Topic 6: Immunity, Infections and

Forensics
DNA Profiling
Polymerase is the. enzyme used in the Polymerase Chain Reaction to
amplify DNA in a small sample of blood taken from a crime scene.
Gel Electrophoresis is the ..process used to separate DNA fragments to
create a DNA profile
Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to analyse DNA. (3)
*First, a DNA sample will be collected from blood, saliva or semen etc; *these
small samples of DNA can then be amplified by PCR. DNA profiling then takes
place which uses *restriction enzymes to break the DNA and then *uses electro
potential difference, with the DNA in a gel, to draw the bands apart. *The DNA is
stained so it can be seen and will *show up as bands/bars. *The number of bands
that match indicates the similarity of the DNA.
Name substances X, Y and Z:
Substance X ...........DNA Primers
Substance Y......... (mono)nucleotides
Substance Z ..........DNA Strands
What are the temperatures for?
T1: Heated to 9095 C
T2: Cooled to 5560 C
T3: Heated to 75 C

Using DNA profiling explain how a suspect is found guilty. (5)

A DNA match is needed, this means that *all of the bands in the sample are the
same as the ones shown in the evidence sample. *DNA profiling assumes every
individuals DNA is unique/different; *apart from identical twins. *DNA profiling
analyses the introns/noncoding blocks/STR parts of DNA as the *non-coding
areas are hypervariable because *there are a large number of introns/non-coding
blocks and so there can be *many combinations of STRs at each locus.
Suggest how DNA profiling could be useful to scientists who examine
fossils of animals and plants. (2)
1

*Comparisons could be made between DNA from fossils and other organisms *to
find genetic relationships/how closely related they are. It may also be *used in
taxonomy/classification *to understand evolutionary lines/to determine a
common ancestor.
Explain how the results of DNA profiling of tissue samples from the two
sub-species could be used to provide evidence that they share common
ancestry. (3)
DNA profiling will *produce bands that will have spread to *certain positions.
*Common/similar bands will contain similar DNA fragments; *the more similar
these patterns, the closer the relationship/more likely the sub-species will have a
recent common ancestor. *There will still be very few differences between the
DNA of sub-species.
Suggest how DNA analysis could give further evidence for evolution. (2)
DNA analysis could show the *similarity (of DNA) and indicate the closeness of a
genetic relationship *because genes are sections of DNA and these *genes are
the codes for proteins.
Why cant species of plants be identified from woody (xylem) material
using PCR and DNA profiling? (2)
Because *xylem/wood is made of dead material/has no living
material/cytoplasm/nuclei/ mitochondria, meaning *no DNA / nucleic acid is
present in the material.
Suggest why DNA polymerase from human sources is not suitable for
use in a PCR machine. (2)
*Because human enzymes will not work at high/ above 37 oC temperatures due
to *denaturation (change in shape of active site) at the temperatures found in
the PCR (55-95C).
Explain why evidence from DNA profiles may not be absolutely
conclusive. (2)
*DNA profiling has several stages and *artefacts/contamination can arise at any
stage. Furthermore as *only a few sequences/a small portion of DNA is analysed
it is *possible to get two identical profiles from unrelated individuals or for
*identical twins/closely-related individuals to show the same profile. Thus the
minimum amount to be analysed is 10STRs
Decomposition and forensics
The first stage in the decomposition of a cow pat is known as
putrefaction. Explain how carbon dioxide and ammonia are formed
during this stage of decomposition. (4)
*Microorganisms/microbes/bacteria/fungi are decomposers that *convert organic
compounds to carbon dioxide and *nitrogen compounds/proteins/amino
acids/urea to ammonia. *Aerobic/ anaerobic respiration *of the
microorganisms/bacteria/fungi is the process whereby this occurs.
Suggest why the time taken for a cow pat to decompose changes at
different times of the year. (3)
*Because in the warmer times of the year the process will be faster as more heat
energy is available and so kinetic energy is available for enzyme reactions/ to
speed up the metabolism but less is available in the winter months (temperature
effect). *There will also need to be sufficient water availability for the
2

microorganisms to survive (*e.g. If frozen it cannot be accessed) however *too

much water can lead to waterlogging which reduces oxygen availability and thus
the amount of energy produced for decomposition.
There may also be *more insects/decomposers in summer. The *rate at which the
microorganisms grow will also be a factor as it depends on how much food is
available and how long they will be there to decompose the pat.
Suggest how woodlice are involved in the recycling of carbon. (3)
*The carbon/organic compounds in plant material are broken down in *digestion
to provide respiratory substrates, *carbon dioxide is then released from them in
respiration. *This carbon dioxide is available for photosynthesis. The carbon
consumed may also become a part of the woodlices biomass until it is eaten or
dies and decomposes to release it.
Describe the role of microorganisms in the recycling of the carbon from
compounds in a dead animal. (3)
Decomposition/putrefaction occurs by microorganisms, they may digest the
carbon in the animal and then release the carbon into the atmosphere by
*respiration where the *carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis. *Methane is
released in anaerobic conditions and is *available as fuel.
Suggest three factors that could influence the rate at which a body
cools after death. (3)
*(Body) mass/ BMI / weight; *(subcutaneous) fat; *surface area; *ambient
temperature, *immersion in water; *age (of person at death); *skin colour;
*thickness of hair; *gender; *clothing; *blood loss; *humidity; *air movement;
*{core / body} temperature at time of death.
Suggest two environmental factors that influence the rate of progress
of rigor mortis in a muscle immediately after death. (2)
*Physical damage; *immersion in water; *(external) temperature; *burning;
*electrocution; *clothing; *wind/air movements; *(Presence of drugs in the body:
bio)
Suggest why a forensic scientist would need to consider rigor mortis in
several muscles of a body when estimating the time of death. (4)
Because *not all muscles will contract/relax/reach (full) rigor mortis at the same
time; *e.g. jaw muscle will contract fully before the leg muscle. *Full
contraction/rigor in muscle does not last very long; for example the *leg is still
contracting while jaw is relaxing.
Suggest how the time of death of a white rhinoceros could be
determined if it is discovered several days after being killed. (5)
You could work out the time of
death by looking at the *stage of succession on the body (if it has been a long
period of time). You could also use *(forensic) entomology which involves
identifying *the life cycle stages/ species of insect on the body *e.g. fly, beetle,
wasp. You could also work out the time of death by looking at the
*decomposition of the body as there are *different stages of decomposition.
Decomposition involves *putrefaction (discolouration of abdomen that spreads),
liquefaction of tissue, bloating and production of gases.*All of this information
(insects, succession etc) is used to determine time of death, each of these
methods conclusions are *influenced by an external factor such as temperature
that influences the rate of succession/insect development/ decomposition.
3

Suggest how Body Temperature would be useful in determining the

time of death (2)
*A drop in body temperature is linked to the amount of time that has passed
after death e.g. algor mortis, *many factors affect the temperature drop e.g.
environmental temperature, body size, clothing. It is useful because *time of
death can be calculated if the (ambient) temperature is known however it is
*only useful for a short period of time following death e.g. 24 hours/a day.
Suggest how the state of decomposition would be useful in determining
the time of death (2)
Because the *body decomposes in a specific sequence over time it can be useful
in determining time after death but *many factors affect the rate of
decomposition e.g. environmental temperature or the presence of wounds. It will
also *not be useful if all the body has decomposed.
Protein Synthesis
Statement True False? (3)
AACTAGT TGGCAAGTGGTCAC
This sequence of bases could be used as a template during translation F
A strand of mRNA could be synthesised using this sequence T
This sequence codes for 7 amino acids during protein synthesis T
Thymine cant be found in.. mRNA
A cistron is..the sequence of triplets on a section of DNA used to
form a strand of pre-mRNA
A Peptide Bond.. links the amino acids in the primary structure of a
protein
Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme is used to produce DNA from viral
RNA in an infected cell
Transcription takes place In the nucleus
The amino acids in a primary structure are linked together in
the ........Ribosome
Nucleotide is the.term used to describe each of the sub-units in a
molecule of RNA
Name and describe the structures where the polypeptide chain of an
enzyme would be synthesised. (2)
The polypeptide chain would be synthesised on the *ribosomes attached to the
membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. *The ribosomes consist of rRNA
and are a protein component of two sub-units/ a large and small sub-unit.
Explain why a molecule of DNA can be described as a double-stranded
polynucleotide. (3)
*It is double-stranded because it is made of two strands *joined by hydrogen
bonds between the bases and it is *a polynucleotide of many nucleotides that
are *linked by phosphodiester bonds.

Explain how pre-mRNA is formed during transcription in the nucleus. (3)

First the *DNA strands separate/unzip so that by the use of *DNA helicase, *one
DNA strand of 12bases is used as a template (to form mRNA) *from free
nucleotides via complementary base pairing and the formation of hydrogen
bonds between the bases. RNA-polymerase catalyses the transcription process.
Describe how free nucleotides are bonded together in the correct
sequence in the formation of pre-mRNA. (3)
*The sequence of bases/nucleotides on DNA determines the sequence on
(pre-)mRNA, the codons will *bond in complementary base pairs (give example
eg. GTA= CAU) by the formation of *phosphodiester bonds in *condensation
reactions. This process is catalysed by *RNA-Polymerase.
Explain how the translation of mRNA into the sequence of amino acids
in a ribosome occurs. (3)
*A specific amino acid is attached to tRNA (coded for by the anticodon). *The
anticodon on tRNA binds to the codon/triplet on the mRNA strand, only two tRNA
molecules are held in the ribosome at any one time. When a third tRNA comes
along the first tRNA detaches, after the *peptide bonds have formed between
the adjacent amino acids. *Peptidyl transferase catalyses this process.
Suggest why the final triplet of nucleotides, on a strand of mRNA
involved in the synthesis of a sequence of amino acids, did not
correspond with any anticodon on tRNA. (2)
Because it was a *stop codon and is *used to end the sequencing/further
attachment of tRNA and signal the *release of the polypeptide from the
ribosome.
Explain the function of the codons at each end of a strand of mRNA,
during the process of translation. (2)
*They function as start/stop/nonsense codons. The *start (codon) is needed to
begin the Polypeptide/protein synthesis and *the stop/nonsense (codon) is
needed to end polypeptide synthesis.
Suggest why a variety of different protein structures could be formed
from the polypeptides synthesised using the mRNA molecules from a
single gene. (3)
*Because there are many variations of exons/mRNA which lead to *different
primary structures of a protein/sequence of amino acids. The *secondary and
tertiary structure of the proteins depends on the primary structure.
There will also be a variety because there are *different bonds, some are
hydrogen/ionic/disulphide bonds, the proteins formed will also have *different 3D
shapes.
Describe how the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule would be used
to form the primary structure of a protein. (5)
*The sequence of bases forming the genetic code determines the amino acid
sequence as *one triplet codes for an amino acid. *The DNA acts as a template
during transcription (e.g. DNA unzips by helicase and mRNA is
synthesised).*Post-transcriptional modification of mRNA then occurs where
introns (non-coding regions of DNA) are removed by splicing using the enzyme
spliceosome, leaving only exons behind in the mRNA to join back together. After
modification the *mRNA moves from nucleus to the cytoplasm through a pore in
the nuclear membrane, so that *translation may occur on the ribosomes found
5

attached to the rER (ribosomes aid codon-anticodon interaction). *tRNA then

carries an amino acid to the ribosome and joins with its complementary base
pair, *forming peptide bonds between the amino acids forming the primary
structure of a protein this is the sequence/order of amino acids specified in DNA.
Non-Specific Immune Response
Interferon is the enzyme released in secretions to break down the cell
walls of bacteria
Histamine is the.chemical released by white cells in connective tissue
that causes swelling

D = antigens / (glyco)proteins ;
E = B {lymphocytes / cells} / plasma
cells ;
F = antibodies / immunoglobulins ;
G = macrophage / phagocyte / eq ;
H = enzymes / lysozyme ;

Explain why the processes shown in the flow diagram will only happen
in response to some types of bacteria. (3)
Because the protein nature of antigens/antibodies is different, the *antigens are
specific to each bacteria strain and the *antibodies need to be
complementary/specific to the antigen so that binding can take place. *Some
bacteria will have different/changed antigens to another, they may also have
different *slime/mucus capsules or be *inside body cells, this changes the
effectiveness of the antibodies. This is also a *primary infection meaning some
antibodies are already present from passive immunity or breast feeding.
Describe how the production and action of interferon differs from the
production and action of lysozyme. (3)
*Interferon is involved in viral infections, whereas lysozyme affects bacteria only.
*Interferon is produced only by infected cells, but lysozyme is present in all
secretions (i.e. saliva/phagocytes/neutrophils/macrophages. They have different
roles, *interferon inhibits replication of viruses and lysozyme kills/ destroys
bacteria.
Suggest why the protein structure of lysozyme is important to the way
in which it acts against pathogens. (4)
*lysozyme is an enzyme and so it *has an active site with a specific shape for
binding with our cell membranes. *The lysozyme acts on the cell wall *of bacteria
so that cell lysis occurs.

Explain why an insect bite, which breaks the surface of the skin, may
lead to inflammation around the injury. (3)
Because *histamine is released as a result of damaged tissue/cells, *it is released
from basophils/mast cells/platelets. *Histamine causes the arterioles to dilate
(vasodilation), which increases blood flow and makes the capillaries more
permeable allowing phagocytes to reach the site more easily. *Inflammation
involves oedema/swelling/redness/heat/pain at the site of injury.
In order to reduce inflammation, a cream containing antihistamines
might be applied to the skin, around an insect bite. Suggest why
applying this cream might be better than taking tablets containing
antihistamines. (3)
Because inflammation is *only a local reaction produced/that histamines
produced around the bite area and so *cream that has been applied to actual site
of production of histamine *will be more effective and have more rapid/
immediate relief as it will create a *higher concentration of antihistamine at the
site. *The antihistamines will not be digested (by enzymes)/destroyed (by acid or
enzymes) if they are applied in a cream and not tablet. The *tablets may lower
the immune response generally/lead to unpleasant side-effects.
Specific Immune Response
Natural
passive
Artificial
passive
Natural active
When MRSA enters the blood it can stimulate
the production of several different clones of
plasma cells. These produce a variety of antibodies (polyclonal
antibodies). Suggest an explanation for this. (4)
Because the *bacterium is made of many different polymers/chemicals *which
can act as different antigens, *individual B-lymphocytes will recognise specific
antigens/antibodies are specific and so only certain *B-lymphocytes are activated
by T-lymphocytes. These cells of *B-lymphocytes will then divide by mitosis *to
form genetically identical plasma cells that secrete specific antibodies.
Suggest the advantage of using monoclonal antibodies, rather than
polyclonal antibodies, in the detection of antigens in the blood. (3)
Because a *specific antigen/virus/pathogen/bacterium can be identified as the
*specific/ monoclonal antibody binds to a specific antigen. As a result *specific
treatment can be given that will *avoid unnecessary use of drugs/treatment and
will be *more likely to be effective.
State two characteristic features of antibodies. (2)
*They have glycoproteins in their cell walls; have a *specific (3D) shape, L and H
regions, Y-shape, 4 (peptide) chains, disulphide bridges between peptides, hinge
region; they also *have an antigen-binding site/variable region; all antibodies
*have a similar/constant region; they are *produced by plasma cells/present on B
cells; *their role is opsonisation, immobilisation, agglutination, lysis of foreign
cells.
7

Antibiotics
Bactericidal antibiotics is the name of antibiotics, such as vancomycin,
that kill bacterial cells
The epidermis is. a part of the skin that forms a physical barrier against
infection by pathogenic bacteria
What are bactericidal antibiotics?
Antibiotics that kill/destroy bacteria cells by weakening their cell
walls so their cells burst Ignore reference to stopping growth
Suggest how bacterial cells are killed by vancomycin (antibiotic). (2)
The antibiotic may *weaken the bacteriums cell wall or not allow it to form
properly *so the cell bursts easily, perhaps *during division.
What are bacteriostatic antibiotics?
Antibiotics that stop cells from increasing in number/replicating by preventing
cell division.
Explain what is meant by the terms bacteriostatic antibiotic and
bactericidal antibiotic. (3)
*An antibiotic is used to control/kill/prevent reproduction of bacteria.
*Bacteriostatic antibiotics will prevent the
reproduction/division/multiplication/growth of bacteria whereas *bactericidal
antibiotics will destroy/kill the bacteria.
Suggest why antibiotics may be used as part of the treatment for
influenza. (2)
Because *influenza may allow the development of other diseases e.g.
opportunistic infections and *the antibiotics will kill/inhibit growth of these
bacteria.
Suggest why health authorities in the USA are encouraging the
reduction in the number of prescriptions of antibiotics. (2)
Because *some bacteria can resist/are resistant to the antibiotics and this
*resistance is genetic/can be passed on. *MRSA, for example is already resistant
to many antibiotics.
Explain why doctors have been advised to limit the prescription of
antibiotics. (2)
Because *antibiotics act as a selective pressure, *some bacteria are already
resistant to some antibiotics. These *resistant bacteria survive and pass on the
resistance gene so that the antibiotic is no longer effective.
*Some infections cannot be treated with antibiotics (ie viral infections)
Describe how you could investigate the effect of different antibiotics on
bacteria. (4)
*Bacteria could be distributed evenly by lawn spreading, *multidisks or wells in
the agar may then be placed at known positions to see the effectiveness of the
antibiotic. The *same concentration of antibiotics must be used and the petridish
must be set using a sterile/aseptic technique/conditions. The dish must then be
kept *incubated at a suitable temperature (below 30C to prevent the growth of
8

pathogens) and *the lid of the petridish not all the way fastened to prevent the
growth of anaerobic bacteria. You can measure the effectiveness by measuring
the clear area/inhibition zone around the antibiotic area. The investigation should
be *repeated with both the same conditions and bacteria and *different bacteria
to asses overall effectiveness.
Suggest why medications, other than antibiotics, are needed to treat
the most severe cases of BRD (viral infection). (2)
Because the infection *involves both viruses (and bacteria via opportunistic
infections), and (usually) antibiotics are only effective against bacteria/do not
affect viruses. Thus *other medication will be needed to deal with viruses.
Suggest why it might be advisable to change the antibiotic being used,
in the treatment of (cattle), once a pathogen has been identified. (3)
Because the specified *antibiotic used is the most effective against the now
known bacterium. *None of the antibiotics are 100% effective/some bacteria may
survive or *be resistant or a *resistant strain may develop/be prevented by
changing the antibiotic.
Suggest how the constitution of blood may change if an ill person is
treated with antibiotic drugs. (2)
There will be *fewer lymphocytes as *the lymphocytes are no longer needed as
the *antibiotics have killed/destroyed the bacteria.
Or:
There are *more lymphocytes as there has been a *clonal expansion of
lymphocytes because the *antibiotics have not killed all the bacteria yet.
Suggest how the constitution of blood may change if an ill person is
given a placebo. (2)
*A placebo has no effect on the bacteria *so there will be more bacteria, and
*thus more lymphocytes due to *clonal expansion.

Vaccinations and prevention.

Suggest how scientists may be able to develop a means of producing
active immunity to HIV infection using synthetic HIV antigens. (5)
*This will be a method of *artificial (active) immunity, perhaps by using a
*vaccine/vaccination *containing the synthetic molecule/(synthetic) antigen/
(synthetic) glycoprotein.
*A specific/humoral immune response to the synthetic antigen will be stimulated,
i.e. *Effector B cells will be produced by clonal expansion of B cells, involving
cytokines or T helper cells will activate B cells. These will then *produce B
memory cells that will cause (2G12) antibodies to be produced faster/in greater
concentration on reinfection (secondary immune response).
Describe how a vaccine gives active immunity against PWMS. (3)
*You may use the virus as a vaccine, *which will contain
a modified/attenuated/ harmless/similar form of the virus that *contains the
virus antigen. The vaccine will stimulate the *activation of (specific) B cell/T
cell/lymphocytes and cause the *production of B/T memory cells; this means that
the *body is now able to produce (specific) antibodies faster/at higher
concentration on another exposure to the virus.

State two ways in which the skin flora can help to protect a person from
infection by pathogenic bacteria. (2)
*They provide interspecific competition for nutrients and *for space. They also
*secrete chemicals/substances/lysozyme OR affects pH so the pathogenic
bacteria cannot survive there. They also *stimulate the (skin) immune system.
Suggest why the rate of MRSA infection in different hospitals differs. (3)
*One hospital may have stricter hygiene practices such as strict *hand washing
regimes for doctors/nurses/medical staff/visitors *particularly when dealing with
open wounds. *The nurses may also have to wear suitable clothing such as no
ties or long sleeves or have *antiseptic (solutions) readily available such as *gels,
pastes, alcohol rubs. Patients may also be *isolated if they are a suspected cases
of MRSA or screening of admissions to ensure they are clean. Better hospitals
may also monitors the use of antibiotics or have *fewer patients/visitors passing
in and out.
In a study in a London hospital, it was found that pillows contaminated
with bacteria could spread infections between patients. Suggest how
this hospital could improve the prevention and control of the spread of
infections. (3)
*Hospitals will have to change a code of practice/protocol/policy/standards
currently present for dealing with hospital acquired infections. They may
introduce *clothing rules for hospital workers such as no long sleeves or jewellery
(reduces places pathogens can hide); they may also *improve laundry services of
bed linen e.g. increased washing frequency/higher washing temperature. They
may also *use special pillow cases/treat the pillow cases e.g. microfilters, treated
with antibacterials,
sterilisation, disposable pillow cases or they could *use special procedures
when carrying pillow cases/bed linen to the laundry e.g. sealed plastic bags to
prevent it spreading to the workers. *Screening of patients/isolation of infected
patients could help as the infected can be isolated to reduce the spread of
infection. *Hand washing regimes before and after seeing patients could also
reduce the spread.
HIV

Name two types of cell that HIV enters in the immune system.
*T helper/CD4 positive cell/lymphocytes; *phagocytic cells e.g. macrophages,
dendritic cell
State how the genetic material in HIV differs from the genetic material
in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes TB. (2)
*RNA is found in HIV/ virus and DNA in the bacterium/TB, *the nucleic acid in the
bacterium is circular whereas it is linear in HIV. *There are also plasmids in
bacterium and no plasmids in HIV.

10

One of the ways in which HIV may enter the blood is through the use of
infected needles. Explain why unbroken skin is an effective barrier
against HIV infection. (2)
*Keratin/protein in skin surface/epidermis *forms a physical/impenetrable barrier
to HIV.
Suggest one effect that HIV causing TKiller cells to destroy THelper
cells will have on one other component of the infected persons blood.
(1)
*B cells/lymphocytes not activated resulting in fewer antibodies and *T killer cells
increasing due to demand for use.
Describe the change in numbers of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6
weeks after infection with HIV. (2)
*Overall numbers will decrease. *There will be a small decrease in the first
week/between weeks 4-6; *however the decrease is greatest between weeks 1-3
Explain the change in numbers of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6
weeks after infection with HIV. (5)
*The glycoprotein/gp120 on the virus *binds with receptors/CD4 *on (surface)
membrane of lymphocytes, the *viral RNA then enters the lymphocyte. Once
inside the *viral RNA is used to produce viral DNA (in the lymphocyte) *by action
of reverse transcriptase *allowing the formation of new viruses. The *lymphocyte
is then destroyed when new viruses bud out of/leave the cell. The *T killer cells
then destroy the infected T helper cells/lymphocytes.
How is HIV able to enter the immune systems cells? (3)
*First, the HIV binds to (CD4) receptors on cell surface membrane (CD4 receptors
are found on the lymphocytes) *using the gp120/glycoproteins on the virus
surface. *The virus envelope then fuses with the hosts cell surface membrane
allowing viral RNA to enter the host cell. *Macrophages also have CD4 receptors
and may be infected in phagocytosis.
Describe the sequence of events following infection by HIV, which may
lead to the death of the patient. (6)
The HIVs *viral RNA is used in reverse transcription using the enzyme, *reverse
transcriptase, to *produce viral DNA using viral RNA as a copy. *The viral DNA is
then incorporated into the host cells DNA/genome by the use of the enzyme
*integrase. The hosts DNA can now be used in the *production of more
viruses/viral RNA and proteins, these virus molecules may then bud out of the
cell to *infect further (T helper) cells and destroy the recent host cell by *cell
lysis. *THelper cells are needed in the immune response to produce cytokines,
activate B cells/ killer cells. *Meanwhile there is destruction of infected (T helper)
cells by T killer cells, which also contributes to *lowering the immunity to other
diseases.
*Death may be caused by e.g. opportunistic disease, pneumonia, TB, Kaposis
sarcoma, cancer, dementia, extreme weight loss, meningitis, and toxoplasmosis.
Suggest why effective treatment of HIV in human populations will
require the continual development of a mixture of many new drugs. (4)
Because *HIV has many varieties of strains/antigens/protein coats, *some of
these strains are/will become resistant to a specific/particular drug and so *would

11

survive if only one/the same drug was used. *A mixture of drugs has more
chance of getting rid of all/ more strains.
*A concoction of drugs are used together because viruses have a rapid rate of
mutation and a *rapid rate of multiplication.
Suggest why data about HIV infections are often estimates. (2)
*Because HIV infection does not always produce symptoms (*especially in the
latency period) or are *common of other diseases and so can be confused. In
some cases a *test is needed to detect the symptomless HIV.*Only people who
suspect they may have contracted HIV would have a test, *some people may not
want to be tested/impossible to test everyone for statistics, especially as *new
cases are arising/HIV patients are dying all the time or as *new strains of the
virus are arising.
TB
State one characteristic symptom of TB other than coughing
Tubercules; bloody sputum; (general)body tissue wastage
Mycobacterium tuberculosis ..causes TB
Why is ingesting food containing TB unlikely to lead to its development?
(2)
Because the *bacteria is killed in the stomach/mouth/saliva/gastric juice *by
HCL/lysozymes
Describe how the organisms that cause TB are taken up by
macrophages. (3)
First the *bacterium is recognised as non-self by the immune system, *they are
labelled as such by B lymphocytes/cells. They are taken up into macrophages by
*phagocytosis, the *process whereby phagocytes (macrophages or neutrophils)
engulf the foreign matter and *enclose it within a vacuole where it is destroyed
by enzymes contained in the lysosome.
Bacteria and Viruses

12

Suggest two reasons why bacteria that cause infection are not visible in
a photograph. (2)
Because the *bacteria are too small and magnification/resolution is too limited;
the bacteria may *not be stained or have been removed/destroyed e.g. by
phagocytosis; *the bacteria are not present in the blood shown e.g. only a small
region is shown and they may only be present at the site of the infection.

Methodology Questions
Suggest how the pathologist might use the information in a blowfly
table and in a blow fly life cycle flow diagram to estimate the time of
death of a dead man. (3)
Because the *the body would have been dead for a while as *more than one
species of insect would be present. *The body would have gone through
succession of insect species. *The life cycle times/stages of the insects are
known from the table and used to determine time of death. *The life cycle times
depend on environmental factors such as temperature. *Credit specific ref to
information in table e.g. blowfly cycle complete.
Apart from having no vaccine, suggest how a control (group B) should
be treated during the effectiveness of a vaccination on a virus
investigation. Give reasons for your answer. (3)
You would *give a placebo to group B to provide a base line measure of
effectiveness of the vaccine and *keep all other conditions/factors/variables
controlled/same as group A *e.g. food, temperature of housing; this will increase
the findings *validity. *Group B is a control group and *so only the effect of the
vaccine is tested on A.
Compare the changes in concentrations of PCV2 antibodies in the blood
of the two groups of gilts during
pregnancy. (3)
There is a *greater change in/higher
antibody concentration in group A than
B. *Group A rises for the first 30 days
and group B rises (slightly) for the first
20 days, *this rise for group A is
faster/greater than for group B. *After
the rise group As antibodies
concentration falls, whilst group B levels
off until day 140. *After day 140, group
A rises rapidly by 1.5au, group B falls
steadily and slightly.
*Credit use of comparative manipulated figures with units.

13

(3) *The antibodies are present at birth as both groups received antibodies from
the mother *via the placenta/blood/milk/breast feeding, this is known as *passive
immunity. *Group A concentration then falls because piglets are not infected by
(PCV2) virus/antibodies are excreted/passive immunity is only short term,
however the *group B concentration rises because the PCV2/virus is present.
Describe the changes in temperature shown in
the graph.
Suggest explanations for these changes. (4)
*There is an increase in temperature for the first 4
weeks; this is because *the amount of heat (energy)
released is related to the temperature change and the
energy is released in metabolism/ respiration/named
metabolic reaction. There is a *decrease in
temperature after 4 weeks as *enzymes are
denaturing or *the substrate is running out/has run out. *Appropriate comment
on changes in numbers of microorganisms.
Suggest why you would take temperature measurements of a compost
heap by using a long thermometer at several points. (3)
Because *heat is lost from outer surface of the compost heap/temperature will
vary in different parts of the compost heap and so a *long thermometer will
measure the internal/core temperature of the heap; *this improves the validity of
the method. *Repeated readings to obtain a mean/average will *improve
reliability of the results.
Using the information about SCAG and the data, describe and suggest
explanations for the trends shown in the table. (5)

14

*As age increases, acid secretion decreases and

as *age increases (above 30), stomach cancer
cases increase; corresponding with *acid
secretion decreasing below 120.
*The {higher age groups (51+) have low acid and
high cancer/lower age groups (up to 30) have
high acid and low cancer, this *acid/low pH in
stomach kills bacteria which means *the
development of SCAG is inhibited/prevented by
the low pH/more stomach acid. *We can see age
affects the immune system and so *the older you
are the more acid-producing cells are less
effective e.g. fewer acid-producing
cells/cancerous cells replace the acid-producing
cells because *acid/low pH destroys cancer cells.
*Mutations leading to cancer are more likely to
occur with age.

*226 142 =84 *84 226 =37.2/37.17/37%

A target set by health authorities in the USA for the number of

prescriptions per 10 000 population by 2012 is 128, an overall reduction
of 43.4% since 2000. Suggest whether this target will be achieved. Give
an explanation for your answer. (3)
*Yes *if current rate continues, you could *achieve lower than the target.
*Credit use of supporting figures.
Using the data in the table, suggest with reasons what conclusions
scientists might make about the ancestral
relationships of humans and apes. (4)
*Humans are more closely related to chimp
than to orangutan and gorilla and the *humans
and chimps are more closely related to
orangutan than gorilla. *This
similarity of sequence indicates the closeness
of an ancestral relationship *i.e. the human
and chimp sequence are identical and the
*orangutan has one difference, whilst gorilla
has two; as in *number 19 for orang utan/number 9 and 19 for gorilla different.
*Enrofloxacin and florfenicol. *Because they have a high effectiveness against all
three bacteria *(its above 80%/83%/the average is above 90%.

15

Discuss how far the data in the graphs

support the following hypothesis:
The increase in HIV infection in central
Africa has led to an increase in TB
infection. (4)
*Both HIV and TB infection
rates rise and then fall,
and TB infection increase
2000/for the first 10 years.
falls from 2000 onwards but
rise until 2004. There are

*both HIV infection

from 1990 to
*But TB infection
HIV continues to
also *different

parameters/measures/variables for the two infections.

And so *more data/information is needed/other factors may be involved, so there
is a need for a statistical analysis/test *Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient.
*There is no data that links HIV infection with TB infection/shows that people with
HIV also have TB/shows a causal relationship.

Explain what the data

indicates about the
reliability of using core
temperature to estimate
the
time of death. (4)
*SD measures/shows the
range
of data, *most readings are
within
+ 1xSD/+ 2xSD e.g. approx
60%
readings within (+)1 x
SD/approx 90% readings
within
(+) 2xSD.
*As the length of time increases so does SD, meaning theres *more variability in
temperature as time increases, causing a *decrease in the reliability of time of
death with time. Thus an *estimate of time of death can only be done within a 47 hour period. *Use of manipulated data.
16