PROFESSOR ANGELO ANTONIO LEITHOLD

The Ionosphere

CURITIBA, 1994

Atmospheric electricity abounds in the environment; some traces of it are found less
than four feet from the surface of the earth, but on attaining greater height it becomes
more apparent. Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere.In outer space, the
magnetopause flows along the boundary between the region around an astronomical
object (called the "magnetosphere") and surrounding plasma, in which electric
phenomena are dominated or organized by this magnetic field. Earth is surrounded by
a magnetosphere, as are the magnetized planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Mercury is magnetized, but too weakly to trap plasma. Mars has patchy surface
magnetization. The magnetosphere is the location where the outward magnetic
pressure of the Earth's magnetic field is counterbalanced by the solar wind, a plasma.
Most of solar particles are deflected to either side of the magnetopause, much like
water is deflected before the bow of a ship. However, some particles become trapped
within the Earth's magnetic field and form radiation belts. The Van Allen radiation
belt is a torus of energetic charged particles (i.e. a plasma) around Earth, trapped by
Earth's magnetic field.At elevations above the clouds, atmospheric electricity forms a
continuous and distinct element (called the electrosphere) in which the Earth is
surrounded. The electrosphere layer (tens of kilometers above the surface of the earth
to the ionosphere) has a high electrical conductivity and is essentially at a constant
electric potential. The ionosphere is the inner edge of the magnetosphere and is the
part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. Photoionisation is a physical
process in which a photon is incident on an atom, ion or molecule, resulting in the
ejection of one or more electrons. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the
magnetosphere.

History

Atmospheric electricity is the regular diurnal variations of the Earth's atmospheric

electromagnetic network (or, more broadly, any planet's electrical system in its layer
of gases). The Earths surface, the ionosphere, and the atmosphere is known as the
global atmospheric electrical circuit. Atmospheric electricity is a multidisciplinary
topic. In 1708, Dr. William Wall was one of the first to observe that spark discharges
resembled miniature lightning, after watching such an event from a charged piece of
amber. In the middle of the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin's experiments showed
that the electric phenomena of the atmosphere were not fundamentally different from
those produced in the laboratory. In July of 1750, Franklin hypothesized that
electricity could be taken from clouds via a tall metal aerial. With ground-insulated
aerials, an experimenter could bring a grounded lead with an insulated wax handle
close to the aerial, and observe a spark discharge from the aerial to the grounding
wire. In May of 1752, Thomas Francois d'Alibard affirmed that Franklin's theory was
correct. Around June of 1752, Franklin reportedly performed his famous kite
experiment. L. G. Lemonnier (1752) reproduced Franklin experiment with an aerial,
but substituted the ground wire with some dust particles (testing attraction). He went
on to document the fair weather condition, the clear-day electrification of the
atmosphere, and the diurnal variation of the atmosphere's electricity. G. Beccaria
(1775) confirmed Lemonnier's diurnal variation data and determined that the

atmosphere's charge polarity was positive in fair weather. H. B. Saussure (1779)

recorded data relating to a conductor's induced charge in the atmosphere. Saussure's
instrument (which contained two small spheres suspended in parallel with two thin
wires) was a precursor to the electrometer. Saussure found that the fair weather
condition had an annual variation. Saussure found that there was a variation with
height, as well. In 1785, C. A. Coulomb discovered the conductivity of air. His
discovery was contrary to the prevailing thought at the time that the atmospheric
gases were insulators (which they are to some extent, or at least not very good
conductors when not ionized). His research was unfortunately completely ignored. P.
Erman (1804) theorized that the Earth was negatively charged. J. C. A. Peltier (1842)
tested and confirmed Erman's idea. Lord Kelvin (1860s) proposed that atmospheric
positive charges explained the fair weather condition and, later, recognized the
existence of atmospheric electric fields. Over the course of the next century, using the
ideas of Alessandro Volta and Francis Ronald, several researchers contributed to the
growing body of knowledge about atmospheric electrical phenomena. With the
invention of the portable electrometer and Lord Kelvin's 19th century water-dropping
condenser, a greater level of precision was introduced into observational results.
Towards the end of the 19th century came the discovery by W. Linss (1887) that even
the most perfectly insulated conductors lose their charge, as Coulomb before him had
found, and that this loss depended on atmospheric conditions. H. H. Hoffert (1888)
identified individual lightning downward strokes using early camera and would
report this in "Intermittent Lightning-Flashes". J. Elster and H. F. Geitel, who also

worked on thermionic emission, proposed a theory to explain thunderstorm's

electrical structure (1885) and, later, discovered atmospheric radioactivity (1899).
By then it had become clear that freely charged positive and negative ions were
always present in the atmosphere, and that radiant emanations could be collected. F.
Pockels (1897) estimated lightning current intensity by analyzing lightning flashes in
basalt and studying the left-over magnetic fields (basalt, being a ferromagnetic
mineral, becomes magnetically polarised when exposed to a large external field such
as those generated in a lightning strike). Using a Peltier electrometer, Luigi Palmieri
researched atmospheric electricity. Nikola Tesla and Hermann Plauson investigated
the production of energy and power via atmospheric electricity. Tesla also proposed
to use the atmospheric electrical circuit to transmit energy wirelessly over large
distances .
The Polish Polar Station, Hornsund, has researched the magnitude of the earth's
electric field and recording its vertical component. Discoveries about the
electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electrical instruments and ideas on how
the Earths negative charge is maintained were developed mainly in the 20th century.
Whilst a certain amount of observational work has been done in the branches of
atmospheric electricity, the science has not developed to a considerable extent. It is
thought that any apparatus which might be used to extract useful energy from
atmospheric electricity would be prohibitively costly to build and maintain, which is
probably why the field has not attracted much interest. In 1899, Nikola Tesla
researched ways to utilize the ionosphere to transmit energy wirelessly over long

distances. In his experiments, he transmitted extremely low frequencies between the

earth and ionosphere, up to what is called the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer (Grotz,
1997). Tesla made mathematical calculations and computations based on his
experiments. He predicted the resonant frequency of this area within 15% of modern
accepted experimental value. (Corum, 1986) In the 1950s, researchers confirmed the
resonant frequency was at the low range 6.8 Hz. Guglielmo Marconi received the first
trans-Atlantic radio signal on December 12, 1901, in St. John's, Newfoundland (now
in Canada) using a 400-foot kite-supported antenna for reception. The transmitting
station in Poldhu, Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a
frequency of approximately 500 kHz and a power of 100 times more than any radio
signal previously produced. The message received was three dots, the Morse code for
the letter S. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the
ionosphere twice. Dr. Jack Belrose has recently contested this, however, based on
theoretical work as well as an actual experiments. However, Marconi did achieve
transatlantic wireless communications beyond a shadow of doubt in Glace Bay one
year later.
In 1902, Oliver Heaviside proposed the existence of the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer of
the ionosphere which bears his name. Heaviside's proposal included means by which
radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's curvature. Heaviside's proposal,
coupled with Planck's law of black body radiation, may have hampered the growth of
radio astronomy for the detection of electromagnetic waves from celestial bodies
until 1932 (and the development of high frequency radio transceivers). Also in 1902,

Arthur Edwin Kennelly discovered some of the ionosphere's radio-electrical

properties. In 1912, the U.S. Congress imposed the Radio Act of 1912 on amateur
radio operators, limiting their operations to frequencies above 1.5 MHz (wavelength
200 meters or smaller). The government thought those frequencies were useless. This
led to the discovery of HF radio propagation via the ionosphere in 1923.
Edward V. Appleton was awarded in 1947 a Nobel Prize for his confirmation of the
existence of the ionosphere in 1927. Lloyd Berkner first measured the height and
density of the ionosphere. This permitted the first complete theory of short wave
radio propagation. Maurice V. Wilkes and J. A. Ratcliffe researched the topic of radio
propagation of very long radio waves in the ionosphere. Vitaly Ginzburg has
developed a theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas such as the
ionosphere. In 1962 the Canadian satellite Alouette 1 was launched to study the
ionosphere. Following its success were Alouette 2 in 1965 and the two ISIS satellites
in 1969 and 1971, all for measuring the ionosphere.

The ionosphere

The ionosphere is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It plays
an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the
magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other functions, it
influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth.

The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere is called the troposphere and it extends
from the surface up to about 10 km. The atmosphere above 10 km is called the
stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. It is in the stratosphere that incoming solar
radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above 80 km, in the thermosphere, the
atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they
are captured by a nearby positive ion. The number of these free electrons is sufficient
to affect radio propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a
plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electron
and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electromagnetic force, but they

are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.Solar

radiation at ultraviolet (UV) and shorter X-Ray wavelengths is considered to be
ionizing since photons at these frequencies are capable of dislodging an electron from
a neutral gas atom or molecule during a collision. At the same time, however, an
opposing process called recombination begins to take place in which a free electron is
"captured" by a positive ion if it moves close enough to it. As the gas density
increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process accelerates since the gas
molecules and ions are closer together. The point of balance between these two
processes determines the degree of ionization present at any given time. The
ionization depends primarily on the Sun and its activity. The amount of ionization in
the ionosphere varies greatly with the amount of radiation received from the sun.
Thus there is a diurnal (time of day) effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter
hemisphere is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received solar radiation.
The activity of the sun is associated with the sunspot cycle, with more radiation
occurring with more sunspots. Radiation received also varies with geographical
location (polar, auroral zones, mid-latitudes, and equatorial regions). There are also
mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization. There are
disturbances such as solar flares and the associated release of charged particles into
the solar wind which reaches the Earth and interacts with its geomagnetic field.

Ionospheric Layers

D Layer

The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth.
Ionization here is due to Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation at a wavelength of
121.5 nanometre (nm) ionizing nitric oxide (NO). In addition, when the sun is active
with 50 or more sunspots, hard X-rays (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N2, O2).
During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination
is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result highfrequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by the D layer.

E Layer

The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface of the Earth.
Ionization is due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation
ionization of molecular oxygen (O2). This layer can only reflect radio waves having
frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10
MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. The vertical structure of the E layer
is primarily determined by the competing effects of ionization and recombination. At
night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no

longer present. This results in an increase in the height where the layer maximizes
because recombination is faster in the lower layers. Diurnal changes in the high
altitude neutral winds also plays a role. The increase in the height of the E layer
maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the
layer.

F Layer

The F layer or region, also known as the Appleton layer, is 120 km to 400 km above
the surface of the Earth. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation
ionizes atomic oxygen (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere
in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in
the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F1 and F2.
The F layers are responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves, and are
thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun.

Ionospheric Model

The atmospheric physics community contributes to the definition and maintenance of

an ionospheric model: the International Reference Ionosphere, through a series of

academic committees and conferences. As discoveries are made and generally

accepted, the model is improved.

Anomalies to the Ideal Model

The statements above assumed that each layer was smooth and uniform. In reality the
ionosphere is a lumpy, cloudy layer with irregular patches of ionization.

Winter Anomaly

At mid-latitudes, the F2 layer daytime ion production is higher in the summer, as

expected, since the sun shines more directly on the earth. However, there are seasonal
changes in the molecular-to-atomic ratio of the neutral atmosphere that cause the
summer ion loss rate to be even higher. The result is that the increase in the
summertime loss overwhelms the increase in summertime production, and total F2
ionization is actually lower, not higher, in the local summer months. This effect is
known as the winter anomaly. The anomaly is always present in the northern
hemisphere, but is usually absent in the southern hemisphere during periods of low
solar activity.

Equatorial Anomaly

Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere.

Within approximately 20 degrees of the magnetic equator, is the Equatorial

Anomaly. It is the occurrence of a trough of concentrated ionization in the F2 layer.
The Earth's magnetic field lines are horizontal at the magnetic equator. Solar heating
and tidal oscillations in the lower ionosphere move plasma up and across the
magnetic field lines. This sets up a sheet of electric current in the E region which,
with the horizontal magnetic field, forces ionization up into the F layer, concentrating
at 20 degrees from the magnetic equator. This phenomenon is known as the
equatorial fountain.

Ionospheric Perturbations

Radio Application

DX communication, popular among amateur radio enthusiasts, is a term given to

communication over great distances. When using High-Frequency bands, the
ionosphere is utilized to reflect the transmitted radio beam. The beam returns to the
Earth's surface, and may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second
bounce. Radio waves "hop" from the Earth to the ionosphere and back to the Earth.
When a radio wave reaches the ionosphere, the electric field in the wave forces the

electrons in the ionosphere into oscillation at the same frequency as the radio wave.
Some of the radio wave energy is given up to this mechanical oscillation. The
oscillating electron will then either be lost to recombination or will re-radiate the
original wave energy back downward again. Total reflection can occur when the
collision frequency of the ionosphere is less than the radio frequency, and if the
electron density in the ionosphere is great enough. The critical frequency is the
limiting frequency at or below which a radio wave is reflected by an ionospheric
layer at vertical incidence. If the transmitted frequency is higher than the plasma
frequency of the ionosphere, then the electrons cannot respond fast enough, and they
are not able to re-radiate the signal. It is calculated as shown below:

where N = electron density per cm3 and fcritical is in MHz.

The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is defined as the upper frequency limit that
can be used for transmission between two points at a specified time. Where a = angle
of attack, the angle of the wave relative to the horizon, and sin is the sine function.

The cutoff frequency is the frequency below which a radio wave fails to penetrate a
layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for transmission between two
specified points by reflection from the layer.

Other Applications

The open system space tether, which uses the ionosphere, is being researched. The
space tether uses plasma contactors and the ionosphere as parts of a circuit to extract
energy from the Earth's magnetic field by electromagnetic induction.
The A and K indices are a measurement of the behavior of the horizontal component
of the geomagnetic field. The K index uses a scale from 0 to 9 to measure the change
in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. A new K index is determined at
the Table Mountain Observatory, north of Boulder, Colorado. The geomagnetic
activity levels of the earth are measured by the fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic
field in SI units called tesla (unit)s (or in non-SI gauss, especially in older literature).
The Earth's magnetic field is measured around the planet by many observatories. The
data retrieved is processed and turned into measurement indices. Daily measurements
for the entire planet are made available through an estimate of the ap index, called the
planetary A-index (PAI).

Skywave

Skywave is the propagation of radio waves bent back to the Earth's surface by the
ionosphere. As a result of skywave propagation, a night-time broadcast signal from a
distant AM broadcasting or shortwave radio station (or rarely, a TV station) can
sometimes be heard as clearly as local stations. Most long-distance HF radio
communication (between 3 and 30 MHz) is a result of skywave propagation. For
decades Amateur radio operators, limited to lower transmit power than commercial
radio, have taken advantage of skywave for distance or DX communication. The
ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, where neutral air is ionized by solar
photons and cosmic rays. When radio waves reach the ionosphere at a shallow angle,
they are partly reflected by the surface. The ionosphere can also be similar to a prism
refracting light; different frequencies are "bent" by different amounts. Much as the
surface of the ocean interacts with the wind, the condition of the ionosphere is
constantly changing due to interaction with incoming radiation. When signals have
"bounced" off this irregular surface, they may fade in and out and have the "phasing",
"flanging" or "fluttery" character familiar to listeners of shortwave music broadcasts.
Depending on the transmitting antenna, the signals may reach the ionosphere at a
steep angle (vertical incidence) and be reflected almost straight down. Alternately the
antenna may "aim" the signal at the horizon; the signal reaches the ionosphere at a
shallow angle and returns to earth at a great distance. Under some conditions, the
Earth's surface (ground or water) may reflect the incoming wave back toward the

ionosphere again. As a result, like a rock "skipping" across water, the wave may
actually "bounce" or "skip" between the earth and ionosphere several times. This
phenomenon is known as "skip" or multihop propagation. Signals of only a few watts
can sometimes be received thousands of miles away as a result. Signals with
frequencies above about 30 MHz (VHF and UHF for example) are progressively not
returned to the Earth's surface, because they penetrate the ionosphere. (This includes
most communications with spacecraft and satellites.) Exceptions include rare
occasions of E-skip, when FM and TV signals are reflected. Skywave may be
disrupted during geomagnetic storms.
Low to mid frequencies below approximately 10 MHz (longer than 30 meters),
including broadcasts in the mediumwave and shortwave bands (and to some extent
longwave), travel most efficiently by skywave at night. Frequencies above 10 MHz
(shorter than 30 meters) travel better during the day. Frequencies lower than 3 kHz
have a wavelength longer than the distance between the Earth and the ionosphere.
The Maximum usable frequency for skywave propagation is strongly influenced by
sunspot number. Because the lower-altitude layers (the E-layer in particular) of the
ionosphere largely disappear at night, the refractive layer of the ionosphere is much
higher above the surface at night. This leads to an increase in the "skip" or "hop"
distance of the skywave at night. Near Vertical Incidence Skywave , NVIS, is a radio
antenna configuration that provides usable signals in the range between groundwave
and skywave distances (usually 30 to 400 miles, or 50 to 650 km). The usable
frequencies are between 1.8 MHz and 15 MHz. with the most common use being

between 3.5 MHz and 7.3 Mhz. NVIS configuration is a horizontally polarized
(parallel with the surface of the earth) radiating element that is from 1/20th
wavelength to 1/8th wavelength above the ground. That proximity to the ground
forces the majority of the radiation to go straight up. Overall efficiency of the antenna
can be increased by placing a ground wire of the same length as the antenna, parallel
to and directly underneath the antenna. While the ground wire is not necessary under
good to excellent propagation conditions antenna, gain in the 3 dB to 6 dB range are
common when the ground wire is used. Significant increases in communication will
be realized when both the transmitting station and the receiving station use NVIS
configuration for their antennas. NVIS is most useful in mountainous areas where
line of sight propagation at VHF or UHF frequencies is ineffective or when the
communication distance is beyond ground wave (less than 100 Km) and less than
sky-wave (450 to 2500 Km Approx.). More simply stated, NVIS communication is
most effective for regional use. This may be used to handle emergency
communication or simply for fun.

TV DX

TV DX and FM DX are two terms, customarily grouped together, that refer to longdistance reception of TV and FM radio stations, respectively. These terms (DX) refer
to the active search for distant radio or television stations received during unusual
tropospheric lower atmospheric weather-related, or E-layer and F2-layer upper
atmospheric ionospheric conditions. VHF/UHF television and radio signals are
normally limited to a maximum "deep fringe" reception service area of approximately
60160 kilometers in crowded radio markets, and about 50 percent farther in the
absence of interference. However, providing favourable atmospheric conditions are
present, television and radio signals can sometimes be received at hundreds or even
thousands of miles outside their intended coverage area. These signals are received
using a large outdoor antenna system connected to a sensitive TV or FM tuner and/or
receiver. While only a limited number of local stations can be normally received at
satisfactory signal strengths in any given area, tuning into other channels may reveal
weaker signals from adjacent areas. More consistently strong signals, especially those
accentuated by unusual atmospheric conditions, can be achieved by improving the
antenna system. The development of interest in TV-FM DX as a hobby can arise after
more distant signals are either intentionally or accidentally discovered, leading to a
serious interest in improving the aerial and receiving installation for the purpose of
actively seeking long-range television and radio reception. The TV-FM DX hobby is
somewhat similar in scope to other radio/electronic related hobbies such as amateur

radio, Medium Wave DX, or short-wave radio, and organisations such as the
Worldwide TV-FM DX Association have developed to co-ordinate and foster the
further study and enjoyment of VHF/UHF television and FM broadcast DX.
The service area from a TV or FM radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical
horizon, at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength. Viewers living in
such a "deep fringe" reception area will notice that during certain conditions weak
signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality
reception.

Such

conditions

are

related

to

the

current

state

of

the

troposphere.Tropospheric propagated signals travel in the part of the atmosphere

adjacent to the surface and extending to some 7,620 meters. Such signals are thus
directly affected by weather conditions extending over some hundreds of Km. During
very settled, warm anticyclonic weather (i.e., high pressure), usually weak, snowy TV
signals from distant transmitters improve in signal strength. Another symptom during
such conditions may be interference to the local transmitter resulting in co-channel
interference, which may be in the form of horizontal lines or an extra floating picture.
A settled high-pressure system gives the classic conditions for enhanced tropospheric
propagation, in particular favouring signals which travel along the prevailing isobar
pattern rather than across it. Such weather conditions can occur at any time, but
generally the summer and autumn months are the best periods. In certain favourable
locations, enhanced tropospheric propagation may enable reception of UHF TV
signals up to 1,600 km or more.The observable characteristics of such high-pressure
systems are usually clear, cloudless days with little or no wind. At sunset the upper

air cools, as does the surface temperature, but at different rates. This produces a
boundary or temperature gradient, which allows an inversion level to form a similar
effect occurs at sunrise. The inversion is capable of allowing VHF and UHF signal
propagation well beyond the normal radio horizon distance.The inversion effectively
reduces sky wave radiation from a transmitter normally VHF and UHF signals
travel on into space when they reach the horizon, the refractive index of the
ionosphere preventing signal return. With temperature inversion, however, the signal
is to a large extent refracted over the horizon rather than continuing along a direct
path into outer space.Fog also produces good tropospheric results, again due to
inversion effects. Fog occurs during high-pressure weather, and if such conditions
result in a large belt of fog with clear sky above, there will be heating of the upper
fog level and thus an inversion. This situation often arises towards night fall,
continues overnight and clears with the sunrise over a period of around 45 hours.
Sporadic E, also called E-skip, is the phenomenon of irregularly scattered patches of
relatively dense ionisation that develop seasonally within the E region of the
ionosphere and reflect and scatter TV and FM frequencies, generally up to about 150
MHz. When frequencies reflect off multiple patches, it is referred to as multi-hop
skip. E-skip allows radio waves to travel many miles beyond their intended area of
reception. E-skip is unrelated to tropospheric ducting. By means of short-wave radio
it is possible to transmit signals to distant countries around the world. Such
communication is dependent upon a number of reflecting layers in the ionosphere,
high above the Earth's surface known as the E, F1, and F2 layers. The E layer E

region lies at an approximate distance of 100 km above the Earth's surface. Under
normal conditions the E layer reflects Short-Wave signals (at night, when the D layer
dissolves, Mediumwave signals are reflected as well). Normally, VHF and UHF
signals pass through the E and F layers into outer space. At certain times, however,
intense patches of ionisation form in the E layer, a phenomenon known as Sporadic
E. Incident VHF signals that strike these patches are reflected back to Earth. During
such conditions television and radio transmissions in band 1 (4588 MHz), band 2
(88108 MHz), and very occasionally Band 3 (175220 MHz), are capable of being
reflected, allowing reception at considerable distances. Although Sporadic E can
occur at any time of the year, the most active period is during the summer months,
from early May to November to February (Southern Hemisphere). A small peak of
activity is also usually noted in mid-winter. The length of a single-hop E-skip path
varies between approximately 7202,400 km. At times, double-hop Sporadic E can
propagate signals over a 3,1004,700 km path. During periods of extremely
widespread Es ionisation, multi-hop signals up to 60 MHz have been received out to
8,000 km. Television and FM signals received via Sporadic E can be extremely
strong and range in strength over a short period from just detectable to overloading.
Although polarisation shift can occur, single-hop Sporadic E signals tend to remain in
the original transmitted polarisation. Long single-hop 1,4502,400 km Sporadic E
television signals tend to be more stable and relatively free of multipath images.
Shorter-skip 6501,300 km signals tend to be reflected from more than one part of
the Sporadic E layer, resulting in multiple images and ghosting, with at times phase
reversal. Picture degradation and signal strength attenuation increases with each

subsequent Sporadic E hop. Sporadic E usually affects the lower VHF band I (TV
channels 26) and band II (88108 MHz FM broadcast band). The typical expected
distances are about 9702,250 km. However, under exceptional circumstances, a
highly ionised Es cloud can propagate band I VHF signals down to approximately
550 km. When short-skip Es reception occurs, i.e., under 800 km in band I, there is a
greater possibility that the ionised Es cloud will be capable of reflecting a signal at a
much higher frequency i.e., a VHF channel 7 TV signal since a sharp reflection
angle (short skip) favours low frequencies, a shallower reflection angle from the same
ionised cloud will favour a higher frequency. At high, i.e., polar latitudes, Sporadic E
can accompany auroras and associated disturbed magnetic conditions.

Ionogramas

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Measurements

Ionograms show the virtual heights and critical frequencies of the ionospheric layers
and which are measured by an ionosonde. An ionosonde sweeps a range of
frequencies, usually from 0.1 to 30 MHz, transmitting at vertical incidence to the
ionosphere. As the frequency increases, each wave is refracted less by the ionization
in the layer, and so each penetrates further before it is reflected. Eventually, a
frequency is reached that enables the wave to penetrate the layer without being
reflected. For ordinary mode waves, this occurs when the transmitted frequency just
exceeds the peak plasma, or critical, frequency of the layer. Tracings of the reflected
high frequency radio pulses are known as ionograms.

Ionogram

Ionospheric Layers

Solar radiation, acting on the different compositions of the atmosphere with height,
generates layers of ionization:
D Layer
The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth.
Ionization here is due to Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation at a wavelength of
121.5 nanometre (nm) ionizing nitric oxide (NO). In addition, when the sun is active
with 50 or more sunspots, hard X-rays (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N2, O2).
During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination

is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result highfrequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by the D layer. The frequency of collision
between electrons and other particles in this region during the day is about 10 million
collisions per second. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio
waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as
the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday.
The layer reduces greatly after sunset, but remains due to galactic cosmic rays. A
common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM
broadcast band stations in the daytime.E Sporadic Layer
The Es layer or sporadic E-layer. Sporadic E propagation is characterized by small
clouds of intense ionization, which can support radio wave reflections from 25 225
MHz. Sporadic-E events may last for just a few minutes to several hours and make
radio amateurs very excited, as propagation paths which are generally unreachable,
can open up. There are multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by
researchers. This propagation occurs most frequently during the summer months with
major occurrences during the summer, and minor occurrences during the winter.
During the summer, this mode is popular due to its high signal levels. The skip
distances are generally around 1000km.

X-rays: Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID)

When the sun is active, strong solar flares can occur that will hit the Earth with hard
X-rays on the sunlit side of the Earth. They will penetrate to the D-region, release
electrons which will rapidly increase absorption causing a High Frequency (3-30
MHz) radio blackout. During this time Very Low Frequency (3 - 30 kHz) signals will
become reflected by the D layer instead of the E layer, avoiding the signal loss
through the D layer. As soon as the X-rays end, the sudden ionospheric disturbance
(SID) or radio black-out ends as the electrons in the D-region recombine rapidly and
signal strengths return to normal.

Protons: Polar Cap Absorption (PCA)

Associated with solar flares is a release of high-energy protons. These particles can
hit the earth within 15 minutes to 2 hours of the solar flare. The protons spiral around
and down the magnetic field lines of the Earth and penetrate into the atmosphere near
the magnetic poles increasing the ionization of the D and E layers. PCA's typically
last anywhere from about an hour to several days, with an average of around 24 to 36
hours.

Geomagnetic Storms

A geomagnetic storm is a temporary intense disturbance of the Earth's

magnetosphere.During a geomagnetic storm the F2 layer will become unstable,
fragment, and may even disappear completely. In the Northern and Southern pole
regions of the Earth aurora will be observable in the sky.

Solar flux

Solar flux is a measurement of the intensity of solar radio emissions at a frequency of

2800 MHz made using a radio telescope located in Ottawa, Canada. Known also as
the 10.7 cm flux (the wavelength of the radio signals at 2800 MHz), this solar radio
emission has been shown to be proportional to sunspot activity. However, the level of
the sun's ultraviolet and X-ray emissions is primarily responsible for causing
ionization in the earth's upper atmosphere. We now have data from the GOES
spacecraft that measures the background X-ray flux from the sun, a parameter more
closely related to the ionization levels in the ionosphere.

Conductivity of the atmosphere

The conductivity of the atmosphere increases exponentially with altitude. The

amplitudes of the electric and magnetic components depend on season, latitude, and
height above the sea level. The greater the altitude the more atmospheric electricity
abounds. The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere and is estimated to
be 500 km to 1000 km above the Earth's surface, and its upper boundary at about
10,000 km. The thermosphere (upper atmosphere) is the layer of the Earth's
atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere. Within
this layer, ultraviolet radiation causes ionization. The mesosphere (middle
atmosphere) is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the
stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about
50-80/85km above Earth's surface. The stratosphere (middle atmosphere) is a layer of
Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10
km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it
starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and
directly below the mesosphere.

The troposphere (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

The planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer
(ABL), is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by
its contact with the planetary surface. It is also known as the "exchange layer". There
is a potential gradient at ground level and this corresponds to the negative charge in
and near the Earth's surface. This negative potential gradient falls rapidly as altitude
increases from the ground. Most of this potential gradient is in the first few
kilometers. Conversely, the positive potential gradient rises rapidly as altitude
increases from the ground.

Earth-Ionosphere cavity

Potential difference between the ionosphere and the Earth is maintained by

thunderstorms pumping action of lightning discharges. In the Earth-ionosphere
cavity, the electric field and conduction current in the lower atmosphere are primarily
controlled by ions. Ions are have the characteristic parameters such as mobility,
lifetime, and generation rate that vary with altitude. The Schumann resonance is a set
of spectrum peaks in the ELF portion of the Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum.
Schumann resonance is due to the space between the surface of the Earth and the
conductive ionosphere acting as a waveguide. The limited dimensions of the earth

cause this waveguide to act as a resonant cavity for electromagnetic waves. The
cavity is naturally excited by energy from lightning strikes.
Scientific research on Ionospheric propagation

Scientists also are exploring the structure of the ionosphere by a wide variety of
methods, including passive observations of optical and radio emissions generated in
the ionosphere, bouncing radio waves of different frequencies from it, incoherent
scatter radars such as the EISCAT, Sondre Stromfjord, Millstone Hill, Arecibo, and
Jicamarca radars, coherent scatter radars such as the Super Dual Auroral Radar
Network (SuperDARN) radars, and using special receivers to detect how the reflected
waves have changed from the transmitted waves.

A variety of experiments, such as HAARP (High Frequency Active Auroral Research

Program), involve high power radio transmitters to modify the properties of the
ionosphere. These investigations focus on studying the properties and behavior of
ionospheric plasma, with particular emphasis on being able to understand and use it
to enhance communications and surveillance systems for both civilian and defense
purposes. HAARP was started in 1993 for a proposed twenty year experiment. The
SuperDARN radar project researches the high- and mid-latitudes using coherent
backscatter of radio waves in the 8 to 20 MHz range. Coherent backscatter is similar
to Bragg scattering in crystals and involves the constructive interference of scattering
from ionospheric density irregularities. The project involves more than 11 different
countries and multiple radars in both hemispheres. Scientists are also examining the
ionosphere by the changes to radio waves from satellites and stars passing through it.
The Arecibo radio telescope located in Puerto Rico, was originally intended to study
Earth's ionosphere.
Knife-Edge diffraction is the propagation mode where radio waves are bent around
sharp edges. For example, this mode is used to send radio signals over a mountain
range when a line-of-sight path is not available. However, the angle cannot be too
sharp or the signal will not diffract. The diffraction mode is lossy, so higher power or
better antennas will be needed than for an equivalent line-of-sight path.

Diffraction

Diffraction phenomena by small obstacles are also important at high frequencies.

Signals for urban cellular telephony tend to be dominated by ground-plane effects as
they travel over the rooftops of the urban environment. They then diffract over roof
edges into the street, where multipath propagation, absorption and diffraction
phenomena dominate.

Absorption

Low frequency radio waves travel easily through brick and stone and VLF even
peneterates sea-water. As the frequency rises, absorption effects become more
important. At microwave or higher frequencies, absorption by molecular resonance in
the atmosphere (mostly water, H2O) is a major factor in radio propagation. For
example, in the 58 - 60 GHz band, there is a major absorption peak which makes this
band useless for long-distance use. This phenomenon was first discovered during
radar research during World War Two. Beyond around 400 GHz, the Earth's
atmosphere blocks some segmets of spectra while still passes some - this is true up to
UV light, which is blocked by ozone, but visible light and some of the NIR is
transmitted.

Heavy rain and snow also affect microwave reception.

Fresnel zone

In optics and radio communications, a Fresnel zone (pronounced FRA-nel Zone),

named for physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, is one of a (theoretically infinite) number
of a concentric ellipsoids of revolution which define volumes in the radiation pattern
of a (usually) circular aperture. Fresnel zones result from diffraction by the circular
aperture. The cross section of the first Fresnel zone is circular. Subsequent Fresnel
zones are annular in cross section, and concentric with the first. To maximise receiver
strength you need to minimise the effect of the out of phase signals. To do that you
must make sure the strongest signals don't bump into anything - they have the
maximum chance of getting to the receiver location. The strongest signals are the
ones closest to the direct line between transmitter and receiver and always lie in the
1st Fresnel Zone. The concept of Fresnel zones may also be used to analyze
interference by obstacles near the path of a radio beam. The first zone must be kept
largely free from obstructions to avoid interfering with the radio reception. However,
some obstruction of the Fresnel zones can often be tolerated, as a rule of thumb the
maximum obstruction allowable is 40%, but the recommended obstruction is 20% or
less. For establishing Fresnel zones, we must first determine the RF Line of Sight (RF
LoS), which in simple terms is a straight line between the transmitting and receiving
antennas. Now the zone surrounding the RF LoS is said to be the Fresnel zone.

Schumann Resonance

The Schumann Resonance is a set of spectrum peaks in the extremely low frequency
(ELF) portion of the Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum. The terrestrial stationary
waves phenomenon is named after physicist Winfried Otto Schumann who predicted
it mathematically in 1952. Schumann resonance is due to the space between the
surface of the Earth and the conductive ionosphere acting as a waveguide. The
limited dimensions of the Earth cause this waveguide to act as a resonant cavity for
electromagnetic waves in the ELF band. The cavity is naturally excited by energy
from lightning strikes. Since the ninth overtone lies at approximately 60 Hz, the
cavity is also driven by the North American power grid. The lowest-frequency (and
highest-intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance is at a frequency of
approximately 7.83 Hz. Detectable overtones extend upwards into the kilohertz
range.

Tropospheric ducting

This example of 2,156 km tropospheric ducting reception shows Auckland, New

Zealand

175.25

MHz

ch4

TV

received

by

Robert

Copeman,

Sydney,

Australia.Tropospheric ducting is a type of radio propagation that tends to happen

during periods of stable, anticyclonic weather. In this propagation method, when the

signal encounters a rise in temperature in the atmosphere instead of the normal

decrease (known as a temperature inversion), the higher refractive index of the
atmosphere there will cause the signal to be bent. Tropospheric ducting affects all
frequencies, and signals enhanced this way tend to travel up 1,300 km (though some
people have received "tropo", as it is usually abbreviated, from beyond 1,600 km),
while with tropospheric-bending, stable signals with good signal strength from 800+
km) away are not uncommon when the refractive index of the atmosphere is fairly
high.Tropospheric ducting of UHF television signals is relatively common during the
summer and autumn months, and is the result of change in the refractive index of the
atmosphere at the boundary between air masses of different temperatures and
humidities. Using an analogy, it can be said that the denser air at ground level slows
the wave front a little more than does the rare upper air, imparting a downward curve
to the wave travel. Ducting can occur on a very large scale when a large mass of cold
air is overrun by warm air. This is termed a temperature inversion, and the boundary
between the two air masses may extend for 1,600 km, or more, along a stationary
weather front. Temperature inversions occur most frequently along coastal areas
bordering large bodies of water. This is the result of natural onshore movement of
cool, humid air shortly after sunset when the ground air cools more quickly than the
upper air layers. The same action may take place in the morning when the rising sun
warms the upper layers. Even though tropospheric ducting has been occasionally
observed down to 40 MHz, the signal levels are usually very weak. Higher
frequencies above 90 MHz are generally more favourably propagated. High
mountainous areas and undulating terrain between the transmitter and receiver can

form an effective barrier to tropospheric signals. Ideally, a relatively flat land path
between the transmitter and receiver is ideal for tropospheric ducting. Sea paths also
tend to produce superior results. In certain parts of the world, notably the
Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf, tropospheric ducting conditions can become
established for many months of the year to the extent that viewers receive regular
quality reception of television signals over distances up to around 1,600 km. Such
conditions are normally optimum during very hot settled summer weather.
Tropospheric ducting over water, particularly between California and Hawaii, Brazil
and Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Australia and Indonesia, and Bahrain and
Pakistan, has produced VHF/UHF reception ranging from 1,6004,800 km.
Tropospheric signals exhibit a slow cycle of fading and will occasionally produce
signals sufficiently strong for noise-free stereo reception on FM or noise-free TV
pictures, sometimes in full colour. Virtually all long-distance reception of digital
television occurs by tropospheric ducting (due to most, but not all, DTV stations
broadcasting in the UHF band). No conclusive theory has yet been formulated as to
the origin of Sporadic E. Attempts to connect the incidence of Sporadic E with the
eleven-year Sunspot cycle have provided tentative correlations. There seems to be a
positive correlation between sunspot maximum and Es activity in Europe.
Conversely, there seems to be a negative correlation between maximum sunspot
activity and Es activity in Australasia.