Design of IC Engine

Components
The main components of an I C Engine
are shown in the picture.

IC Engine Components

Connecting Rod and Piston

IC Engine Components

Functions of a Connecting Rod

(CR)
The primary function of
the CR is
to transmit the push
and pull from the piston
pin to the crankpin.
and thus convert the
reciprocating motion of
the piston and into the
rotating motion of the
crank.
It
also
transfers
lubricating
oil
from
crank pin to piston pin.
It also lubricates piston
assembly by a splash
or jet of oil

IC Engine Components

Manufacturing of Connecting
Rods
Connecting Rods are made by drop
forging process as one piece. The top
half of the big-end bearing is cut off,
faced and bolted for final machining of
the big-end.
The outside surface of CR is left as it is
after forging

IC Engine Components

Material used for Connecting

Rod
CR Should have adequate strength, stiffness
and minimum weight.
The materials used for connecting rod are
either medium carbon (0.35 0.45C) or alloy
steels
(chrome

nickel
or
chrome
molybdenum steels).
Properly Heat treated 0.35C steels give Su = 650
MPa and
.45C steels give 750 MPa Alloy steels may
have ultimate strengths of the order of 1050
MPa.
Carbon steel connecting rods are used in
Industrial engines.
The alloy steel connecting rods are used in
automobile engines .

 In modern high performance engines,

aluminum and titanium alloys are also used.

IC Engine Components

Lubrication of big-end and smallend bearing

Splash lubrication system: the cap at the big end has
a dipper or spout at an appropriate angle. When the
CR moves downward the spout dips into the
lubricating oil in the sump. The oil gets forced up the
spout to the big end bearing.
During upward motion spout splashes the oil from the
sump. The splashed oil does reach the small end
bearing through chamfered holes purposely provided
on the upper surface of the small end.

IC Engine Components

Pressure Lubrication System

The lubricating oil
is pumped from
the sump to crank
shaft bearing from
where it finds its
way to the big-end
and
small
end
bearing
through
the holes drilled in
the crank shaft,
crank web; crank
pin and a hole
through
the
connecting rod.

IC Engine Components

Lubrication of Small end

bearing
In some cases the small end bearing is
lubricated by oil scrapped from the walls
of cylinder liner by scrapper rings on the
piston.

Worms and Worm Gears

Worms and Worm Gears

3.1 Introduction
Worm gears are used for transmitting power
between two non-parallel, non-intersecting
shafts. High gear ratios of the order of 200:1
may be obtained.

(a)

(b)

Fig.3.1 (a) Single enveloping worm gear, (b) Double

enveloping worm gear.

Worms and Worm

Gears

Fig.3.2 The cut section of a worm gearbox with fins and

fan for cooling

Worms and Worm Gears

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Worm Drives
3.2 Advantages
(i) A speed reduction as high as 200:1 can be
obtained with a single pair of gears.
(ii) The worm gear drives are compact as
compared to spur or helical gear drives for
the same speed reduction.
(iii)The operation is smooth and silent.
(iv)Provision can be made for self locking
operation, where the motion is transferred
only from the worm to the worm gear. This
is advantageous in applications like cranes
and lifting devices.

Worms and Worm Gears

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Worm Drives
(Contd.)
Disadvantages
(i) The efficiency is low compared with other
types of gear drives.
(ii) Considerable amount of heat is generated
in worm gear drives, which is dissipated by
a lubricating oil to the housing walls and
finally to the surroundings.
(iii)The power transmitting capacity is low.
Worm gear drives are used only up to 100
kW of power transmission. An effective
cooling system may be needed.
(iv)The worm wheel, in general, is made of
phosphor bronze, which increases the cost.

Worms and Worm Gears

Application of Worm Drives

3.3 Major areas of application of worm
gears drives are:

Manually operated intermittent

mechanisms:
In these application, large mechanical
advantage is required and efficiency is of
minor importance.
For Example

Steering mechanisms and opening and

closing of gate valves by means of hand
wheels

Worms and Worm Gears

Application of Worm Drives

(Contd.)

Motorized operated intermittent

mechanisms:
In these applications, a small capacity
low cost motor drives the mechanism and
the efficiency is of minor importance.
For Example
Drive for small hoists and opening and
closing of large gate valves by means of
electric motor.

Worms and Worm Gears

Application of Worm Drives

(Contd.)

Motorized continuous operation:

Worm gear drives are used in place of
other gear drives due to space limitations
and silent operation. The efficiency is
more important in these applications
Multi-threaded Worms are used in these
applications to obtain higher efficiency.
For Example
Drive for machine tools and elevators

Worms and Worm Gears

Application of Worm Drives

(Contd.)

Motorized speed increasing application

In this, worm gear drives are preferred
due to high velocity ratio and silent
operation. The efficiency is more
important in these application speed
increasing applications include drives for
superchargers.

Worms and Worm Gears

3.4 Types of Worms

Following are the two types of
Worms:

- Cylindrical or straight worm

- Conical or double enveloping
worm

Worms and Worm Gears

Cylindrical or straight worm is most

commonly used. The shape of the thread is
o
involute helicoid of pressure angle of 14
0
for single and double threaded and 20 for
triple and quadruple thread worms. The
worms thread are cut by a side milling cutter
having its diameters less than the outside
diameter of worm gear.
The contact between the threads of the
worm and the teeth of worm wheel is a line
contact.

Worms and Worm Gears

Conical or double enveloping worm

In this design the gear and the worm
wrap around each other. It results in area
contact between the teeth of the worm
wheel and the threads of worm screw.
The drive is relatively compact
requires precise alignment.

but

Worms and Worm Gears

3.5 Geometry
Nomenclature

and

Fig. 3.4 Nomenclature of a single enveloping

worm gear

Worms and Worm Gears

Terminology of Worm Gears

z1/z2/q/m or R
z1/z2/q/m/a z1 = no. of
threads on worm z2 =
no. of teeth on worm
gear q = diametral
quotient = d1/m m =
module, mm
a = centre distance, mm
R = right-hand (worm &
gear have same hand)
d1 = diameter of worm

Worms and Worm Gears

Relationship with other

parameters
d1 = mq and d2 = mz2
(a) axial pitch = px
(worm)
circular pitch = pc (worm gear)
px = p c
=

px =
m
L=
mz1

( 2)

(b
)
(c
)

a = 0.5(d1 + d2)
or a = 0.5 m (q +
z2)
i=
z2/z1

(d
)
(e
)

Worms and Worm Gears

Relationship with other

parameters (Contd.)
Lead angle, , is the angle between a
tangent to the thread at the pitch diameter
and plane normed to the axis.
Helix angle, , is the angle made by the
teeth with axis of rotation (worm) it is
measured on the pitch surface.
tan = L/(d1) = z1/q
(f)
= 0.5 -
(e)
Face width of Worm gear F = 2m + ( + 1)

Length of worm, Lw = m (4.5 + z2/50)

z1 +z2 >40 (preferred)

Worms and Worm Gears

Force Analysis
The three components
of forces (P1)t, (P1)a
and
(P1)r
are
tangential, axial and
radial components of
forces on the worm,
respectively.
The
Components
acting on Worm wheel
are equal and opposite
to those acting on
worm, i.e.
(P2)t
(P1)a
(P2)a

=
=

(P1)t (P2)r
= (P1)r

Worms and Worm Gears

Force Analysis (Contd.)

(P2)t: is the force applied
by worm to drive the worm
wheel which also rotates in
CCW
direction
when
viewed from B.
(P1)a: the worm has RH
threads; apply RH threads
rule (keeping the fingers in
the direction of rotation,
the
thumb
will
point
towards the motion of the
screw) force on screw in
+Y direction. Nut (worm
wheel) has a tendency to
move in the opposite
direction.
CCW
when
viewed form B. Force (P2)t
as discussed above.
Radial components always
try to separate the gears.

Worms and Worm Gears

Force Analysis (Contd.)

Components of normal
reaction P on worm.
PN = P
cos Pr
= P sin
Resolving the component PN in
the plane AEBF
Pa = PN
cos Pt =
PN sin
= normal pressure angle
is in plane ABCD.
= lead angle
is in the top plane AEPF.

From the above relationships

Pt = P cos sin
Pa = P cos cos
Pr = P sin

Worms and Worm Gears

Force Analysis (Contd.)

The resultant frictional force
is P where = coefficient
of friction.
The direction of frictional
force will be along the pitch
helix and opposite to the
direction of motion.
(i) Component Pcos is in
the tangential direction.
It is the same direction
as that of Pt.
(ii) Component Psin is in
the axial direction. This
direction is opposite
that of Pa.
Thus
(P1)t = P cos sin +
P cos or (P1)t = P (cos
sin + cos )

Directio
n of
motion

Worms and Worm Gears

Force Analysis (Contd.)

Similarly
(P1)a = P (cos cos sin ) (P1)r = P sin
where Mt = torque
2

1)

transmitted from
worm to worm
wheel

(P1)a

(P )
1

cos cos + sin

(P1)r

(P )

cos cos sin

sin

cos sin + cos

1

The above equations are used to determine

the magnitude of components of the
resultant tooth force.

Worms and Worm Gears

Friction in Worm Gears

Consider the velocity triangle as
shown in the Figure.
V1 = pitch line velocity of worm, m/s
V2 = pitch line velocity of worm
gear, m/s VS = sliding or rubbing
velocity m/s
1 1

=
60(1000)

1 1

cos

60000

( ) ( 2)( )
2

=
1

( )

( )( )

2/ 1

=
/

Hence =

tan =

1) = (
(

1)

1)

=(

Worms and Worm Gears

Friction in Worm Gears

Worm wheel made of case-hardened steel

Worm gear is made of bronze
Gears are lubricated with oil having a kinematic viscosity
0
between 16-130 cSt, at 60 C

Worms and Worm Gears

Design of Worm and Worm

Gear

As worms are generally manufactured

from heat treated carbon steels or alloy
steel, whereas the material used for worm
gears are relatively self / weaker
(Bronzes, Alloy), the design is based on
Worm Gear

Worms and Worm Gears

Beam Strength of Worm Gear

(Contd.)

As stated earlier, worm gear is similar to a

helical gear:
Helical Gear:
Tensile stress at root =b =
Ft /(b mn Yn) Worm Gear:
Tensile stress at root = b = Ft /
(b mn y) = Ft /
(b m cos y)
Design stress = b

(a)

(b)

Worms and Worm Gears

Beam Strength of Worm Gear

(Contd.)
Ko = 1.25 to 2.0 same criteria as in
helical gears Kv = 6.1 /(6.1 +V) for
generated teeth
=

From equation (b) and (c)

(b mY cos
), N

(c
)

Power Transmitted
In case module m is to be
estimated, One can assume
b = 8 m for single /
double start b = 7m for
triple / start
=

(d
)

1000

=2

+ 1 or 0.73 d2 whichever in larger.

(e
)

Worms and Worm Gears

Beam Strength of Worm Gear

(Contd.)

Wear Strength
Fw = d2 b K
K = Load stress factor; its numerical value
2
in N/mm depends on the materials
of worm and worm gear, and load
angle, and is available from the data
book .

Worms and Worm Gears

Thermal Consideration in Worm

Gear Drive

As already discussed, the efficiency of a

worm gear drive is low and as such
considerable heat may be generated. The
rate of heat generated:
Hg = 1000(1-) (kW power
input), Watt Hd = k (t-ta) A,
where
k = overall heat2transfer
0
coefficient, W/M c t=
temperature
of
the
lubricating
oils,
0
C

A = effective
surface are of
2
housing, m Equating Hg and Hd
for stable operation: 1000(1-)
(kW) = k (t-ta)A

Worms and Worm Gears

Thermal Consideration in Worm Gear

Drive (Contd.)

The following two equations may be

derived from the heat balance equation
=

1000(1)

= + 1000 1

Genera
lly t <
0
95 C
2
k = 12-18 Wm (normal air circulation)
2
k = 20-28 W/m (With fan on worm shaft
and horizontal fins horizontally along
the air flow.)

Worms and Worm Gears

a. The geometry of a worm is similar to that

of a power screw. Rotation of the worm
simulates a linearly advancing involute
rack, Fig.3.3
b. The geometry of a worm gear is similar to
that of a helical gear, except that the
teeth are curved to envelop the worm.
c. Enveloping the gear gives a greater area
of contact but requires extremely precise
mounting.

Worms and Worm Gears

1. As with a spur or helical gear, the pitch

diameter of a worm gear is related to its
circular pitch and number of teeth Z by
the formula
(3.1)

2. When the angle is 90 between the

nonintersecting shafts, the worm lead angle
is equal to the gear helix angle . Angles
and have the same hand.
3.The pitch diameter of a worm is not a
function of its number of threads, Z1.

Worms and Worm Gears

4. This means that the velocity ratio of a

worm gear set is determined by the ratio of
gear teeth to worm threads; it is not equal to
the ratio of gear and worm diameters
(3.2)
1

=2

2
1

5. Worm gears usually have at least 24

teeth, and the number of gear teeth plus
worm threads should be more than 40:
Z1 + Z2 > 40
(3.3)
6. A worm of any pitch diameter can be
made with any number of threads and any
axial pitch.

Worms and Worm Gears

7. For maximum power transmitting

capacity, the pitch diameter of the worm
should normally be related to the shaft
center distance by the following equation
(3.4)
0.875

0.875

3.0

1.7

8. Integral worms cut directly on the shaft

can, of course, have a smaller diameter than
that of shell worms, which are made
separately.
9.Shell worms are bored to slip over the
shaft and are driven by splines, key, or pin.

Worms and Worm Gears

10. Strength considerations seldom permit a

shell worm to have a pitch diameter less than
d1 = 2.4p + 1.1
(3.5)
11. The face width of the gear should not
exceed half the worm outside diameter.
(3.6)
b 0.5 da1
12. Lead angle , Lead L, and worm pitch
diameter d1 have the following relationship in
connection with the screw
1
threads.
(3.7)
=

13. To avoid interference, pressure angles are

commonly related to the worm lead angle as
indicated in Table 3.1.

Worms and Worm Gears

Table 3.1 Maximum worm lead angle and

worm gear Lewis form factor for various
pressure angles

Worms and Worm Gears

Table 3.2 Frequently used standard values of

module and axial pitch of worm or circular
pitch of gear p in mm:

Worms and Worm Gears

b) Values of addendum and tooth depth often

conform generally to helical gear practice
but they may be strongly influenced by
manufacturing considerations.
c) The load capacity and durability of worm
gears can be significantly increased by
modifying the design to give predominantly
recess action i.e. the angle of approach
would be made small or zero and the angle of
recess larger.
d) The axial pitch for different standard
modules are given Table 3.2