Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Topics to cover:
1) Coulomb's Law
2) Electric Field / Electric Field Strength
3) Electric Potential
4) Flux and Flux Density
Electrostatics
5)
6)
7)
8)
Material Properties
Gauss' Theorem
Capacitance
Electrostatic Energy
Introduction
In this part of the course we will first look at electric and magnetic fields. We will try to
understand fields and their effects from a macroscopic point of view; that is in media
that consists of large homogeneous material bodies. The concept of a field is used to
describe "action at a distance" - a disturbance or input at one point can have an effect or
output at a distant point. The region where the effect of this coupling media is felt is the
field, described by its (vector) field strength.
Historically the study of electricity began with electrostatics, the interaction of
stationary electric charges in free space. A study of magnetism followed. The
relationship between magnetism and electricity was developed during the 19th century.
Two kinds of electric charges (+,) and two magnetic polarities (N,S) are known to
exist. Electromagnetic field theory was originally developed from the concept that these
charges and poles give rise to electric and magnetic fields.
This chapter addresses electrostatics.
is proportional to Q1Q2,
is inversely proportional to R2,
acts along the line joining the bodies, and
is attractive or repulsive according to whether
signs respectively.
Q1
and
Q2
Thus the force experienced by Q2 due to the radial field of Q1 can be written as:
F=
k E Q1Q2
r
R2
(N)
Q1
r
Q2
F
1
4
where =ro is the absolute permittivity (often simply called permittivity) of the
medium, r a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the dielectric
constant, and 0 = 10 9 36 . For free space, r=1. (What is the SI unit for permittivity?)
When more than two charges are present in free space any one of them will experience a
force that is the vector sum of the forces resulting from each of the others, considering
them one at a time. This is the principle of superposition.
Exercise:
Consider 5 charges as shown. The test charge q' is 2 nC and is assumed sufficiently
small so as not to affect the field due to the other charges. Determine the force
experienced by the test charge due to the other charges if q1 =20 nC, q 2 =+10 nC,
q 3 =30 nC and q 4 =+50 nC. Assume free space.
q1
q2
q'
50 mm
q3
q4
50 mm
(Answer:
52 . 4 76 . 4 N
50 mm
Page 2-2
kEQ
r
R2
(Vm1)
when the field is due to a single charged body sufficiently distant from the field point so
that the body can be considered a point charge of Q.
When the field is due to n point charges then we can write
n
E = kE
i =1
Qi
ri
Ri2
(Vm1)
dS
S
dr
Solution:
Consider the geometry above. The force on a unit positive charge placed at point P due
to the charge on dS is Q r d dr 40 (d 2 + r 2 ) in the direction of SP. This can be
resolved into two orthogonal components:
Q r d dr
4 0 (d + r
Q r d dr
2
4 0 (d 2 + r 2 )
d
d 2 + r2
r
d 2 + r2
Page 2-3
If a full ring of charge is considered then it is clear that the parallel components will
2
d = 2 ,
the force
2 2
Qd
20
r dr
(d
+r
3
2 2
The total force is found by summing the contributions of all incremental rings
(integrating over the surface). That is the magnitude of E is:
Qd
E=
2 0
r dr
(d
+r
3
2
Qd 1
Q
=
=
2
2 0 d + r 2 0 2 0
Q
2 0
n$
where n$ is the normal unit vector to the infinite plane. Note that for this special case
that the field strength is not a function of d.
RB
RA
VBA = VB V A = E dl = k E
1
Q
1
dR = k E Q
2
R
RB R A
Page 2-4
P'
A
E
P dl
dR
RA
RB
dV
r
dR
(Vm1)
at any point P in the field, where r is a unit vector in the direction from Q to P.
Example:
Calculate the potential difference between point A (3,4) m and point B (0,0) m situated
in an electric field produced by a charge Q1 (of 20 C) at point (0,4) m and a charge Q2
(of 10 C) at point (3,0) m. This arrangement is shown below.
Solution:
Using previous equations, and applying superposition, we can write
n
qi
i = 1 40
VB V A =
1
1
R Ai
R Bi
Q1
So in this case
VB V A =
20 10
4 0
1 1 10 10
4 3 + 4
0
= 22.47 10 3
1 1
3 4
B
O
Q2
3
(V)
Page 2-5
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Examples of flux lines
The electric flux density, D, (Cm2) is the amount of flux per unit normal area.
Referring to the figure below we can write:
d
=
A 0 A
dA
D = lim
and
= D dA
n
area dA
Page 2-6
Gauss' Theorem
Gauss' theorem states that for any closed surface the total outward flux is equal to the
algebraic sum of all the free charges enclosed within the surface. Mathematically stated
that is
= D da = q enclosed
A
Gaussian surface
r
r00
r0
(a)
D da .
A
D dA = D dA = 4r
A
Page 2-7
E=
q enclosed
q r
n$ = o n$
2
o r
4r o
D dA = D dA= 2rD
A
and so
E=
Q
n
2r 0
Capacitance
If we consider an isolated conductor of any shape and place charge Q on it then its
electric potential will rise. Assume that it rises to V volts. Now we place another
charge of Q Coulomb on it. Using superposition the conductor's potential rises to 2V
volts. That is, as charge is added the potential rises proportionally, or Q V . We define
Page 2-8
The unit of capacitance is Coulomb per Volt (CV1) which is called the Farad.
A capacitor, which consists of two conductors separated by free space or a dielectric
medium, is a device of considerable practical importance. The conductors can be of
arbitrary shapes. When a d.c. voltage is applied between the conductors, a charge
transfer occurs, resulting in a charge of +Q on one conductor and Q on the other as
shown in the figure below.
Q
V12
The capacitance of a two conductor system depends on the geometry of the conductor
system and the permittivity of the medium between them, but does not depend on the
charge Q or the potential difference V12. Capacitance can be determined by (1) assuming
a V12 and determining Q in terms of V12, or (2) assuming Q and determining V12 in terms
of Q.
The circuital symbol for a capacitor is
C
When two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 are connected in parallel, the total
capacitance is
C1
or
C2
Cp
C p = C1 + C2
Page 2-9
C1
C2
Cs
or
1
1
1
=
+
Cs C1 C2
Example:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area S separated
by a uniform distance d, as shown in the diagram below. The space between the plates
is filled with a dielectric of a constant permittivity . Determine the capacitance.
Solution:
For this problem, it is obvious that the appropriate coordinate system to use is the
Cartesian coordinate system. Following the procedure outlined above, we put charges
+Q and Q on the upper and lower conducting plates, respectively. The charges are
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the conducting plates with surface densities
+s and -s, where s = Q S . The electric field strength is zero inside a conductor and
normal to the conductor surface. Applying the Gausss law, we have
D = a y s
E = a y s
or
in the dielectric between the conducting plates if the fringing of the electric field at the
edges of the plates is neglected. The potential difference between the two plates can be
calculated as
y=d
V12 = E dl =
y =0
y=d
( a
s ) (a y dy ) =
y =0
s
Qd
d=
S
d
Example:
A spherical capacitor consists of two conducting spheres of an inner radius R and an
outer radius of R . The space between the conductors is filled with a dielectric with
permittivity . Determine the capacitance.
i
Solution:
Ri
Ro
Q
n
4R 2
where n is the unit outward pointing radial vector. Next we can obtain the voltage
between the conductors from
Q
Q 1
1
dR =
2
4 Ri Ro
Ro 4R
Ri
Ri
V = E (n dR ) =
Ro
Q
V
4
1
Ri
Ro
Electrostatic Energy
Since the electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work required
to bring a unit positive charge from infinity (zero potential) to that point, to bring a
charge Q2 (slowly so that the kinetic energy and radiation effects may be neglected)
from infinity against the field of a charge Q1 in free space to a distance R12, the amount
of work required is
Q1
Q2
We 2 = Q2V21 = Q2
= Q1
= Q1V12
4 o R12
4 o R12
or
1
We 2 = (Q2V21 + Q1V12 )
2
Extending the procedure of bringing in additional charges, we have an expression for
the energy stored in a group of N charges as
Page 2-11
We =
1 N
Qk Vk
2 k =1
where Vk, the electric potential at Qk, is caused by all the other charges and has the
following expression
N
Qj
1
Vk =
4 o j =1 R jk
( j k )
For a continuous charge distribution of density the formula for the electric energy
becomes
1
We = Vdv
2 V'
where V is the potential at the point where the Coulomb charge density is and V' is the
volume of the region where exists.
In terms of field quantities, we have
We =
where
1
D Edv
2 V'
1
D E is the energy density. Using D=E for a linear medium, we have
2
We =
1
E 2 dv
2 V'
or
We =
1
D 2 dv
2 V'
1
CV 2
2
Reading Material
Conductors in Static Electric Field
So far we have discussed only the electric field of stationary charge distributions in free
space or air. We now examine the field behaviour in material media. In general, we
classify materials according to their electrical properties into three types: conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators (or dielectrics). In terms of the crude atomic model of
an atom consisting of a positively charged nucleus with orbiting electrons, the electrons
in the outermost shells of the atoms of conductors are very loosely held and migrate
easily from one atom to another. Most metals belong to this group. The electrons in the
atoms of insulators or dielectrics, however, are confined to their orbits; they cannot be
liberated in normal circumstances, even by the application of an external electric field.
The electrical properties of semiconductors fall between those of conductors and
insulators in that they possess a relatively small number of freely movable charges.
Page 2-12
In terms of the band theory of solids we find that there are allowed energy bands for
electrons, each band consisting of many closely spaced, discrete energy states. Between
these energy bands there may be forbidden regions or gaps where no electrons of the
solid's atom can reside. Conductors have an upper energy band partially filled with
electrons or an upper pair of overlapping bands that are partially filled so that the
electrons in these bands can move from one to another with only a small change in
energy. Insulators or dielectrics are materials with a completely filled upper band, so
conduction could not normally occur because of the existence of a large energy gap to
the next higher band. If the energy gap of the forbidden region is relatively small, small
amounts of external energy may be sufficient to excite the electrons in the filled upper
band to jump into the next band, causing conduction. Such materials are
semiconductors.
The macroscopic electrical property of a material medium is characterised by a
constitutive parameter called conductivity, which we will define in the next chapter. The
definition of conductivity is not important in this chapter because we are not dealing
with current flow and are now interested only in the behaviour of static electric fields in
material media. In this section we examine the electric field and charge distribution
both inside the bulk and on the surface of a conductor.
Assume for the present that some positive (or negative) charges are introduced in the
interior of a conductor. An electric field will be set up in the conductor, the field
exerting a force on the charges and making them move away from one another. This
movement will continue until all the charges reach the conductor surface and
redistribute themselves in such a way that both the charge and the field inside vanish.
Hence, inside a conductor (under static conditions), the volume charge density in Cm3
= 0. When there is no charge in the interior of a conductor (=0), E must be zero.
The charge distribution on the surface of a conductor depends on the shape of the
surface. Obviously, the charges would not be in a state of equilibrium if there were a
tangential component of the electric field intensity that produces a tangential force and
moves the charges. Therefore, under static conditions the E field on a conductor
surface is everywhere normal to the surface. In other words, the surface of a
conductor is an equipotential surface under static conditions. As a matter of fact,
since E = 0 everywhere inside a conductor, the whole conductor has the same
electrostatic potential. A finite time is required for the charges to redistribute on a
conductor surface and reach the equilibrium state. This time depends on the
conductivity of the material. For a good conductor such as copper this time is of the
order of 1019 (s), a very brief transient.
Page 2-13
A cross section of a
polarized dielectric
medium
The molecules of some dielectrics possess permanent dipole moments, even in the
absence of an external polarizing field. Such molecules usually consist of two or more
dissimilar atoms and are called polar molecules, in contrast to nonpolar molecules,
which do not have permanent dipole moments. An example is the water molecule H2O,
which consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The atoms do not arrange
themselves in a manner that makes the molecule have a zero dipole moment; that is, the
hydrogen atoms do not lie exactly on diametrically opposite sides of the oxygen atom.
The dipole moments of polar molecules are of the order of 1030 (Cm). When there is
no external field, the individual dipoles in a polar dielectric are randomly oriented,
producing no net dipole moment macroscopically. An applied electric field will exert a
torque on the individual dipoles and tend to align them with the field in a manner
similar to that shown in the figure above.
Some dielectric materials can exhibit a permanent dipole moment even in the absence of
an externally applied electric field. Such materials are called electrets. Electrets can be
made by heating (softening) certain waxes or plastics and placing them in an electric
field. The polarized molecules in these materials tend to align with the applied field and
to be frozen in their new positions after they return to normal temperatures. Permanent
polarization remains without an external electric field. Electrets are the electrical
equivalents of permanent magnets; they have found important applications in high
fidelity electret microphones.
Page 2-14
equals the power loss in the dielectric due to the hysteresis effect, known as the electric
hysteresis loss, and can be calculated by
Physt = E dD
When the electric hysteresis of a dielectric is ignored and the dielectric properties are
regarded as isotropic and linear, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric
field strength, and the proportionality constant is independent of the direction of the
field. We write
D = E
where the coefficient =ro is the absolute permittivity (often simply called
permittivity), and r a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the
dielectric constant.
Exercises:
1.
Use Gauss' Law to obtain the electrostatic flux density, D, and hence the field
intensity, E, at a distance d (in free space)
(i) from a line charge with uniform charge density of q Cm .
(ii) from a plane of uniform charge density of q Cm
(ii) E = q
)
(Answer:
(i) E = q
2 o d
2 o
1
2.
3.
Page 2-15
E Py = E P =
q
, E Px = 0 ,
2 o b
(field cylindrical)
(n.b. The problem is identical to magnetic field around a long straight conductor)
4.
5.
(Problem 4)
(Problem 5)
6.
7.
Prove that the following formula for electrostatic energy hold true for any two
conductor capacitor:
1
We = CV 2
2
8.
Einstein's theory of relativity stipulates that the work required to assemble a charge
is stored as energy in the mass and is equal to mc2, where m is the mass and c
3108 (m/s) is the velocity of light. Assuming the electron to be a perfect sphere,
find its radius from its charge (1.6021019 C) and mass (9.11031 kg)
(Answer: 1.691015 m)
Page 2-16