System Design

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Introduction System Design - System Analysis And Design
System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design PDF, Notes, Ebook Free Download.
February 10, 2016
Introduction System Design

INTRODUCTION
Design is a creative process of transforming the problem into solution. It is the
description of the solution and called design. The basis of designing is the
requirement specification. The designer transforms the requirements of a
customer into a final product. Thus, designing works as a bridge between
requirement specification and the final product. It is the designing of the system,
which ultimately decides the quality of a system as well. If designing is good, end
product will be a quality product.
System design is defined as those tasks that focus on the specification of a
detailed computer based solution. It is also called physical design. System analysis
emphasized on business problem where as system design focuses on the
technical or implementation concern of the system. The design phase is a
transition from a user-oriented document to a document oriented to the
programmers or database personnel.
A good design is very dependent on a particular system, and what is a good
design for one system may be bad for another. It is not possible to propose a set
of standard solutions from which to select a good design for any system. Design
requites considerable creativity to propose the necessary system-specific changes
and both are acceptable to users and easy to implement. The designer together
with users has to search for a solution using any special knowledge about the
system until there is agreement that a satisfactory solution has been found.
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Introduction System Design - System Analysis And Design
Design is an ongoing process but its nature changes as the development process
proceeds. Thus design is needed to define the concept. Then during specification,
the new system and its requirements are designed. In system design , we design
the best computer structures, the programs and so on.
System Design, Uncategorized
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Design Objectives - System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016
Design Objectives
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
The various desirable properties of system design are :
Correctness : The design of a system is correct if a system is built precisely
according to the design and satisfies the requirements of that system. The
goal during the design phase is to produce correct designs and to find the
best possible design within the limitations imposed by the requirements and
the physical and social environment in which the system will operate.
Verifiability : Design should be correct and it should be verifies for
correctness. Verifiability is concerned with how easily the correctness of the
design can be Various verification techniques should be easily applied to
design.
Completeness : Completeness requires that all the different components of
the design should be verified i.e. all the relevant data structure, modules;
external interfaces and module interconnections are specified.
Traceabilty : Traceability is an important property that can get design It
requires that the entire design element must be traceable to the
requirements.
Efficiency : Efficiency of any system is concerned with the proper use of
scarce resources by the system. The need for efficiency arises due to cost . If
some resources are scarce and expensive, it is desirable that those
resources be used efficiently.
Simplicity : Simplicity is the most important quality criteria for software
Maintenance of software system is usually quite expensive. The design of the
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Design Objectives - System Analysis And Design
system is one of the most important factors affecting the maintainability of

the system.
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Logical and Physical Design - System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016
Logical and Physical Design

LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL DESIGN
System design goes through two phases of development: Logical and Physical
Design. When analyst prepare the logical system design, they specify the users
needs at the level of detail that virtually determine the information flow into and
out of the system.
The design covers the following :
Reviews the current physical design: its data flow, file contents etc.
Prepare Output Specification: determine the format, content and frequency
of reports including terminal specifications and locations.
Prepare Input Specification: format, content and most of the input functions.
This includes determining the flow of the document from the input data
source to the actual input location.
Specifies the implementation plan.
Prepare edit, security and control specification: this include specifying the
rules of edit correction, backup procedures and file integrity.
Prepare a logical design walkthrough of information flow, output, input
controls and implementation plan.
Reviews benefits, costs, target dates and system constraints.
Following logical design is physical design. This produces the working system by
defining the design specification that tells the programmers exactly what the
candidatesystem must do. The programmer writes the necessary programs or
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Logical and Physical Design - System Analysis And Design
modifies the software package that accepts input from the users, performs the
necessary calculations through the existing files or databases, produces the
report on a hard copy or displays it on screen.
Physical system design consists of following steps :
1. Design the physical systemSpecify input/output media.
Design the database and specify backup procedures.
Design physical information flow through the system and physical design
2. Plan System implementationPrepare a target date and a conversion schedule.
Determine training procedure, courses and time tables.
3. Specify any new hardware/software.
4. Update benefits, costs, conversion date and system constraints (legal,
financial, hardware etc.)
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Design of Input and Control - System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016
Design of Input and Control

DESIGN OF INPUT AND CONTROL
Input design is the process of converting user-oriented inputs to a computerbased format. Input data are collected and organized into groups of similar data.
Once identified, appropriate input media are selected for processing.
The goal of designing input data is to make data entry as easy, logical and free
from errors as possible. In entering data, operators need to know the following:
The allocated space for each field.
Field sequence, which must match that in source document.
The format in which data fields are entered. For example- filling out the data
field is required through the edited format mm/dd/yy.
Data Capture is the identification and acquisition of new data. Its always best to
capture the data as soon as possible after it originates.
Source Documents are forms used to record business transactions in terms of
data that describes those transactions.
Data Entry is the process of translating the source data or document into a
computer-readable format. Entered data must subsequently be processed.
Batch Processing : In batch processing, the entered data is collected into files
called batches. Each file is processed as a batch of many transactions.
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Design of Input and Control - System Analysis And Design
Online Processing : In online processing, the captured data is processed

immediately.
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Input Methods and Implementation - System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016
Input Methods and Implementation

INPUT METHODS AND IMPLEMENTATION
Source data are input into the system in a variety of ways. The following media
and devices are as follows :
1. Keyboard : Keyboard data entry remains the most common form of output.
It requires the most data editing because people make mistakes keying data
from source
2. Mouse : A mouse is a pointing device used in conjunction with graphical user
The mouse has made it easy to navigate online forms and click on
commands and input options.
3. Touch Screens : Ari emerging technology that will greatly impact input
design in the near future is the touch screen display. Such displays are
common in handheld and palm-top computers that are finding their way into
countless information system
4. Point of Scale : Point-of-scale (POS) terminals have replaced old-fashioned
cash These terminals capture data at the point of sale and provide time
saving ways to enter data, perform translational calculations, and produce
some output.
5. Optical Mark : Optical mark recognition (OMR) technology for input has
existed for several decades. It is primarily batch processing-oriented. The
classic example is the optical mark forms used for objective-based questions.
The technology is also useful in surveys and questionnaires or any other
application where the number of possible data values in relatively limited
and highly structured.
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6. Optical character recognition (OCR) : Optical character recognition (OCR)

requires that the user or customer carefully handwrites input data on a
business form. If the letters and numbers are properly scribed; an OCR
reader can process the forms without human intervention.
7. Electromagnetic Transmission : Electromagnetic ADC technology is based
on the use of radio frequency to identify physical objects. This technology
involves attaching a tag and antenna to the physical object that is to be
tracked. The tag contains memory that is used to identify the object being
generated by the reader. This identification technology is becoming very
popular in applications that involves tracking physical objects that are out of
sight and on the move.
8. Biometric : Biometric ADC technology is based on unique human
characteristics or traits. For example, an individual can be identified by his or
her unique fingerprint, voice pattern, or pattern of certain veins (retina or
wrist). Biometric ADC systems consist of sensors that capture an individuals
characteristics or traits, digitize the image pattern, and then compare the
image to stored patterns for identification.
Biometric ADC is popular because it offers the most accurate and reliable means
for identification. This technology is particularly popular for systems that require
security access.
Design of Output and Control
Output presents information to system users. Outputs are the most visible
component of a working information system. They act as the basis for the users
and managements final assessment of the systems value. Today, most outputs
are designed by rapidly constructing prototypes. These prototypes may be simple
computer-generated mock-ups with dummy data, or they may be generated from
prototype databases such as MicrosoftAccess, which can be rapidly constructed
and populated with test data. These prototypes are fully functional.
Outputs of a system can take form. The most common are reports, displays on
screen, printed forms etc. The outputs also vary in terms of their contents, type of
stationary, frequency and timings etc. Besides, due consideration also need to be
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given as to who will use the output and for what purpose. All these points must be
kept in mind while designing output so that the objectives of the systems are met
in the best possible way.
One way to classify output is according to their distribution inside or outside the
organization and the people who read and use them.
Internal outputs are intended for the system owners and system users within an
organization. Internal outputs support either day-to-day business operations or
management monitoring and decision-making.
The three basic subclasses of internal outputs are as follows :
Detailed reports present information with little or no filtering or restrictions.
Example of detailed reports would be a detailed listing of all customer
accounts, orders, or products in inventory. Some detailed reports are
historical and others are regulatory, that is, required by government.
Summary reports categorize information for managers who do not want to
wade through details. The data for summary reports is typically categorized
and summarized to indicate trends and potential problems.
Exception reports filter data before it is presented to the managers as
Exception reports include only exceptions to some condition or standard.
Example of an exception report is a report that identifies items that are low
in stock.
External Outputs are intended for customer, suppliers, partners, and regulatory
agencies. They usually conclude or report on business transactions. Examples of
external outputs are invoices, account statements, paychecks, course schedule,
airline tickets, boarding passes, telephone bills, and purchase orders.
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Output Design Guidelines - System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016
Output Design Guidelines

OUTPUT DESIGN GUIDELINES
There are many issues that apply to output design. The following general
principles are important for output design:
1,. Computer outputs should be simple to read and interpret :
Every output should hay.e a .
. Every output should be dated and time-stamped. This helps the reader
appreciate the currency of information.
Reports and screens should include sections and headings to segment
In form-based outputs, all fields should be clearly labelled.
In tabular-based outputs, columns should be clearly labelled.
Information should never have to be manually edited to become usable.
Users must be able to easily find the output, move forward and backward,
and exit the report.
Computer jargon and error messages should be omitted from all outputs.
2. The timing of computer outputs is important : Output information must
reach recipients while the information is pertinent to,transactions or
decisions. This can affect how the output is designed and implemented.
3. The distribution of computer outputs must be sufficient to assist all
relevant system users : The choice of implementation method affects
distribution.
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Output Design Guidelines - System Analysis And Design
4. The computer output must be acceptable to the system users who will
receive them : An output design may contain the required information and
still not be acceptable to the system user.
5. Quality : This relates to the contents, appearance and accuracy of the
output. Outputs generated for external users should be given special
attention in respect of its getup, quality of paper etc.
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Implementation Methods for Outputs - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Implementation Methods for

Outputs
IMPLEMENTATION METHODS FOR OUTPUTS
Printed Output : The most common medium for computer outputs is paperprinted output. Printed output may be produced on impact printers, but
increasingly it is printed on laser printers, which have become increasingly costeffective. Internal outputs are typically printed on blank paper. External outputs
are printed on preprinted forms. The layout of preprinted forms is
predetermined, and the blank documents are mass-produced. The preprinted
forms are run through the printer to add the variable business data.
Screen Output : The fastest growing medium for computer outputs is the online
display of information on a visual display device, such as CRT terminal or PC
monitor. While screen outputs provide the system user with convenient access to
information, the information is only temporary. When the information leaves the
screen, that information is lost unless it is redisplayed. For this reason, printed
output options are usually added to screen output designs.
Point-of-sale Terminals : Many of todays retail and consumer transactions are
enabled or enhanced by point-of-sale (POS) terminals. The classic example is the
automated teller machine (ATM). POS terminals are both input and output
devices. ATMs displays account balances and print transaction receipts. POS cash
registers displays prices and running totals as bar codes are scanned, and they
also produce receipts.
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Implementation Methods for Outputs - System Analysis And Design
Multimedia : Multimedia is a termed used to collectively describe any information

presented in a format other than traditional numbers, codes, and words. This
includes graphics, sound, pictures and animations.
Microfilm : Paper is bulky and requires considerable storage space. To overcome
the storage problem, many businesses use microfilm as an output medium.
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Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Input/Output and Form Design

INPUT/OUTPUT AND FORM DESIGN
The design of an information system produces the details that state how a system
will meet the requirements identified during systems analysis.
Design goes through logical and physical stages of development.
Logical Design : It reviews the present physical system, i.e., prepares input and
output specifications; makes edit, security, control specifications; details the
implementation plan; and prepares a logicil design walkthrough.
Physical Design : It maps out the details of the physical system, plans the system
implementation, devises a test and implementation Ian, and specifies any new
hardware and software.
Design Process
Five parts have been included in the system design process.
(1) Output .Design : It determines the system requirements which will normally be
converted in terms of output.
Input Design : Next step is to find what data is to be made available to the
system to produce the desired output. The basic documents in which these
data are available need to be identified. These documents may have to be
revised or new documents may have to be introduced.
File Design : Once input data is captured in the system, it will be stored in
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files in a logical manner. The designer will have to devise the techniques of
storing and retrieving data from these files.
Procedure Design : This involves specifications of how processing will be
performed e., what functions will be carried out on computer, what will be
the different programs and a what sequence the programs will be run.
(v) Control Design : The control design indicates necessary procedure which will
ensure correctness of processing, accuracy of data, timely output etc. This will
ensure that a system is functioning as per plan.
Design of Software
The principles should guide software design.
1. Modularity and Partitioning : Each system should consist of a hierarchy of
Lower-level modules are generally smaller in scope and size compared to
higher-level modules and serve to partition processes into separate
functions.
2. Coupling : Coupling refers to the strength of the relationship between
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modules in a system.
Good designers seek to develop the structure of a system so that one module has
little dependence on any other module. Loose coupling minimizes the
interdependence between modules. We can achieve this in the following ways :
Control the number of parameters passed between modules.
Avoid passing un-necessary data to called modules.
Pass data only when needed.
Maintain superior/subordinate relationship between calling and called
modules.
Pass data, not control information.
The objective is to maximize independence between modules by minimizing
coupling (reduce module coupling).
3. Cohesion : Modules should carry out a single processing function. In
cohesive systems, the contents of the. module are so designed that they
perform a specific function and are more easily understood by people than
system designed by other methods.
The objective is to maximize cohesion, Highly related elements should be in the
same module.
4. Span of Control : Span of Control refers to the number of subordinate
modules controlled by a calling module. In general, we should seek to have
no more than five to seven subordinate modules.
Excessive span of control, meaning a high number of subordinate modules,
creates considerable overheads in determining which module to invoke under
certain conditions and in establishing calling sequences to pass data and receive
results:
5. Module Size : The number of instructions contained in a module should be
limited so that module size is generally small.
In general, we should seek designs in which the modules forces on a single
purpose, are highly cohesive, and are loosely coupled.
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6. Shared Modules : Shared use results from the desire to have a certain
function, calculation, or type of precessing performed in one place in a system.
Sharing modules minimize the amount of software that must be designed and
written. It minimizes the number of changes that must be made during system
maintenance.
Constraints
The designer normally will work under following constraints.
1. Hardware : The existing hardware will affect system design.
2. Software : The available software (operating system, utilities, Language etc.)
in the market will constrain the design.
3. Budget : The budget allocated for the project will affect the scope and depth
of
Software Design and Documentation Tools
Well designed, modular software is more likely to meet the maintenance, reliability
and testing requirement. One of the tool is structured flowchart.
Structural Flowchart : Structured flowcharts, also called Nassi-Schnciderman
charts, are graphic tools that force the designer to structure software in modular
as well as top-down form. They provide a proper structure that can be retained by
the programmer for developing the application software.
The programmer should be expert in using the structured flowcharts.
The basic elements used in developing structured flowcharts are :
Process
Decision
Interaction
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Process : Simple processes or steps in a program are shown by a rectangular box,

the process symbol. This symbol represents initialisation of values, input and
output operations and calls for the execution of other procedures.
Decision : The decision symbol represents alternative conditions that can occur
and that the program must have a manner of handling. The decision symbol may
show actions for more than two alternatives at the same time.
Interaction : The iteration symbol represents looping and repetition of
operations while a certain condition exists or until a condition exists.
The structured flowcharts use no arrows or continuations on separate pages.
Each structured flowchart is shown on a single sheet of paper. When designing a
structured flowchart, the systems analyst specifies the logic in a top down fashion.
The first consideration in a process is the top element. The second in sequence is
next one shown and so forth. Similarly, there is a single exit from the process.
Design of Computer Output
The term output applies to any information produced by an information system,
whether printed or displayed. When analysts design computer output, they
Identify the specific output that is needed to meet the information requirements.
Select methods for presenting information.
Create document, report or other formats that contain information produced by
the system.
Output Objectives
The output from an information should accomplish one or more of the following
objectives :
1 Convey information about past activities, current status, or projection of the
future.
2. Tiger an action.
3. Signal important events, opportunities, problems or warnings.
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4. Confirm an action.
Types of Output
Whether the output is a formatted report or a simple listing of the contents of a
file, a computer process will produce the output.
System output may be :
1. A report
2. A document
3. A message
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Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Presentation of Output
PRESENTATION OF OUTPUT
There are many ways to present information in computer output.
1. Tabular Format
End-users are more accustomed to receiving information in tabular format.
Common examples of tabular reports are inventory control, accounts payable,
general ledger, sales analysis, and production scheduling reports.
The tabular format should be used under the following conditions :
Details dominate and few narrative comments or explanations are needed.
Details are .presented in discrete categories.
Each category must be labelled.
Totals must be drawn or comparisons made between components.
The first concern in designing output should be to ensure that un-necessary
details. are avoided. Next, should be to select features that will further enhance
reliability.
2. Graphic Format
Graphic systems are available across a wide range of prices and capabilities and
foi personal computers up to mainframes.
Graphics are used for several reasons :
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1. To improve the effectiveness of output reporting for the targeted recipients.

2. To manage information volume.
3. To suit personal preferences.
3. Using Icons
Icons are pictorial representations of entities described by the data. Icons are now
commonly used in computer interfaces to represent documents.
Icons offer many advantages over written description. Properly selected icons
communicate information immediately, since they duplicate images that users
are already familiar with. Icons eliminate the necessity for users to learn
abbreviations, notations, or special nomenclature.
4. Colour Piesentation
Colour facilities are also increasing in both large and small computer systems.
Colour should enhance, not replace, good output design. In fact, a good practice
for analysts is to first design the output in the best form possible. In general, using
four or fewer colours on the screen or report is recommended.
Output Design Consideration
Output to be produced depends upon the following consideration :
Type of user and purpose : Generally different levels of users will have different
requirements from the system. Some want exception reports (e.g., when sales fall
below a certain level), some want.summary reports (e.g., sales quantity and value
for each region) while some want details (e.g., list of invoices for a period)
Volume : Often sheer volume of the output deters one from using the
output. The sheer bulk of the report may also create problems for handling,
filing or printing time.
Format : This refers to the arrangement of data on the report, size of the
paper, titles, headlines, colour of the paper etc.
Content : The data that are needed to be included in the output. These will
be rested to the purpose of the output.
Quality : This relates to the content, appearance and accuracy of the output.
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Outputs generated for external users should be given special attention in

respect to its get up, quality of paper etc.
Sequence : The usefulness of an output very often depends on the sequence
of data printed. A proper sequence will also help distribution of outputs to
different users (e.g., pay-slips printed department-wish facilitates easier
payment).
Frequency and timing : At what frequency (daily, weekly, monthly, annually )
and when (after annual closing of accounts, after the end of the fiscal year,
before the last day of every month to)
Type of Stationery : Reports can be generated on ordinary blank stationery
or on specially printed stationery which is useful when most of the contents
of the output (e.g, Invoice, Pay-slips etc.) are constant.
Design of Output Reports
A report normally has the following structure.
A Report heading which generally appears only on the first page of the
report.
A Page heading and Subheading are given at the top of each page of the
report.
A set of records containing some common features may be grouped
together. Such a group is named a Control group. Control heading can be
named as for this group.
Factors to be Considered in Form Design
Form design plays an important role in data processing. Form must have the
appearance of a well conceived and attractive design. Some of the important
factors which should be taken care of are given below :
The form title must clearly identify its purpose. Columns and rows should be
labelled to avoid confusion.
Arrange the material in a logical order so that it becomes easy to fill
Special features like security and control are to be considered.
Size and shape of the form should be such that it is convenient for handling,
filling, sorting etc.
The form designer should design the form in such a way as to cover the
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specific needs of the purpose for which it is designed.

Introduce emphasis by shading columns, heavy lines, etc. If the form is to be
used for specific clerical operation, for example copying or checking, see that
the detail is arranged and spaced to provide maximum help to the
operation.
Precise contents should be recorded. Adequate and compact space should
be provided for items to be recorded. Pre-printed, entries should be taken
care of.
Form Control
Controlling the number as well as the quality of forms in an organisation can be a
substantial work. Forms have a tendency to multiply and unless they are checked,
it can be costly affair in many organisation. To control this, most large
organisations establish a formal forms control program :
Forms should be titled, numbered and contain the data of the most recent It
is quite helpful to have the form numbers organised so that all forms in a
given system can easily be located when that system is under study.
The objective of this is to establish standards. Different departments using
different forms to accomplish the same task is an unnecessary expense. The
job of forms control specialist is to eliminate redundancies among forms to
reduce electrical cost.
Normally, a form is designed originally by a systems analyst working with the
When the original supply of the form is reduced to a reorder level, a forms
control specialist is generally responsible for its reorder and possible
revision. The form is routed to the users for comments and suggest changes.
The forms controller coordinates these suggestions and orders the most
economical list. For routine office forms which are not likely to change
frequently a reorder of one years supply is normal.
The forms control specialist also seeks to reduce the number of copies of
each form used. Routing one copy of a form through several departments is
probably the best way to achieve this.
Computer Graphics
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When designing an information system, it should be considered carefully about

how the output can best be presented. It is mostly in the form of text output.
When it is not desired to present volumes of textual data but only summary of
data is required, the data are often best presented in graphical form. It saves time
also.
Presentation of data in graphic form has increased tremendously with the advent
of end-user computing, DBMS, electronic spreadsheets, sophisticated graphics
software and high-resolution output devices. It has the following benefits :
Easier recognition of relationships and trends.
Better presentation of output.
More effective conversion of data into information.
Capability of presenting ideas in an attractive format that may readily receive
Quick Decisions can be taken to make decisions.
Ability to focus attention on important issues.
Computer graphics bridge the gap between computer data and the human mind.
It is because they can absorb information more rapidly from an effective picture
than it can from words or numbers.
Computer graphics software can be divided into two categories :
1. Presentation Graphics : Presentation graphics are used to communicate
ideas to those who might by unfamiliar with a situation or who need a simple
but highly effective overview of a topic, e.g., It can be used by a sales person
to show a customer how several insurance policies compare, by a marketing
manager at a long range planning session to show the change in market
share between competitive products, or by manufacturing management at a
budget session to give an overview of the expected workload in the.next
quarter.
Those who used presentation graphics need a system that can
Produce a range of colour.
Reduce and enlarge illustrations.
Produce high-quality illustrations.
Allow the user to choose among a variety of print styles or fonts. The data
used in presentation graphics may come from different databases in the
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organisation, from. non-computer sources the organisation, and from

outside sources.
2. Decision Support Graphics : This is used as a vehicle for understanding
patterns, trends or relationships in data. Therefore, the quality of the
graphics, the type of presentation, and the source of data are quite different
from those of presentation graphics.
The colour and special graphical effects are not usually necessary.
The data usually come from spreadsheets, local databases, or the firms central
database. if the data is stored centrally, then the graphics system must be able to
access the data and use them to produce graphs with a minimum of user
involvement.
Graphics Hardware/Software
The hardware used in graphics system falls into several categories, including
graphic terminals, graphic boards, graphic printers, and interface devices.
In addition to hardware, a graphics system needs software. It is the software that
provides the capabilities of using different fonts, adjusting size of the fonts,
selecting colours, moving the image from one location on the screen to another,
incorporating graphics into the text, and supporting the use of interface devices.
Input Design
Once the analysis and design of the system has been done, it would be necessary
to identify the data that are required to be processed to produce the output.
Input is one of the most expensive phases of the operation of a computerised
system and creates sometimes a major problem. Different types of problems with
a system can usually be traced back to faulty input design method. Needless to
say, therefore, that the input data are the lifeblood of a system and have to be
analysed and designed. Input design features can ensure the reliability of the
system and generate correct reports from the accurate data.
Elements of Input Data
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Inaccurate input data are the most common cause of errors in data processing.
Errors entered by data entry operators can be controlled by input design. Input
data are collected and organized into groups of similar data. Once identified,
appropriate input media are selected for processing.
(a) Input Data : The goal of designing input data is to make data entry an easy,
logical and error free from errors as far as possible. In entering data, operators
need to know the following :
The allocated space for each field.
Field sequence, which must match that in the source document.
The format in which data fields are entered; for example, filling out the data
field is required through the edited format mm/dd/yy.
(b) Source Documents : Source data are captured initially on original paper or a
source document. Source documents initiate a processing cycle as soon as they
are entered into the system. Source documents may be entered into the system
from punch cards, from diskettes, or even directly through the keyboard. A source
document may or may not be retained in the proposed system. Thus, each source
document may be evaluated in terms of :
its continued use in the proposed system,
the extent of modification for the proposed system and
replacement by an alternative source document.
A source document should be logical and easy to understand. Each are in the
form should be clearly identified and should specify for the user what to write and
where to write it.
Input Media and Devices
Some data are input into the system in a variety of ways. The following media and
devices are suitable for operations :
Punch cards are either 80 or 96 columns wide. Data are arranged in a
sequential and logical order. Operators use a keypunch to copy data from
source documents onto cards. This means that the source documents onto
cards. This means that the source document and card design must be
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considered simultaneously.
Key-to-diskette is modelled after the keypunch process data on diskettes are
stored in sequence and in batches. The approach to source document and
diskette design is similar to that of the punch card. Data must be in
sequence and logically cohesive.
MICR translates the special fonts printed in magnetic ink on checks into
direct computer input.
Mark-sensing readers automatically converts pencil marks in predetermined
locations on a card to punched holes on the same card.
Optical character recognition (OCR) readers are similar to MICR readers,
except that they recognize pencil, ink or characters by their configuration
(shape) rather than their magnetic pattern. They are often used in remote
locations as free-standing input preparation devices or direct input media to
the system.
Optical bar code readers detect combination of marks that represent The
most widely known system is the Universal Product Code (UPC), which codes
retail items in stores. Automatic tag reading is the ideal way to collect unit
inventory information fast, accurately and economically.
Cathode-ray tube (CRT) screens are used for on-line data entry. CRT screen
generally display 80 characters simultaneously on a television-like screen.
They show as many as 24 lines of data.
In addition to determining record media, the analyst must decide on the method
of input and the speed of capturing and entering the data into the system.
Processing may be batched (a group of records handled as a unit), on-line
(records processed directly), sequential (sorted records), or random (unsorted).
For example, magnetic tape may be suitable for batch sequential processing,
whereas diskettes are ideal for on line processing and random enquiries.
Input Design Guidelines
The design of input play very significant role in getting the correct output. In
covers all phases of input from creation of initial data (original recording) to actual
entering the data to the system for processing. The input design is the link that
ties the information system into the world of its users.
The Objectives of input design are as follows :
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Controlling amount of input

Avoiding delay
Avoiding errors in data
Avoiding extra steps
Keeping the process simple
Each of the five objectives of input design is briefly discussed below :
(a) Controlling Amount of Data : An effective design controls the quantity of data
for input for the following reasons :
First, data preparation and data entry operations depend on people. Since labour
costs are high, the cost of preparing and entering data is also high. It is quite
evident, then, that reducing data requirements mean lowering costs through
reduced labour expense. Second, the input phase or computing can be a slow
process and take many times longer time than the needed by computers to carry
out their tasks. By reducing input requirements, the analyst will speed the entire
process from data capture to processing to provide results to users.
(b) Avoiding Delay : When processing is delayed owing to data preparation or
data entry, the cause is called a bottleneck. Avoid bottlenecks when designing
input should always be one of the objectives of the analyst.
(c) Avoiding Errors in Data : The third objective deals with errors the rate at
which errors occur is dependent on the quantity of data. Since the lower the
amount of data is input, there are fewer opportunities for the error to occur.
The analyst can reduce this number by reducing the volume of data that
must be entered for each transaction.
The analyst can also affect error rates of an operation through design. The
manner in which data must be entered can reduce the change of errors.
The need to detect errors when they do occur. Checks and balances in the
data entry programs, called input validation techniques, also detect errors in
input.
(d) Avoiding Extra Steps : Sometimes the volume for transactions and the
amount of data preparation or data entry jobs resulting from them cannot be
controlled.
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When the volume cannot be reduced, the analyst must be sure that the process is
efficient. The experienced analyst will also avoid input designs that cause extra
steps. So is the addition of a single step.
(e) Keeping the Process Simple : The best-designed system suits the people who
will use it in the way that is comfortable for them, and at the same time it
provides the error control methods, management acceptable to the users. In
contrast, one will have to work to get users to accept complex or confusing input
designs, and there is no guarantee he will succeed in installing and running
complex system. So it is advisable to avoid complexity when there are simple
alternatives.
(I) Major Concerns Regarding Input : Important points to be considered here are
as follows :
What input is needed ?
How and where is the input created ?
What format should be used for the input records ?
What medium should be used for recording the input ?
We will discuss each of the major input concerns briefly which are as follows :
The Inputs Needed
The input needed for any program is determined by the output desired. The
analyst must ask the following questions. What information is already in the
master file or database ? What constant data is required that can be entered from
some type of control record ? What information must be supplied by using some
type of transaction file ? What data should be stored in and accessed from tables ?
What information can be calculated by the program ?
Any time the use of a transaction file is being considered, or the data is to be
entered from a terminal, the analyst must check each field to determine whether
the data is already in a master file or might be included in a table. The analyst
must be concerned that all the data required to produce that output is entered
into the program in the most efficient and most-effective manner.
How and where data is generated
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How the data is generated, and where it is generated, has a direct impact. The
analyst should attempt to provide a reliable means of entering data directly into
the system. Data collection devices or special terminals can be used to enter
some of the data.
In a retail sales system, a type of scanner deviceBar Code Readers may be used
to read price tickets. When large sales are made, special readers are available that
make it possible to use the data stored on the customers charge card. Whenever
possible, the manual keeping of data should be eliminated. In a retail sales
application, the only variable data that a clerk might need to key in on a Point of
Sale (POS) Terminal having special key for various item categories is the quantity
of a given item that is purchased.
Railways Reservation System presents an input screen simply on entering the
Train code, Travel Class and Date of travel wherein if reservation is asked, the clerk
has to enter passengers details almost in same way as given by him in the
reservation slip.
Designing the source documents and the Input Format
The forms for the input records and the source documents should be determined
simultaneously.
The source document can be designed as soon as it is determined what data is
needed and where and how it is to be entered into the system. The design of the
documents should permit the personnel recording the data to do so as easily and
rapidly as possible. Check boxes can be used. Which reduce the time needed to fill
out documents and minimize recording errors. Take the case of Electricity bills. It
has two parts. The first is called MAIN on which cash/cheque receiving clerk
enters the amount received with details including the date and hands over to the
customer as a payment made by him. The second is called STUB which are
bundled together on day end and sent to Computercentre for data updating of
payments received from the customers for future accounting for case in
transcribing data into a machine-processable form, the locations for each field
with the record should be specified on the documents. Identical design of source
document and related Data Entry Input screen facilitates Data Entry Operators to
enter data at high speed since locations of data to be read are easily identified.
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The input record should be designed so that the flow of data on it is the same as
on the source document. This decreases the time needed to record data and also
reduces errors. The input format must be designed concurrently with the source
document. The factors that must be considered are record length, field size, use
of codes, and the relationship of the source document to the input record. When
a terminal is used to make the changes or to add new customers to the file, a
formatted screen should be designed that looks very much like the source
document.
The analyst must understand the characteristics of the data entering the system
and determine the field size that should be used. For example, if each customer is
assigned a number and the firm now has 994 customers, the analyst should allow
four positions for the field. If four positions are not reserved for the field, as soon
as more records are added, the field will not be large enough to handle the
account number. Field sizes are usually determined by studying historical data,
projecting future needs, and providing for growth.
Input Medium
An input method that requires a minimal amount of data conversion should be
selected. If punched-card recorders (keypunches), diskette recorders, key-to-key
tape recorders, or terminals are used, the data is usually recorded on a source
document and then transferred to the machine-processable medium (cards,
diskettes, tape, disk, or directly into a transaction file). In case of process control,
however, these media based programs directly control the target machines.
Input Verification and Control
If incorrect data enters the system, it is usually very costly to make the necessary
corrections.
There are many methods which are commonly used to verity data entering the
system as input. Some of the them are :
Key Verification : A second operator rekeys the data already recorded. This
method is used for verifying data recorded in punched cards or on diskettes
and magnetic Then two floppies are compared to correct record by record
which mismatched during comparison after verifying from the original
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documents. This is most effective method used by Computer Service

bureaus for data validation.
Use of Self-checking Number : The computer can be programmed to reject
numbers that have been transposed or have one or more wrong digits.
Check digits and self-checking number routines can be effectively used for
numbers in a series,. such as student roll numbers, account numbers, part
numbers, or invoice numbers,are popular for such jobs.
Visually Displaying an Identifying Characteristic : When using a terminal,
a part number is entered. Displayed in the VDT is description of the part,
which is then visually confirmed by the operator.
Hash Totals : Sometimes numbers are added to produce a meaningless
total called a hash total. For example, totalling is made of the quantity of all
items purchased. When the records are entered and processed, the hash
total is compared to the original If the two totals agree, it is an indication that
all quantities were entered correctly and all records were processed.
Checking between a Range of numbers : The numbers on the orders being
processed on a given day should fall between, say 4999 (the last number
from the previous day) and 6001 (the next order number that will be on all of
the orders processed by the next (day). If the order number recorded on the
input record does not fall within that range, an error message will be
generated.
Reasonableness Test : Based upon past history, some input can be checked
to see if it is reasonable. For example, because of long-standing company
policy, it is unlikely that any employee will have more than 20 hours of
overtime. If more than 20 hours of overtime are recorded in an employees
current transaction record, an error message will be generated as the data is
being edited. Similarly in Date of Birth field, it is checked that no date is
more that 31, month number is not more than 12 and the year is not more
that the current year or current year minus minimum age prescribed.
Verification of Codes : The pay and fringe benefits are calculated for
employees based upon their payroll status. Assuming that the valid status
code must be either an H (hourly), S (salaried), T (trainee), or a P (part-time),
an error message would be generated if the code used was not an H, S, T, or
P.
Verification of Data Type : Some input fields should contain only numeric
data while others should contain only alphabetic data. The fields can be
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edited to make sure that only the right type of data is recorded in each field.
Verification that certain combinations of data exist
For example, all students may be coded with either a W or a V. The V denotes a
non-work-study student while the W indicates that the student is on work-study.
The only valid account numbers for a work-study student are 2155 and 2156. Any
other account number for a W-coded student is invalid.
Sequence Check : If the numbers in the source documents are serial and the
documents are in order, the input records will also be in numerical
sequence. A check can be made by the program to determine whether the
records are in either ascending or descending order.
How to Layout Terminal Screen
Software is available that makes it easy to layout screens. The programmer keys in
the required format on the screen, gives the format a name and then stores the
format in a file. Whenever the format is to be used as a display in a program, it can
be called into the program by using its. name A programmer can also create
display screens within a program.
Designing of CRT-Input Display Screen : Special considerations are needed
for input designs in on-line environments. The analyst must design CRT
screens that tell the user what to do and what steps to take next that is easy
to understand. Menus are often used to present options to users and data
fields are marked to show their length while telling the user where to enter
the data. Data entry in on-line systems also includes the ability to edit data.
In each of these cases, valid entries must be identified and communicated to
programmers so that they develop the software to accept correct entries
and reject those that are invalid.
Basic Rules for CRT-Input Display Screens : There are a few basic rules that
must be followed in displaying information on a screened. The important
points to remember are :
Format the output so that it is easy to read. For example, dont clutter up the
screen with un-necessary information. Always display directions or error
messages in the same place on the screen, and leave space between items
so that the information is easy to read.
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Dont overuse colour. Often monitors that display information is colour are
used for terminals or for microcomputers. Carefully controlled use of colour
can make the information more understandable; uncontrolled use of colour
adds confusion.
Clear the entire screen between formats. There is usually a clear screen
command that can be used.
Test all screens. Have someone totally unfamiliar with the program to load
the program and enter the required data without using the help option
before same is released commercially.
Develop and use simple conventions such as having an operator enter a 1
or Y for a positive response to a question or a statement.
Make certain that all directions are clearly stated.
Prevent scrolling. Unless delays are coded into programs, information is
displayed on a VDT faster than most people can read. One screen of
information should be displayed at a time, When the operator. is ready,
specified key is depressed and a new screen of information is displayed.
Data Dictionaries
Data dictionary stores description of data items and structures as well as systems
processes. It is intended to be used to understand the system by analyst who
retrieves the details and descriptions it stores. He takes the help of data
dictionary during system design, when information about such concerns as data
length, alternate names and data use in particular processes must be available.
The data dictionaries have also validation information in storage to help of the
analysts in specifying controls for the systems acceptance of data. The dictionary
also contains definitions of data flows, data stores and processes. Data
dictionaries can be developed manually or using automated systems. Automated
systems offer the advantage of automatically producing data element, data
structure and process listings. They also perform cross-reference checking and
error detection. Automated dictionary systems are becoming the norm in the
development of computer information systems.
Major Concerns Regarding CRT-Input Screen Design
Major concerns regarding CRT-input screen designs are as follows :
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Improved processing speed

Menu driven screens
Emphasizing information on display screens
Colour use in screen design
Colour selection
Editing through display screens
We will discuss each of them below :
Ease of Use : One of the most common approaches in designing easy-to-use
CRT screen displays is the fill-in-the-blank approach. The analyst simply
formats the initial input display so that all the required data elements are
clearly labelled and a space is provided for data entry. The display should be
designed and all descriptions and error messages should be meaningful in
clear statements. In other words, care should be taken to avoid symbols and
over abbreviations.
Improved Processing Speed : Some of the ways to reduce data entry
requirements include :
Designing the screen display so that responses can be abbreviated (for
example, entering Y instead of Yes).
Designing the screen format so that the order of data entry is consistent
with the business transaction. This feature eliminates unnecessary tabbing
around the screen
Designing the screen format so that data can be changed are unprotected
and data that cannot be or should not be changed are protected.
Using terminals that have additional application-specific features (for
example, a number pad be helpful for accounting systems, Point of Sale
Terminals in Hotels, Super bazaars etc.)
Menu Driven Screens : Since on-line systems provide several input and
processing options to users, a method of showing the options the user can
choose from them which is needed. Menus serve this purpose. A menu, is a
screen of information displayed on the CRT that shows the user what
functions can be performed and how to select them.
Menus that provide selection to users in a top-down fashion ensure that systems
are easy to use, while making the choice of what to do next should be a simple
procedure. The system leads the user through a series of decisions until the
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correct procedure is selected.

Analysts and users alike prefer them to write instructions or the display of
narrative information on the screen.
Emphasizing Information on Display Screens : Often the analyst will use
features built into hardware and software to call information or messages to
the attention of users. For example, error messages or reports of
unacceptable actions (such as submitting invalid data or asking the system
to perform a function now expected by theprogram) are best displayed by
using one of the emphasis techniques listed below. Likewise, when the user
enters data for processing, the analyst may display a message informing the
user the data has been accepted and processing has begun.The methods of
emphasis that many systems offer are :
Blinking
Underlining
Increased/reduced light intensity
Inverse video (black letters on light screen)
(E) Colour Use in Screen Design : When large amounts of information must
be presented on a display screen, the analyst may use colour to provide
between structure and meaning to the.information. Related items can be
tied together by colour so the user can spot them more quickly.
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File Design/ Database Design - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
File Design/ Database Design

FILE DESIGN/ DATABASE DESIGN
Database design is the process of producing a detailed data model of a database.
This logical data model contains all the needed logical and physical design choices
and physical storage parameters needed to generate a design in a Data Definition
Language, which can then be used to create a database. A fully attributed data
model contains detailed attributes for each entity.
The term database design can be used to describe many different parts of the
design of an overall database system. Principally, and most correctly, it can be
thought of as the logical design of the base data structures used to store the data.
In the relational model these are the tables and views. In an Object database the
entities and relationships map directly to object classes and named relationships.
However, the term database design could also be used to apply to the overall
process of designing, not just the base data structures, but also the forms and
queries used as part of the overall database application within the Database
Management System or DBMS.
All information systems create, read, update, and delete data. This data is stored
in files and databases. A file is a collection of similar records. Examples include a
CUSTOMER FILE, ORDER FILE, and PRODUCT FILE. A database is a collection of
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interrelated files. A database is not merely a collection of files. The records in each
file must allow for relationships to the records in other files. For example, a SALES
database might contain order records that are linked to their corresponding
CUSTOMER and PRODUCT records.
There is a fundamental difference between the file and database environments. In
the file environment, data storage is built around the applications that will use the
files. In the database environment, applications will be built around the integrated
database.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Conventional Files
In most organizations, many existing information systems and applications are
built around conventional files. Conventional files are relatively easy to design and
implement becauSe they are normally designed for use with a single application
or information system, such as ACCOUNT RECEIVABLE or PAYROLL. If the end
users output requirements are clearly understood, then the data that will be have
to be captured and stored to produced those outputs can be easily determined
and the best file organization for those requirements can be defined.
Another advantage of conventional files has been processing speed. They can be
optimized for the access of the application. At the same time, they can rarely be
optimized for shared use by different applications or systems.
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Conventional files also have numerous disadvantages. Duplication of data items in

multiple files is normally cites as the principal disadvantage of file-based systems.
Files tend to be built around single applications without regard to other
applications. Over time, because many applications have common data needs, the
common data elements get stored redundantly in many different files. This
duplicate data results in duplicate inputs, duplicate maintenance, duplicate
storage and possibly data integrity problems. A significant disadvantage of files is
their inflexibility and non-scalability. Files are typically designed to support a single
applications current requirements and programs. Future needs such as new
reports and queries often require that these files be restructured because the
original file structure cannot effectively or efficiently support the new
requirements. Thus, the inflexibility and redundancy problems tend to complicate
one another.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Databases
The principal advantage of databases is the ability to share the same data across
multiple applications and systems. Most organizations build several databases,
each one sharing data with several information systems. Thus, there will be some
redundancy between databases. However, this redundancy is both greatly
reduced and controlled. Database technology offers the advantage of storing
data. in flexible formats. This is possible because databases are defined separately
from the information systems and application programs that will use them. This
allows us to use the data in ways not originally specified by the end users. If the
database is well-designed, different combinations of the same data can be easily
accessed to fulfill future report and query needs.
Database technology provides superior scalability, that is, the database and the
systems that use it can be grown or expanded to meet the changing needs of an
organization. Database technology provides better technology for client/server
and network computing architectures. Such architectures require that the
database run on its own server. Database technology is more complex than file
technology. Special software called a database management software (DBMS) is
required. It requires a significant investment. The cost of developing databases is
higher because analysts and programmers must learn how to use the DBMS.
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Another problem with the database approach is the increased vulnerability

inherent in the use of shared data. Therefore, backup and recovery and security
and privacy. become important issues.
Relational Database Management Systems : There are several types of
database management systems. They can be classified according to the way they
structure records. Early database management systems organized records in
hierarchies or networks implemented with indexes and linked lists. Relational
databases implement data in a series of two-dimensional tables that are related
to one another via foreign keys. Each table consists of named columns and any
number of un-named rows.
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Database Design - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Database Design
DATABASE DESIGN
Historically files have been designed based on specific application. Payroll files are
created containing all the data pertinent to a companys payroll system.
Similarly,individual files are created for use with the companys personnel,
accounts receivable, inventory, and other systems. If the data contained on these
files are not carefully delineated, it is very much likely that the same data will
appear on several of these files. In other words, these files would contain
redundant data. For example, both a companys personnel file and payroll file
could contain the name and address of each employee. This would mean that a
simple change of address would have to be processed twice and possibly three or
four times, depending on the number of other files on which these data appear.
Clearly, it would be more practical to have each employees name and address on
one file from which it can be accessed by all pro6Lams requiring these data. This
would reduce the amount of redundant data and minimise the possibility that
data contained on a file might be inaccurate. This is but one of the reasons that
database technology was developed.
A database can be thought of as a set of logically related files organised to
facilitate access by one or more application programs and to minimise data
redundancy. In other words, a database can be defined as a stored collection of
data, organised on the basis of relationships in the data rather than the
convenience of storage structures. It is not a replacement of files.
Some general objectives in establishing a database are as follows,
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Eliminate redundant data as much as possible.

Integrate existing data files.
Share data among all users.
Incorporate changes easily and quickly.
Simplify the use of data files.
Lower the cost of storing and retrieving data
Improve accuracy and consistency
Provide data security from unauthorised use
Exercise central control over standards.
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Determining Data to be Stored - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Determining Data to be Stored

DETERMINING DATA TO BE STORED
In a majority of cases, the person who is doing the design of a database is a
person with expertise in the area of database design, rather than expertise in the
domain from which the data to be stored is drawn e.g. financial information,
biological information etc. Therefore the data to be stored in the database must
be determined in cooperation with a person who does have expertise in that
domain, and who is aware of what data must be stored within the system.
This process is one which is generally con5idesed part of requirements analysis,
and requires skill on the part of the database designer to elicit the needed
information from those with the domain knowledge. This is because those with
the necessary domain knowledge frequently cannot express clearly what their
system requirements for the database are as, they are unaccustomed to thinking
in terms of the discrete data elements which must be stored. Data to be stored
can be determined by Requirement Specification.
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Conceptual Schema - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Conceptual Schema
CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA
Once a database designer is aware of the data which is to be stored within the
database, they must then determine how the various pieces of that data relate to
one another. When performing this step, the designer is generally looking out for
the dependencies in the data, where one piece of information is dependent upon
another, i.e., when one piece of information changes, the other will also. For
example, in a list of names and addresses, assuming the normal situation where
two people can have the same address, but one person cannot have two
addresses, the name is dependent upon the address, because if the address is
different then the associated name is different too. However, the inverse is not
necessarily true, i.e., when the name changes address may be the same.
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Logically Structuring Data - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Logically Structuring Data

LOGICALLY STRUCTURING DATA
Once the relationships and dependencies amongst the various pieces of
information have been determined, it is possible to arrange the data into a logical
structure which can then be mapped into the storage objects supported by the
database management system. In the case of relational databases the storage
objects are tables which store data in rows and columns.
Each table may represent an implementation of either a logical object or a
relationship joining one or more instances of one or more logical objects.
Relationships between tables may then be stored as links connecting child tables
with parents. Since complex logical relationships are themselves tables they will
probably have links to more than one parent.
In an Object database the storage objects correspond directly to the objects used
by the Object-oriented programming language used to write the applications that
will manage and access the data. The relationships may be defined as attributes of
the object classes involved or as methods that operate on the object classes.
Physical Database Design
The. physical design of the database specifies the physical configuration of the
database on the storage media. This includes detailed specification of data
elements, data types, indexing options, and other parameters residing in the
DBMS data dictionary.
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Logically Structuring Data - System Analysis And Design
http://www.systemanalysisanddesigns.com/logically-structuring-data/
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Goals and Prerequisites of Database Design - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Goals and Prerequisites of Database

Design
GOALS AND PREREQUISITES OF DATABASE DESIGN
The goals of database design are as follows :
A database should provide for the efficient storage, update and retrieval of
data.
A database should be reliable- the stored data should have high integrity to
promote user trust in the data.
A database should be adaptable and scalable to new and unforeseen
requirements and applications.
A database should support the business requirements of the information
system.
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File Organisation - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
File Organisation
FILE ORGANISATION
A file is organised to ensure that records are available for processing. Before a file
is created, the application to which the file will be used must be carefully
examined. Clearly, a fundamental consideration in this examination will concern
the data to be recorded on the file. But an equally important and less obvious
consideration concerns how the data are to be placed on the file.
(A) Sequential : It is the simplest method-to store and retrieve data from a file.
Sequential organisation simply means storing and sorting in physical form on
tape or disk. In a sequential organisation a record can be added only at the end of
the file. That is, in a sequential tile, records are stored one after the other without
concern for the actual value of the data in the records. It is not possible to insert a
record in the middle of the file without re-writing the file. In a sequential file
update, transaction records are in the same sequence as in the master file.
Records from both files are matched, one record at a time, resulting in an
updated master file.
It is a characteristic of sequential files that all records are stored by position; the
first one is at the first position, the second one occupies the second position and
third is at third and so on. There are no addresses or location assignments in
sequential files.
To read a sequential file, the system always starts at the beginning of the file. If the
record sought is somewhere in the file, the system reads its ways upto it, one
record at a time.
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Using the key field, in a sequential file the records have been arranged into
ascending or descending order according to a key field. This key field may be
numeric, alphabetic, or a combination.of both, but it must occupy the same place
in each record, as it forms the basis for determining the order in which the
records will appear on the file. The advantages and disadvantages of the
Sequential File organisation are given below :
Advantages
1. Simple to understand this approach
2. Locating a record requires only the record key.
3. Efficiency and economical if the activity rate is high.
4. Relatively inexpensive I/O media and devices may be used.
5. Files may be relatively easy to reconstruction since a good measure of built
in backup is usually available.
Disadvantages
1. Entire file must be processed even when the activity rate is low.
2. Transactions must be sorted and placed in sequence prior to processing.
3. Timeliness of data in file deteriorates while batches are being accumulated.
4. Data redundancy is typically high since the same data may be stored in
several files sequenced on different keys.
(B) Random or Direct
For a proposed system, when the sequential files are assumed as a disadvantages,
another file organisation called Direct organisation is used. As with a sequential
file, each record in a direct file must contain a key field. However, the records need
not appear on the file in key field sequence. In addition any record stored on a
direct file can be accessed if its location or address is known. All previous records
need not to be accessed. The problem, however, is to determine how to store the
data records so that given the key field of the desired record, its storage location
on the field can be determined. In other words, if the program known the record
key, it can determine the location address of a record and retrieve it
independently of any other records in the file.
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It would be ideal if the key field could also be the location of the record on the file.
This method is known as direct addressing method. This is quite simple method
but the requirements of this method often prevent its use.
Therefore, before a direct organised file can be created, a formula or method
must be devised to convert the key field value for a record to the addreSs or
location of the record on the field. This formula or method is generally called an
algorithm. Otherwise called the Hashing addressing. Hashing refers to the process
of deriving a storage address from a record key. There are many algorithms to
determine the storage location using key field. One of the algorithm is :
Division by Prime
In this procedure, the actual key is divided by any prime number. Here the
modular division is used, that is, quotient is discarded and the storage location is
signified by the remainder. If the key field consists of large number of digits, for
instance, 10 digits (e.g., 2345632278), then strip off the first or last 4 digits and then
apply the division by prime method.
The advantages and disadvantages of direct file organisation are as follows :
Advantages
1. Immediate access to records for enquiry and updating purposes is possible.
2. Immediate updating of several files as a result of single transaction is
possible.
3. Time taken for sorting the transactions can be saved.
Disadvantages
1. Records in the on-line file may be exposed, the risk of a loss of accuracy and
a procedure for special backup and reconstruction is required.
2, As compared to sequentially organised, this may be less efficient in using the
storage space.
3. Adding and deleting of records is more difficult than with sequential files.
Relatively expensive hardware and software resources are required.
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(C) Indexed
The third way of accessing records stored in the system is through an index. The
basic form of an index includes a record key and the storage address for a record.
To find a record, when the storage address is unknown it is necessary to scan the
records. However, if an index is used, the search will be faster since it takes less
time to search an index than an entire file of data.
To find a specific record when the file is stored under an indexed organisation, the
index is searched first to find the key of the record wanted. When it is found, the
corresponding storage address is noted and then the program can access the
record directly. This method uses a sequential scan of the index, followed by
direct access to the appropriate record. The index helps to speed up the search
compared with a sequential file, but it is slower than the direct addressing.
The indexed files are generally maintained on magnetic disk or on a mass storage
system. The primary differences between direct and indexed organised files are as
follows :
Direct organised files utilise an algorithm to determine the location of a record,
whereas indexed organised files utilize and index to locate a record to be
randomly accessed. The advantages and disadvantages of indexed sequential file
organisation are as follows :
Advantages
1. Permits the efficient and economical use of sequential processing
techniques when the activity rate is high.
2. Permits quick access to records in a relatively efficient way. This activity is a
small fraction of the total workload.
Disadvantages
1. Less efficient in the use of storage space than some other alternatives.
2. Access to records may be slower using indices than when transform
algorithms are used.
3. Relatively expensive hardware and software resources are required.
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February 11, 2016
Database Design
DATABASE DESIGN
Historically files have been designed based on specific application. Payroll files are
created containing all the data pertinent to a companys payroll system.
Similarly,individual files are created for use with the companys personnel,
accounts receivable, inventory, and other systems. If the data contained on these
files are not carefully delineated, it is very much likely that the same data will
appear on several of these files. In other words, these files would contain
redundant data. For example, both a companys personnel file and payroll file
could contain the name and address of each employee. This would mean that a
simple change of address would have to be processed twice and possibly three or
four times, depending on the number of other files on which these data appear.
Clearly, it would be more practical to have each employees name and address on
one file from which it can be accessed by all pro6Lams requiring these data. This
would reduce the amount of redundant data and minimise the possibility that
data contained on a file might be inaccurate. This is but one of the reasons that
database technology was developed.
A database can be thought of as a set of logically related files organised to
facilitate access by one or more application programs and to minimise data
redundancy. In other words, a database can be defined as a stored collection of
data, organised on the basis of relationships in the data rather than the
convenience of storage structures. It is not a replacement of files.
Some general objectives in establishing a database are as follows,
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Eliminate redundant data as much as possible.

Integrate existing data files.
Share data among all users.
Incorporate changes easily and quickly.
Simplify the use of data files.
Lower the cost of storing and retrieving data
Improve accuracy and consistency
Provide data security from unauthorised use
Exercise central control over standards.
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Schema - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Schema
SCHEMA
Once a database system has been designed, it will be possible to identify each
type of data item, data aggregate, record and set by a name or code. It will be
possible to state which data item types go together to make data aggregate types
and record types. A coded set of tables describing this information and stored in
the computer system on direct access devices is called a Schema. It is a
description of the data structure which s separate from the data itself. The
schema describes the areas, their identifiers and page sizes, and indicates how
these are related to records and sets. In other systems, a different set of tables is
used for this.
The schema, therefore, is the view of the data, the overall logical data structure
which is held by the DBMS. Each time a program requires data, the DBMS will look
up in the schema for the details of the structure of the data requested. For
example, if the program requires. occurrence of a set, the DBMS will look up in the
schema which record types are
required, how to find the relevant records given a certain key by the program, and
perhaps also which areas the pages containing the relevant data are stored in.
SubSchema
In a database system, it is not always possible to allow programmers to write the
data division of their choice for reasons of security or control. It is more useful to
provide the programmer with a standard description of the logical data to be
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used in a particular application. All references to data within the program will be
for this description, which is called a Subschema and is similar to the Schema in
structure. The DBMS has the job of matching data requests on a subschema and
data requests based on the schema.
Database System Architecture
The architecture was proposed by ANSI/SPARC study group of
The knowledge of this architecture is extremely useful in describing general
database concept and structure of individual system.
Major purchase of a database system is to provide the users with an abstract
view of data, e., the system hides certain things like how the data is stored
and maintained. But on the other part, data must be retrieved efficiently in
order to make the system usable.
Since many database end users are not computer trained, the complexity
hidden from them in order to simplify their interaction with the system is
through three levels of abstraction.
(1) Physical Level (Internal Level)
This is the lowest level of data which describes how the data are actually
stored and organized on the medium. It describes the complete details of
data storage and access paths for the database.
In other words, it has the definition of the records stored and methods of
representing the data fields.
(2) Conceptual Level (Global Level)
It deals with data actually stored in the database. It describes the structure
of the whole database for users in terms of relatively small structures.
There is on conceptual scheme per database, which also contains the
method of
driving the objects in the conceptual view from the objects in the internal
view.
It describes all the records and relationship included in the conceptual view.
(3) External Level (View Level)
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It describes only.part of the database of concern to application program.

It consists of definitions of logical records and the relationships in the
external view.
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Data Models - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Data Models
DATA MODELS
Definition : A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data,
their relationships, data semantics and consistency constraints.
(1) Record Based Logical Models
Relational
Network
Hierarchical
Physical Data Models
Object Based Logical Models
ER model
Object Oriented Model
(1) Hierarchical Model
It organises data in a tree structure.
There is a hierarchy of a parent and child data segments. This segment
implies that a record can have repeating information, generally in the child
data segment.
Here the data and relationships among data are represented by records and
links
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The record are organized as collection of trees rather than arbitrary graphs.
(2) Relational Model

It represents data and relationships among data by a collection of tables, each of
which has a number of columns with unique names.
(3) Network Model

Data in the Network model are represented by collection of records and
relationships among data are represented by links which can be viewed as
pointers.
The records in the database are organized as collection of arbitrary graphs.
It permits M : N relationship.
(4) Object-Based Logical Model
They are used in describing data at the conceptual and view levels. examples are :
E-R Model
Object-oriented Model.
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(a) E-R-Model :
it is based on the perception of a real world which consists of a collection of
basic objects called entities and relationships among these objects.
An entity is an object that is distinguishable from other objects by a specific
set of attributes.
A relationship is an association among several entities.
The set of all entities of same type and relationships of same type are
termed as entity set and relationship set respectively.
The overall logical structure of database can be expressed graphically by an E-Rdiagram.
(b) Object-Oriented Model
It is based on a collection of objects.
And object has :
A set of variables that contains the data for object. The value of each
variable is itself an object.
A set of messages to which an object responds.
A method, which is a body of code to implement each message. A method
returns a value as the response to the message.
The objects that contain the same type of values and same methods are grouped
together into classes. A class may be viewed as a type definition for objects.
(3) Physical Data Models
Physical data models are used to describe data at the lowest level.
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User Interface Design - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
User Interface Design

USER INTERFACE DESIGN
User interface design or user interface engineering is the design of computers,
appliances, machines, mobile communication devices, software applications, and
websites with the focus on the users experience and interaction. Where
traditional graphic design seeks to make the object or application physically
attractive, the goal of user interface design is to make the users interaction as
simple and efficient as possible, in terms of accomplishing user goals-what is often
called user-centered design.
Where good graphic/industrial design is bold and eye catching, good user
interface design is to facilitate finishing the task at hand over drawing attention to
itself. Graphic design may be utilized to apply a theme or style to the interface
without compromising its usability. The design process of an interface must
balance the meaning of its visual elements that confirm the model of operation,
and the functionality from a technical engineering perspective, in order to create a
system that is both usable and easy to adapt to the changing user needs.
User Interface design is involved in a wide range of projects from computer
systems, to cars, to commercial plans; all of these projects involve much of the
same basic human interaction yet also require some unique skills and knowledge.
As a result, user interface designers tend to specialize in certain types of projects
and have skills centered around their expertise, whether that be software design,
user research, web design, or industrial design.
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User Interface Design - System Analysis And Design
http://www.systemanalysisanddesigns.com/user-interface-design/
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Processes - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Processes
PROCESSES
There are several phases and processes in the user interface design some of
which are
more demanded upon than others depending on the project which are as follows:
Functionality requirements gathering : Assembling a list of the
functionality required of the system to accomplish the goals of the project
and the potential needs of the users.
User analysis : Analysis of the potential users of the system either through
discussion with people who work with the users and/or the potential users
themselves. Typical questions involve:
What would the user want the system to do?
How would the system fit in with the users normal workflow or daily
activities?
How technically savvy is the user and what similar systems does the user
already use?
What interface look & feel styles appeal to the user?
Information architecture Development of the process and/or information
flow of the system (i.e. for phone tree systems, this would be an option tree
flowchart and for web sites this would be a site flow that shows the hierarchy
of the pages).
Prototyping Development of wireframes, either in the form of paper
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Processes - System Analysis And Design
prototypes or simple interactive screens. These prototypes are stripped of

all look & feel elements and most content in order to concentrate on the
interface.
Usability testing Testing of the prototypes on an actual user-often using a
technique called talk aloud protocol where you ask the user to talk about
their thoughts during the experience.
Graphic Interface design Actual look and feel design of the final graphical
user interface (GUI). It may be based on the findings developed during the
usability testing if usability is unpredictable, or based on communication
objectives and styles that would appeal to the user. In rare cases, the
graphics may drive the prototyping, depending on the importance of visual
form versus If the interface requires multiple skins, there may be multiple
interface designs for one control panel or functional feature. This phase is
often a collaborative effort between a graphic designer and a user interface
designer, or handled by one who is proficient in both disciplines.
User interface design needs good understanding of user needs.
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Prototyping - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Prototyping
PROTOTYPING
Prototyping is the process of quickly putting together a working model (a
prototype) in order to test various aspects of a design, illustrate ideas or features
and gather early user feedback. Prototyping is often treated as an integral part of
the system design process, where it is believed to reduce project risk and cost.
Often one or more prototypes are made in a process of iterative and incremental
development where each prototype is influenced by the performance of previous
designs, in this way problems or deficiencies in design can be corrected. When the
prototype is sufficiently refined and meets the functionality, robustness,
manufacturability and other design goals, the product is ready for production.
Prototyping is the process of building a model of a system. In terms of an
information system, prototypes are employed to help system designers build an
information system that intuitive and easy to manipulate for end users.
Prototyping is an iterative process that is part of the analysis phase of the systems
development life cycle. During the requirements determination portion of the
systems analysis phase, system analysts gather information about the
organizations current procedures and business processes related the proposed
information system. In addition, they study the current information system, if
there is one, and conduct user interviews and collect documentation. This helps
the analysts develop an initial set of system requirements.
Prototyping can augment this process because it converts these basic, yet
sometimes intangible, specifications into a tangible but limited working model of
the desired information system. The user feedback gained from developing a
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physical system that the users can touch and see facilitates an evaluative
response that the analyst can employ to modify existing requirements as well as
developing new ones.
Prototyping comes in many forms from low tech sketches or paper screens from
which users and developers can paste controls and objects, to high tech
operational systems using CASE (computer-aided software engineering) or fourth
generation languages and everywhere in between. Many organizations use
multiple prototyping tools. For example, some will use paper in the initial analysis
to facilitate concrete user
feedback and then later develop an operational prototype using fourth generation
languages, such as Visual Basic, during the design stage.
The process of prototyping involves the following steps :
1. Identify basic requirements : Determine basic requirements including the
input and output information desired. Details such as security, can typically
be ignored.
2. Develop Initial Prototype : The initial prototype is developed that includes
only user interfaces.
3. Review : The customers, including end-users, examine the prototype and
provide feedback on additions or changes.
4. Revise and Enhancing the Prototype : Using the feedback both the
specifications and the prototype can be improved. Negotiation about what is
within the scope of the contract/product may be necessary. If changes are
introduced then a repeat of steps 3 and step 4 may be needed.
Types of prototyping
Software prototyping has many variants. However, all the methods are in some
way based on two major types of prototyping : Throwaway Prototyping and
Evolutionary Prototyping.
Throwaway prototyping
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Throwaway or Rapid Prototyping refers to the creation of a model that will

eventually be discarded rathey than becoming part of the finally delivered
software. After preliminary requirements gathering is accomplished, a simple
working model of the system is constructed to visually show the users what their
requirements may look like when they are implemented into a finished system.
Rapid Prototyping involved creating a working model of various parts of the
system at a very early stage, after a relatively short investigation. The method
used in building it is usually quite informal, the most important factor being the
speed with which the model is provided. The model then becomes the starting
point from which users can re-examine their expectations and clarify their
requirements. When this has been achieved, the prototype model is thrown
away, and the system is formally developed based on the identified.
requirements. The most obvious reason for using Throwaway Prototyping is that
it can be done quickly. If the users can get quick feedback on their requirements,
they may be able to refine them early in the development of the software. Making
changes early in the development life cycle is extremely cost effective since there
is nothing at that point to re-do. If a project is changed after a considerable work
has been done then small changes could require large efforts to implement since
software systems have many dependencies. Speed is crucial in implementing a
throwaway prototype, since with a limited budget of time and money little can be
expended on a prototype that will be discarded.
Another strength of Throwaway Prototyping is its ability to construct interfaces
that the users can test. The user interface is what the user sees as the system, and
by seeing it in front of them, it is much easier to grasp how the system will work.
In this approach the prototype is constructed with the idea that it will be
discarded and the final system will be built from scratch. The steps in this
approach are :
1. Write preliminary requirements
2. Design the prototype
3. User experiences/uses the prototype,specifies new requirements.
4. Writing final requirements
5. Developing the real product.
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Evolutionary Prototyping - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Evolutionary Prototyping
EVOLUTIONARY PROTOTYPING
Evolutionary Prototyping is quite different from Throwaway Prototyping. The main
goal when using Evolutionary Prototyping is to build a very robust prototype in a
structured manner and constantly refine it. The reason for this is that the
Evolutionary prototype, when built, forms the heart of the new system, and the
improvements and further requirements will be built. When developing a system
using Evolutionary Prototyping, the system is continually refined and rebuilt. This
technique allows the development team to add features, or make changes that
couldnt be conceived during the requirements and design phase.
Evolutionary Prototyping have an advantage over Throwaway Prototyping in that
they are functional systems. Although they may not have all the features the users
have planned, they may be used on an interim basis until the, final system is
delivered. It is not unusual within a prototyping environment for the user to put
an initial prototype to practical use while waiting for a more developed
version.The user may decide that a flawed system is better than no system at all
In Evolutionary Prototyping, developers can focus themselves to develop parts of
the system that they understand instead of working on developing a whole
system. To minimize risk, the developer does not implement poorly understood
features. The partial system is sent to customer sites. As users work with the
system, they detect opportunities for new features and give requests for these
features to developers. Developers then take these enhancement requests along
with their own and use sound configuration-management practices to change the
software-requirements specification, update the design, recode and retest.
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Best Projects to Use Prototyping

It has been argued that prototyping, in some form or another, should be used all
the time. However, protttyping is most beneficial in systems that will have many
interactions with the users.
It has been found that prototyping is very effective in the analysis and design of
on-line systems, especially for transaction processing, where the use of screen
dialogs is much more in evidence. The greater the interaction between the
computer and the user, the greater the benefit is that can be obtained from
building a qui.ck system and letting the user play with it.
Systems with little user interaction, such as batch processing or systems that
mostly do calculations, benefit little from prototyping. Sometimes, the coding
needed to perform the system functions may be too intensive and the potential
gains that prototyping could provide are too small.
Prototyping is especially good for designing good human-computer interfaces.
One of the most productive uses of rapid prototyping to date has been as a tool
for iterative user requirements engineering and human-computer interface
design.
Advantages of Prototyping
There are many advantages to using prototyping in software development which
are as follows :
1. Reduced time and costs: Prototyping can improve the quality of
requirements and specifications provided to developers. Because changes
cost exponentially more to implement as they are detected later in
development, the early determination of what the user really wants can
result in faster and less expensive software.
2. Improved and increased user involvement: Prototyping requires user
involvement and allows them to see and interact with a prototype allowing
them to provide better and more complete feedback and specifications. The
presence of the prototype being examined by the user prevents many
misunderstandings and miscommunications that occur when each side
believe the other understands what they Since users know the problem
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domain better than anyone on the development team does, increased

interaction can result in final product that has greater tangible and
intangible quality. The final product is more likely to satisfy the users desire
for look, feel and performance.
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Disadvantages of Prototyping - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Disadvantages of Prototyping
DISADVANTAGES OF PROTOTYPING
Using, or perhaps misusing, prototyping can also have disadvantages:
1. Insufficient analysis : The focus on a limited prototype can distract
developers from properly analyzing the complete project. This can lead to
overlooking better solutions, preparation of incomplete specifications or the
conversion of limited prototypes into poorly engineered final projects that
are hard to maintain. Further, since a prototype is limited in functionality it
may not scale well if the prototype is used as the basis of a final deliverable,
which may not be noticed if developers are too focused on building a
prototype as a.
2. User confusion of prototype and finished system : Users can begin to
think that a prototype, intended to be thrown away, is actually a final system
that merely needs to be finished or polished. (They are, for example, often
unaware of the effort needed to add error-checking and security features
which a prototype may not have.) This can lead them to expect the prototype
to accurately model the performance of the final system when this is not the
intent of the developers. Users can also become attached to features that
were included in a prototype for consideration and then removed from the
specification for a final system. If users are able to require all proposed
features be included in the final system this can lead to feature creep.
3. Developer attachment to prototype : Developers can also become.
attached to prototypes they have spent a great deal of effort producing; this
can lead to problems like attempting to convert a limited prototype into a
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Disadvantages of Prototyping - System Analysis And Design
final system when it does not have an appropriate underlying architecture.

4. Excessive development time of the prototype : A key property to
prototyping is the fact that it is supposed to be done quickly. If the
developers lose sight of this fact, they very well may try to develop a
prototype that is too complex. When the prototype is thrown away the
precisely developed requirements that it provides may not yield a sufficient
increase in productivity to make up for the time spent developing the
prototype. Users can become stuck in debates over details of the prototype,
holding up the development team and delaying the final product.
5. Expense of implementing prototyping : The start up costs for building a
development team focussed on prototyping may be high. Many companies
have development methodologies in place, and changing them can mean
retraining, retooling, or both. Many companies tend to just jump into the
prototyping without bothering to retrain their workers as much as they
should.
A common problem with adopting prototyping technology is high expectations for
productivity with insufficient effort behind the learning curve. In addition to
training for the use of a prototyping technique, there is an often overlooked need
for developing corporate and project specific underlying structure to support the
technology. When this underlying structure is omitted, lower productivity can
often result.
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Documentation - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Documentation
DOCUMENTATION
Software documentation is written text that accompanies computer software. It
either explains how it operates or how to use it, and may mean different things to
people in different roles.
Types
Documentation is an important part of software engineering. Types of
documentation include :
Architecture/Design Overview of software. Includes relations to an
environment and construction principles to be used in design of software
Technical Documentation of code, algorithms, interfaces, and APIs.
End User Manuals for the end-user, system administrators and support
staff.
Marketing Product briefs and promotional collateral.
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Architecture/Design Documentation - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Architecture/Design Documentation
ARCHITECTURE/DESIGN DOCUMENTATION.
Architecture documentation is a special breed of design documents. These
documents do not describe how to program a particular routine, or even why that
particular routine exists in the form that it does, but instead merely lays out the
general requirements that would motivate the existence of such a routine. A good
architecturedocument is short on details but thick on explanation. It may suggest
approaches for lower level design, but leave the actual exploration trade studies
to other documents.
Another breed of design does is the comparison document, or trade study. This
would often take the form of a whitepaper. It focuses on one specific aspect of the
system and suggests alternate approaches. It could be at the user interface, code,
design, or even architectural level. It will outline what the situation is, describe one
or more alternatives, and enumerate the pros and cons of each. A good trade
study document is heavy on research, expresses its idea clearly, and most
importantly is impartial. It should honestly and clearly explain the costs of
whatever solution it offers as best.
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Technical Documentation - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Technical Documentation
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION
This is what most programmers mean when using the term software
documentation. When creating software, code alone is insufficient. There must be
some text along with it to describe various aspects of its intended operation. It is
important for the code documents to be thorough, but not so verbose that it
becomes difficult to maintain them.
Often, tools such as Doxygen, NDoc, javadoc, SandCastle, ROBODoc, POD ,
TwinText , or Universal Report can be used to auto-generate the code documentsthat is, they extract the comments from the source code and create reference
manuals in such forms as text or HTML files. Code documents are often organized
into a reference guide style, allowing a programmer to quickly look up an arbitrary
function or class.
Many programmers really like the idea of auto-generating documentation for
various reasons. For example, because it is extracted from the source code itself,
the programmer can write it while referring to his code, and can use the same
tools he used to create the source code, to make the documentation. This makes
it much easier to keep the documentation up-to-date.
User Documentation
Unlike code documents, user documents are usually far more diverse with respect
to the source code of the program, and instead simply describe how it is used.
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Technical Documentation - System Analysis And Design
In the case of a software library, the code documents and user documents could
be effectively equivalent and are worth conjoining, but for a general application
this is not often true. Typically, the user documentation describes each feature of
the program, and assists the user in realizing these features. A good user
document can also go so far as to provide thorough troubleshooting assistance. It
is very important for user documents to not be confusing, and for them to be up
to date. User documents need not be organized in any particular way, but it is very
important for them to have a thorough index. Consistency and simplicity are also
very valuable. User documentation is considered to constitute a contract
specifying what the software will do.
There are three broad ways in which user documentation can be organized.
(a) Tutorial
A tutorial approach is considered the most useful for a new user, in which they are
guided through each step of accomplishing particular tasks.
(b) Thematic
A thematic approach, where chapters or sections concentrate on one particular
area of interest, is of more general use to an intermediate user.
(c) List or Reference
The final type of organizing principle is one in which commands or tasks are
simply listed alphabetically or logically grouped, often via cross-referenced
indexes. This latter approach is of greater use to advanced users who know
exactly what sort of information they are looking for.
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Marketing Documentation - System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016
Marketing Documentation
MARKETING DOCUMENTATION
For many applications it is necessary to have some promotional materials to
encourage casual observers to spend more time learning about the product. This
form of documentation has three purposes :
1. To excite the potential user about the product and instill in them a desire for
becoming more involved with it.
2. To inform them about what exactly the product does, so that their
expectations are in line with what they will be receiving.
3. To explain the position of this product with respect to other alternativeg.
One good marketing technique is to provide clear and memorable catch phrases
that exemplify the point we wish to convey, and also emphasize the
interoperability of the program with anything else provided by the manufacturer.
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System Design

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Introduction System Design - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016

Introduction System Design

Introduction System Design - System Analysis And Design

Design Objectives - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016

Design Objectives - System Analysis And Design

system is one of the most important factors affecting the maintainability of

Logical and Physical Design - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016

Logical and Physical Design

Logical and Physical Design - System Analysis And Design

Design of Input and Control - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016

Design of Input and Control

Design of Input and Control - System Analysis And Design

Online Processing : In online processing, the captured data is processed

Input Methods and Implementation - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016

Input Methods and Implementation

Input Methods and Implementation - System Analysis And Design

6. Optical character recognition (OCR) : Optical character recognition (OCR)

Input Methods and Implementation - System Analysis And Design

Output Design Guidelines - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 10, 2016

Output Design Guidelines

Output Design Guidelines - System Analysis And Design

Implementation Methods for Outputs - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016

Implementation Methods for

Implementation Methods for Outputs - System Analysis And Design

Multimedia : Multimedia is a termed used to collectively describe any information

Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016

Input/Output and Form Design

Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

Process : Simple processes or steps in a program are shown by a rectangular box,

Input/Output and Form Design - System Analysis And Design

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

System Analysis And Design

February 11, 2016

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

1. To improve the effectiveness of output reporting for the targeted recipients.

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

Outputs generated for external users should be given special attention in

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

specific needs of the purpose for which it is designed.

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

When designing an information system, it should be considered carefully about

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design

organisation, from. non-computer sources the organisation, and from

Presentation of Output - System Analysis And Design