepts, laws, principles, and theorems related to

Number, Shape and Space, and Relationship;

2.widen the use of the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division related to Number, Shape and Space, and Relationship;

Objectives of the Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum

3. acquire the basic skills of mathematics such as:
making estimates and approximates;
measuring and constructing;
collecting and handling data;
representing and interpreting data;
recognising and representing relationship mathematically;
using algorithm and relationship;
solving problems; and
making decisions;

Objectives of the Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum

4. communicate mathematically;
5. apply knowledge of and the skills of mathematics in solving problems and making
decisions;

6. relate mathematics with other areas of knowledge;

7. use suitable technology in concepts building, acquiring skills, solving problems and
exploring the field of mathematics;

Objectives of the Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum

8. cultivate mathematical knowledge and skills effectively and responsibly;
9. inculcate a positive attitude towards mathematics; and
10. appreciate the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

Content Organization of the

Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum

The content of the curriculum is presented in three areas that are interrelated:

1.Number,

2.Shape and Space, and

3.Relationship.

Content Organization of the

Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum
Generally, in an everyday situation, an individual needs the following:

(a) knowledge and skills related to number such as counting and computing
(Number);

(b) knowledge and skills related to shape and space such as recognising the
properties of shape and working with measurements (Shape and Space);
(c) knowledge and skills related to patterns, rules, general principles, laws, relations
and others for the purpose of recognising and understanding relationships involving
number, shape and space (Relationship).

Content Organization of the

Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum
The teaching and learning of mathematics emphasizes the understanding of concepts
and the mastery of skills in the three areas as stated above as well as the use of
mathematics to solve problems in various situations. As such, the following areas
require attention during the teaching and learning process:

(i) development of problem solving skills that involve four principal stages, namely
(a) interpreting the problem, (b) planning the strategy, (c) carrying out the strategy,
and (d) looking back the solution obtained, so hat students can effectively solve
problems in daily life;

Content Organization of the

Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum
(ii) development of logical, systematic and creative thinking together with valid
reasoning so as to produce an individual who is able to think logically and
rationally;
(iii) Inculcation of the intrinsic value of mathematics and the values of Malaysian
society which include being systematic, accurate, diligent, confident, not wasteful,
moderate and cooperative, all of which contribute towards becoming a responsible
citizen.

1. Number
The understanding of number enables students to make calculations and estimates,
and analyze and solve related problems. A section represents a continuation of the
primary school mathematics curriculum.
The topics of this area is as follows:

1.1 Whole numbers

1.2 Fractions

1.3 Decimals
1.4 Percentage

1. Number
1.5 Negative numbers
1.6 Multiples and factors
1.7 Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
1.8 Standard form
1.9 Number base

2. Shape and Space

Shape and space represents an important component in the secondary school
mathematics curriculum. Knowledge and skills in this area and their application in
related topics will prove to be useful in daily life. Improving understanding in this
area can help students solve problems in geometry effectively. At the same time,
students can also improve their visual skills and appreciate the aesthetic values of
shape and space.
The topics of this area is as follows:

2.1 Basic measurement

2.2 Lines and angles

2. Shape and Space

2.3 Polygons
2.4 Perimeter and area
2.5 Geometrical construction
2.6 Locus in two dimensions
2.7 The circle

2.8 Geometrical solid

2.9 Pythagoras theorem

2. Shape and Space

2.10 Trigonometry
2.11 Bearing
2.12 Angle of elevation and angle of depression
2.13 Lines and planes in three dimensions
2.14 Plan and elevation

2.15 The earth as a sphere

2.16 Transformation

3. Relationship
The relationships between several quantities can often be found in daily life.
Therefore, the handling of relationships such as recognizing a formula or a law and
making generalizations of a situation becomes a basic necessity. A relationship can
be expressed in the form of a table, a graph, a formula, an equation or an inequality.
The expression of the relationship in these forms becomes useful and an effective
tool in problem solving and communication.
The topics of this area is as follows:

3.1 Index
3.2 Algebraic expressions

3. Relationship
3.3 Algebraic formulae
3.4 Linear equations
3.5 Linear inequalities
3.6 Quadratic expressions and equations
3.7 Coordinates

3. Relationship
3.8 The straight line
3.9 The graph of function
3.10 Gradient and the area under a graph
3.11 Ratio and proportion
3.12 Variation

3. Relationship
3.13 Matrices
3.14 Sets
3.15 Mathematical reasoning
3.16 Statistics
3.17 Probability

Mathematics Curriculum Specifications

for Secondary School
Discusses the following aspects:

A. Learning area

B. Emphases in teaching and learning

C. Approaches in teaching and learning
D. Assessment

A. Learning Area
The Learning Area outlines the scope of knowledge and skills which have to be
mastered in the learning duration of the subject.
They are developed according to the appropriate learning objectives and represented
in five columns, as follow:

Column 1: Learning objectives

Column 2: Suggested teaching and learning activities

Column 3: Learning outcomes

Column 4: Points to note
Column 5: Vocabulary

Example: The learning area of whole numbers

in the Form One mathematics curriculum specifications

1: Learning Objectives
The Learning Objectives define clearly what should be taught.
They cover all aspects of the mathematics curriculum programme and are presented
in a developmental sequence designed to support students understanding of
concepts and skills of mathematics.

2: Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities

The Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities lists some examples of teaching
and learning activities including methods, techniques, strategies and resources
pertaining to the specific concepts or skills.
These are, However, not the only intended approaches to be used in the classrooms.
Teachers are encouraged to look for other examples, determine teaching and
learning strategies most suitable for their students and provide appropriate teaching
and learning materials.

Teachers should also make cross-references to other resources such as the textbooks
and the Internet.

3: Learning Outcomes
The Learning Outcomes define specifically what students should be able to do.
They prescribe the knowledge, skills or mathematical processes and values that
should be inculcated and developed at the appropriate level.
These behavioural objectives are observable and measurable in all aspects.

4: Points to note
In the Points To Note column, attention is drawn to the more significant aspects of
mathematical concepts and skills.
These emphases are to be taken into account so as to ensure that the concepts and
skills are taught and learn effectively as intended.

5: Vocabulary
The Vocabulary consists of standard mathematical terms, instructional words or
phrases which are relevant in structuring activities, in asking questions or setting
tasks.
It is important to pay careful attention to the use of correct terminology and these
need to be systematically introduced to students in various contexts so as to enable
them to understand their meaning and learn to use them appropriately.

B. Emphases in Teaching and Learning

The mathematics teaching and learning processes emphasize five main elements as
follow:

1. Problem solving in mathematics

2. Communication in mathematics
3. Reasoning in mathematics
4. Mathematical connections
5. Application of technology

1. Problem Solving in Mathematics

Problem solving is the main focus in the teaching and learning of mathematics.
Problem solving process involves four main steps:

1. Understanding the problem;

2. Devising a plan;
3. Carrying out the plan; and

4. Looking back at the solutions.

1. Problem Solving in Mathematics

Among the problem solving strategies that could be introduced are:

1. Trying a simple case;

2. Trial and improvement;
3. Drawing diagrams;
4. Identifying patterns;
5. Making a table, chart or systematic list;
6. Simulation;
7. Using analogies;
8. Working backwards;
9. Logical reasoning; and
10. Using algebra.

2. Communication in Mathematics
Communication is an essential means of sharing ideas and clarifying the
understanding of mathematics.
Communication in mathematics occurs through three main processes as follow:
1. Listening

2. Reading
3. Visualization
Communication in mathematics through the listening process occurs when
individuals respond to what they hear and this encourages individuals to think using

their mathematical knowledge in making decisions.

2. Communication in Mathematics
Communication in mathematics through the reading process occurs when an
individual collects information and data and rearranges the relationship between
ideas and concepts.
Communication in mathematics through the visualisation process occurs when an

individual makes an observation, analyses, interprets and synthesises data and

presents them in the form of geometric board, pictures and diagrams, tables and
graphs.

2. Communication in Mathematics
Effective communication can be developed through the following methods:
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
Oral communication is an interactive process that involves psychomotor activities

like listening, touching, observing, tasting and smelling. It is a two ways interaction
that takes place between teacher and students, students and students, and students
and object.
Written communication is the process whereby mathematical ideas and

information are disseminated through writing.

3. Reasoning in Mathematics
Logical Reasoning or thinking is the basis for understanding and solving
mathematical problems.
The development of mathematical reasoning is closely related to the intellectual and
communicative development of students.
Emphasis on logical thinking, during mathematical activities opens up students
minds to accept mathematics as a powerful tool in the world today.

3. Reasoning in Mathematics
Students are encouraged to estimate, predict and make intelligent guesses in the
process of seeking solutions.
Students at all levels have to be trained to investigate their predictions or guesses by
using concrete material, calculators, computers, mathematical representation and
others.
Logical reasoning has to be absorbed in the teaching of mathematics so that students
can recognize, construct and evaluate predictions and mathematical arguments.

4. Mathematical Connections
In the mathematics curriculum, opportunities for making connections must be
created so that students can (a) link conceptual to procedural knowledge, (b) relate
topics within mathematics, and (c) mathematics with other learning areas.
The mathematics curriculum consists of several areas such as arithmetic, geometry,

algebra, measures and problem solving. Without connections between these areas,
students will have to learn and memorize too many concepts and skills separately.

4. Mathematical Connections
By making connections, students are able to see mathematics as an integrated whole
rather than a jumble of unconnected ideas.
When mathematical ideas and the curriculum are connected to real life within or
outside the classroom, students will become more conscious of the importance and

significance of mathematics.
They will also be able to use mathematics contextually in different learning areas
and in real life situations.

5. Application of Technology
The teaching and learning of mathematics should employ the latest technology to
help students understand mathematical concepts in depth, meaningfully and
precisely and enable them to explore mathematical ideas.
The use of calculators, computers, educational software, websites in the Internet and

relevant learning packages can help to upgrade the pedagogical approach and thus
promote the understanding of mathematical concepts.

5. Application of Technology
The use of these teaching resources will also help students absorb abstract ideas, be
creative, feel confident and be able to work independently or in groups.
Most of these resources are designed for self-access learning.

Through self-access learning students will be able to access knowledge or skills and
information independently according to their own pace.
This will serve to stimulate students interests and develop a sense of responsibility
towards their learning and understanding of mathematics.

C. Approaches in Teaching and Learning

Various teaching strategies and approaches such as direct instruction, discovery
learning, investigation, guided discovery or other methods must be incorporated.
Amongst the approaches that can be given consideration include the following:

Pupils-centered learning that is interesting;

Different learning abilities and styles of pupils;
Usage of relevant, suitable and effective teaching materials; and
Formative assessment to determine the effectiveness of teaching and
learning.

C. Approaches in Teaching and Learning

The choice of an approach that is suitable will stimulate the teaching and learning
environment inside or outside the classroom.
Approaches that are considered suitable include the following:

Cooperative learning;
Contextual learning;
Mastery learning;
Constructivism;
Enquiry-discovery.

D. Assessment
Assessment is part of the teaching and learning process to ascertain the strengths and
weaknesses of students.
It has to be planned and carried out as part of the classroom activities.

Different methods of assessment can be conducted. These maybe in the form of

assignments, oral questioning and answering, observations and interviews.

D. Assessment
Based on the response, teachers can rectify students misconceptions and weaknesses
and also improve their own teaching skills.
Teachers can then take subsequent effective measures in conducting remedial and
enrichment activities in upgrading students performances.

Trends and issues in mathematics curriculum research

Mathematics educators in the 1960's and 70's were predominantly preoccupied with
the mathematics curriculum and with ways of teaching it.
Traditionally, the underlying, often implicit, issues were to identify, structure,
sequence and organise 'the right content' and to devise and implement 'the right
mode of presentation':

What topics should be included, on what conceptual basis, and in what order?
What should the teacher do, and when?
What tasks and activities for students should be orchestrated?
What properties should textbooks have?

And what is the role of technical aids for teaching? (Niss, 2000, p. 3)

Trends and issues in mathematics curriculum research

Until the mid-70s, in many publications the term curriculum was given a fairly
narrow meaning, namely that of syllabus, in which only the issue of mathematical
content is on the agenda.
During the 70s, curriculum gradually gained a much wider meaning,

encompassing also aims, teaching approaches and assessment modes.

One manifestation of the preoccupation with curriculum issues in general is the
series New trends in mathematics teaching that was prepared under the auspices of
ICMI and published by UNESCO.
These publications attempted to identify and describe curriculum trends throughout
the world. (Niss, 2000, pp. 3-4)

Trends and issues in mathematics curriculum research

Although the interest in curriculum issues and trends was particularly manifest in the
60s and 70s, this interest has never really vanished.
This can be seen in the ICMEs, ... which have always had well-attended sessions
dealing with curriculum issues at various levels, in response to the continued

widespread interest amongst participants in learning about new developments and

exchanging experiences and views. (Niss, 2000, p. 4)
So, in the 70s and early 80s goals, aims and objectives became objects of debate
and investigation:

What should they be? And why?

And what are their interrelations? (Niss, 2000, p. 6)

Trends and issues in mathematics curriculum research

One thing is to write papers for journals and books and to hold scholarly meetings to
consider what the goals, content and organisation of mathematics curricula are, and
perhaps reach agreement on what they ought to be.
It is quite another thing to implement such ideas in the reality of the classroom.
This often requires change that is not so easy to bring about because of obstacles
present in various places in the educational system, e.g. with curriculum authorities,
with teachers, or with societys stakeholders in education like, for instance,
employers and parents. (Niss, 2000, p. 6)

Mathematics Curriculum:
Issues, Trends, and Future Directions
(Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010)
Mathematics curriculum remains a central issue in efforts to improve mathematics
learning opportunities for students.
Although times change, society changes, and people change, for many it is difficult
to accept change in the mathematics curriculum.
Terms such as basic, old, new, modern, antiquated, traditional, conservative, liberal,
contemporary, and reform are commonly used in society. In fact, these terms are
frequently mentioned in the context of mathematics curriculum. (Reys, Reys, &
Rubenstein, 2010, p. ix)

Mathematics Curriculum:
Issues, Trends, and Future Directions
Most controversy about mathematics curriculum centers on either the need for
change or the lack of change.
The need for change, along with visions for change, has long been reflected by
NCTM in such publications as:

1. An Agenda for Action (1980),

2. Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989),

3. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000),
4. Curriculum Focal Points for Prekindergarten through Grade 8 Mathematics
(2006), and
5. Focus in High School Mathematics: Reasoning and Sense Making (2009). (Reys,
Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. x)

Mathematics Curriculum:
Issues, Trends, and Future Directions
These publications have called for curricular change, and several have been met
with mixed reactions.
Although many strongly support the vision of school mathematics outlined by
NCTM, some think the recommendations have gone too far in outlining changes,

whereas others think they have not gone far enough.

Change in any period of time is difficult and creates challenges. In schools,
mathematics curriculum change affects teachers, students, administrators, and
parents.
Change, particularly for parents, teachers, and administrators, has always been
difficult. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. x)

Mathematics Curriculum:
Issues, Trends, and Future Directions
Tradition continues to maintain inertia that is difficult to overcome in changing
mathematics curriculum.
As a result, debates about the direction of mathematics curriculum in schools and
cities throughout the world continue to this day.
This Yearbook continues in a long line of NCTM Yearbooks, dating back to 1927,
that have addressed various facets of the changing mathematics curriculum.
Although some factors such as tradition can inhibit significant change, other factors

such as policy (e.g., federal No Child Left Behind legislation), societal needs
(mathematically literate graduates), and technological advances (computer software,
calculators) foster and accelerate the need for change. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein,
2010, p. x)

Mathematics Curriculum:
Issues, Trends, and Future Directions
This Yearbook, Mathematics Curriculum: Issues, Trends, and Future Directions,
was developed during a period of major curriculum change.
The past two decades have seen an era of unprecedented mathematics curriculum
development across grades K12. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. x)
This Yearbook reflects some of the many issues that the field is currently discussing,
so it serves as both a record of current advances and a summary of challenges
regarding curriculum.
We hope that it will both guide and stimulate thinking about where we have been,
where we are, and where we need to go. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. xi)

Various Forms of Curriculum

Various forms of curriculum that shape the grades K12 mathematics program,
including the following (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. xi):

1. The Intended Curriculum

2. The Written (Textbook) Curriculum

3. The Implemented Curriculum

1. The Intended Curriculum

Curriculum authorities at the local, state, and national level specify particular
learning expectations, often delineated by grade, for school mathematics instruction.
Often called curriculum standards, these learning expectations furnish guidance
regarding what should be taught and when various mathematical content and

processes should receive emphasis in the school program.

They also guide the development of textbooks and assessments designed to monitor
school programs. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. xi)

2. The Written (Textbook) Curriculum

Publishers use curriculum standards to design textbooks and other instructional
materials to implement the intended curriculum.
These materials include textbooks typically developed to support the day-to-day
teaching of mathematics over a school semester or academic year of study.
They also include modules focusing on smaller amounts of mathematical content,
workbooks, and computer software. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p. xi)

3. The Implemented Curriculum

Individual teachers make decisions every day regarding if and how they will use
district-adopted curriculum materials.
Therefore students, for example, using the same textbook may, in fact, have
differing opportunities to learn mathematics.
The implemented curriculum refers to the mathematics that students have an
opportunity to learn, which is often a function of the district adopted textbook and
the individual teachers preferences.

Together, these different forms of curriculum have a direct impact on teachers

decisions and students opportunities to learn. (Reys, Reys, & Rubenstein, 2010, p.
xi)

Three Levels of Curriculum

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA)
distinguished three levels of curriculum:
1. Intended
2. Implemented
3. Attained
These distinctions have been widely accepted and used in mathematics education.
This categorization highlights the differences in
(a) what a society would like to have taught,

(b) what is actually taught, and

(c) what students have actually learned. (Cai & Howson, 2013, p. 951)

1. The Intended Curriculum

Refers to the formally written documents that set system level expectations for the
learning of mathematics.
It usually includes goals and expectations set at the educational system level along
with official syllabi or curriculum standards, and, in some countries, approved

textbooks.
The intended curriculum is concerned with the system level. (Cai & Howson, 2013,
p. 951)

2. The Implemented Curriculum

Refers to school and classroom processes for the teaching and learning of
mathematics as interpreted and implemented by the teachers, according to their
experience and beliefs for particular classes.
It operates at the classroom level.
The classroom is central to students learning since it is there that students acquire
most of their mathematical knowledge and form their attitudes to the subject.
Regardless of how well a curriculum is designed, its ultimate value depends on how

it is implemented in the classroom. (Cai & Howson, 2013, p. 951)

3. The Attained Curriculum

Refers to what is actually learned by students and is manifested in their
achievements and attitudes.
It is at the students level.

It deals with those aspects of the intended curriculum that are taught by teachers
and learned by students. (Cai & Howson, 2013, p. 951)