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Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal.
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Music Perception
Summer 1988, Vol. 5, No. 4, 391-426
Introduction
As scientistsstudyinganimalbehavior,we are often so engrossedby the
functionaland evolutionarysignificanceof birdsongas a communication
signalthatwe forgetthe powerfulaestheticfeelingsit holds for us as a kind
of naturalmusic. Suchwas not the case for an earliergenerationof scientists. For those who lackedthe technologyfor recordingbird sounds and
for analyzingtheir structurewith devices such as the sonagraph(Potter,
Kopp, & Green,1947), it was commonpracticeto annotatebirdsongson
a musicalstaff (e.g., Mathews,1921; Figure1). Someethologistseven suggested that birdsongmust be viewed as primitiveart, beautifulfrom the
bird'spoint of view as well as our own (Mathews,1921; Saunders,1929;
Craig,1943; Koehler,1951; Hartshorne,1958; Thorpe,1961; Armstrong,
1963; Hall-Craggs,1969). As a preludeto his discussionof "vocaland instrumentalmusic" in birds, Darwin (1874, p. 697) remarked:"On the
whole, birds appearto be the most aestheticof all animals,exceptingof
course man, and they have nearlythe same taste for the beautifulas we
have."
Requests for reprints may be addressed to either author at The Rockefeller University
Field Research Center, RR #2, Box 38B, Tyrrel Road, Millbrook, New York 12545.
391
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Fig. 1. Song sparrow songs transcribedusing Western musical notation. Shown are 12 songs
from four individuals (A, B, C, and D). Note that songs differ from bird to bird and that
each individual has several song types in his repertoire. From Mathews (1921, p. 113), reprinted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
393
(1753) concludedthat the vocal organof birdsacts much the same as the
doublereedof an oboe. The famedanatomistGeorgesCuvier(1800, 1805)
agreedwith the instrumentalanalogy,but offeredthe Frenchhorn and the
tromboneas more accuratecomparisons.Similarly,organpipes and other
reed or brassinstrumentshave been suggestedas models for avian vocal
production(e.g., Hacker, 1900; Rthi, 1908; Rppell, 1933).
Each analogy with a musical instrumentimplies a conceptionof how
sound is producedby the bird'svocal system. For example, the acoustic
sourceof an oboe, a vibratingdoublereed,is quite differentin its physical
fromthoseof vibratinghumanlips,whichform
andacousticcharacteristics
the acousticsourceof a trombone.Thus, the differingviews of Hrissant
and Cuvierreflectedtheir contrastinginterpretationsof how vibrationis
inducedin the syrinx.One featureis shared,however,by all suchanalogies.
In woodwindand brassinstruments,the vibrationof the sourceis strongly
influencedby the acousticalpropertiesof the air column with which it is
associated.Thatis, the sourceis moreor less constrainedto produceacoustic oscillationsat frequenciescorrespondingto resonancesof the attached
tube (Benade, 1976). These instrumentalanalogies suggest, then, that
changesin the resonancecharacteristicsof a bird'svocal tractassumeparamountimportancein determiningthe fundamentalfrequencyof the song
it produces.
Otherresearchershavesuggestedthat,in spiteof anatomicaldifferences,
syringealoperationmaybe analogizedto humanphonation(Thorpe,1959;
Klatt & Stefanski,1974). The most significantimplicationof the human
modelis the functionalrelationshipbetweenthe acousticsourceon the one
hand and associatedacousticresonancesof the rest of the vocal tract on
the other.Inhumanphonation,the oscillationof the vocal foldsis generally
uninfluencedby the acousticpropertiesof the vocal tract.Instead,the tract
resonancesact as an acousticfilter,selectivelyattenuatingsomefrequencies
whilelettingotherspassfreely.As thehumanvocaltractchangesshapeduring speech,thereareshiftsin theseresonances(knownas formats),creating
differingamplitudespectrain the emittedsounds (Fant, 1960).
In morerecenttimes,analogiesof syringealfunctionwith eithermusical
instrumentsor humanspeechhave falleninto disfavor.With the adventof
new technologyfor sound analysis,some general acoustic propertiesof
birdsongbecamemore apparent,greatlycomplicatingcomparisonswith
other soundproducingsystems.The most outstandingof these properties
is the presencein many birdsongsof two tones, not harmonicallyrelated,
that are independentlymodulated.Early anatomicalinvestigationssuggestedthat the songbirdsyrinxcould be a functionallydoublevocal organ
(Cuvier,1800; Savart,1826; Hacker, 1900). However,it awaitedthe unambiguousdocumentationof the presenceof two soundsnot readilyattributableto a singlesource,with the sound spectrograph,for the "two-voice
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of courtshipand mating,to sounds that mediatein interactionsbetweenparentsand offspring(Nottebohm,1975). Unlikesongs, calls aretypically
brief,and manyhave a broadband,noisy structure.This commondistinction betweencalls and songs can be clearlyseen in a remarkablebook by
Bergmannand Helb (1982), which illustrateswith morethan 2000 sound
spectrogramsthe songs and calls of some 400 speciesof Europeanbirds,
abouthalf of them songbirds.Thereis a predominanttendencyfor the oscinesongsto be tonal. In most cases,not only arebirdsongstonal, but their
constituentnotes are in fact limitedto a single,narrow-band"puretone"
(e.g., Figure2), apparentlydevoidof the upperharmonicsso characteristic
of the voice and most musicalinstruments.
Evensongs that sound dissonantor nasal to our ears may have a tonal
basis. Membersof the subfamilyIcterinaerangefrom the beautifullymelodic songs of meadowlarksand oriolesto the raspingbuzz of the yellowheadedbackbird.Soundspectrographicanalysisrevealsthat this buzzconsists, not of noise, but of a tone that is subjectedto rapid and irregular
frequencymodulation(Figure3). Becauseof variationsin frequencyof both
the carrierand modulation,the resultingclustersof side-bandsvary in interval,hencethe noisy quality.The songs of differentIcteridspeciescan be
arrangedin a progressiveseries,rangingfromthe musicalityof the Brewer's
blackbird,throughthe pleasantdissonanceof red-wingedblackbirdsong,
to the ratherharsh buzz of the yellow-headedblackbird.Equivalentpatternsof sidebandscan readilybe synthesizedby differentratesand depths
of frequencymodulation(Hund,1942; Marier,1969; Figure4). By the appropriatechoice of analysisbandwidth(see Figure4), many apparently
noisy birdsongsare found to be structuredin this fashion (Marier,1969).
Fig. 2. Sonagrams of typical song and swamp sparrow songs (Kay Digital Sona-Graph
Model 7800, 8-kHz analysis range, 300-Hz analysis bandwidth). Like a musical score, sonagrams are "read" from left to right with distance on the horizontal axis corresponding to
timing and duration. Position on the vertical axis indicates frequency, and amplitude is
roughly indicated by the darkness of a trace at any point. The song sparrow song (above)
comprises 3 1 separate notes (numbered).The notes are arranged as a trill of 4 syllables (each
syllable made up of 3 distinct notes), followed by a note complex of 5 distinct notes, another
trill of 4 3 -note syllables, ending with a 2-note note complex. The segmental syntax of trillnote complex-trill-note complex is the most common pattern found in song sparrows. The
swamp sparrow song (below) comprises 56 separate notes, arranged in a single trill of 14
syllables, each syllable composed of 4 distinct notes. The great majority of swamp sparrow
songs are single trills, although some birds include a 2-trill song in their repertoire.
398
Fig. 3. Songs of three Icterids that include frequency modulated tones. The terminal portion
of the Brewer's blackbird song (A) is pleasingly musical, while that of the red-winged blackbird (B) is nasal and dissonant, and that of the yellow-headed blackbird (C) is a harsh, jangling tone. A and B are shown at three playback speeds (all time markers shown are 0.1
sec); in each case, both wide filter bandwidth (w) and narrow filter bandwidth (n) analyses
are shown, illustrating the effect of relative analysis bandwidth on the ability of the analyzer
to resolve complex modulations (Kay Sona-Graph Model 6061B). Reprinted from Marier
(1969, Plate 4).
399
Thus, whereasmusicalnotes are generallysteady-state,other than patternsof attack, decay, and vibrato,notes in birdsongare often subjected
to extrememodulationsacross their duration.Modulationsthat are too
rapidfor our ears or analyzersto resolveresultin broadbandsignals(Figures3, 4), while slowermodulationsappearas impressiveglissandior crescendi(e.g.,swampsparrowin Figure2). One of the moreunusualacoustic
featuresof birdsongis that amplitudemodulations(AM) and frequency
modulations(FM) are often coupled (Greenewalt,1968). That is, the instantaneousamplitudeand instantaneousfrequencyof notes covary. At
lower frequencies,this couplingis directsuch that amplitudeincreasesas
frequencyincreases.Above a certainfrequencylimit, which differsfrom
speciesto species,the couplingremainsequallyas strong,but becomesinverse, with amplitude decreasing as frequency increases (Greenewalt,
Fig. 4. A tone of about 3.5-kHz frequency modulated at various rates and depths and visualized sonagraphically (Kay Sona-graph Model 606 IB). The modulation rates are: (A) 25
Hz; (B) 50 Hz; (C) 100 Hz; (D) 200 Hz. The modulation depth (or "range") in I is zero.
In II and III, the depths are approximately 150 Hz and 250 Hz, respectively. In all
cases, the analysis range is 8 kHz and both wide band (W, analysis bandwidth = 300 Hz)
and narrow band (N, analysis bandwidth = 45 Hz) analyses of each sound are shown. The
time marker is 0.1 sec. Modified from Marier (1969, Plate 3).
400
1968). This couplingbetweenAM and FM accountsfor manyof the complex modulationsobservedin birdsongand providesa challengefor any
mechanisticexplanationof how song is produced.
In summary,the notesfromwhichbirdsongsareconstructedvarywidely
in spectralstructure,but aremost typicallypuretoneswith a narrowbandwidth, often subjectedto varyingdegreesof FM and AM. At slowermodulationrates,one observespronouncedglissandiand crescendi.Withrapid
modulation,eitherin frequency,amplitude,or both, thereis an increasein
bandwidth,resultingin complextones and buzzes.In contrastwith song,
the absenceof tonality from many bird calls impliesthat the vocal apparatusof songbirdscanoperatein severalmodes,at leastone of whichis specializedto generatesounds of a highly tonal nature.
401
Fig. 5. External view of a typical oscine syrinx, showing the arrangement of cartilaginous
elements and syringeal musculature. Opening at the top is the base of the trachea and the
incomplete rings at the bottom are the first several elements of the two bronchi leading to
the lungs. Each of the seven syringeal muscle pairs is labeled, as is the syringeal aponeurosis,
the point at which the trachea emerges from the membrane of the interclavicular airsac in
the thoracic cavity. Modified from George and Berger (1966, Figure IX. 19).
These three points, and the evidenceadducedin their support,are reviewed below. More comprehensivediscussionsof this materialcan be
found in reviews by Brackenbury(1980, 1982) and Gaunt (Gaunt &
Gaunt, 1985; Gaunt, 1987).
The Acoustic
Sources
402
the C facing medially(Ames, 1971; Warner,1972). Of the severalmembranesand lobes of tissue within the syrinx that could play a role in the
inductionof vibration(Figure6), most attentionhas focusedon the medial
tympaniformmembranes(MTMs).Theseareverythin, elasticmembranes
stretchingacrossthe medialsurfacesof the bronchi,connectedon theirventral and dorsal aspectsto the ends of the bronchialC-rings.Oppositethe
MTMsarethe externallabia,thickenedpadsof epitheliumon the innerlateral walls of the third bronchialrings (Hacker, 1900; Setterwall,1901;
Miskimen,1951; Greenewalt,1968; Warner,1972).
The syrinxis enclosedentirelywithin the interclavicularairsac(ICAS),
one of the several airsacsthat branchfrom the bird's lungs and ramify
throughoutits body (Ames,1971; Schmidt-Nielsen,1971; Kloek& Casier,
1972). Songbirdsgenerallyare unableto sing if the ICAShas been punctured (Hrissant,1753; Smith, 1977), suggestingthat pressuremust be
maintainedin this airspacefor normalsoundproductionto occur.Rppell
(1933) confirmedthis idea by isolatinga freshlydissectedherringgull syrinx in a bell jar, with tubes attachedto permitairflowthroughthe inside
of the organ.He observedthatthe MTMsonlyvibratedwhenextendedinto
the lumenof the bronchias a resultof increasedexternalairpressuresuch
as is presumablygeneratedwithin the interclavicularairsac.
Greenewalt(1968) suggestedthat, when the MTM extends into the
bronchus,airflowfrom the lungs createsa Bernoullieffect,lesseningpressureon the bronchialside of the membraneand drawingit in even further.
As the membraneextendsmaximallyinto the bronchus,the Bernoulliforce
reachesan equilibriumwith the counteractingforceof the membrane'sown
elastic tension. At this point, viscous flow losses reduceBernoulli'sforce
and the membranewithdrawsuntil forces reequilibrateand the cycle repeats. Thus, Greenewaltproposedthat oscillationof the syringealmembranesis aerodynamicallydriven,similarto the way oscillationis induced
in humanvocal folds (Ladefoged,1962; Lieberman,1977, 1984).
There are two criticaldifferencesbetweenthe syringealmembranesof
the birdand vocal folds of the humanlarynxas acousticsources.First,the
two vocal folds act as a single acoustic source, whereas the MTMs are
thoughtto be independentof each other. Second,the oscillatorycycle of
the vocal folds includesa significantperiodduringwhich the two folds are
in contact, occludingthe airstreamcompletely.Closureof the vocal folds
is responsiblefor creatingdiscrete"puffs"of airin the glottalflow pattern,
accountingfor the harmonicnatureof the humanvocal source(Fant,1960;
Broad,1973). By contrast,it was suggestedthat the MTMs rarelytraverse
the entirebronchiallumen and thus createa more nearlysinusoidalpressuredisturbance.The significanceof a sinusoidalacousticsourceis that it
would accountfor the puretone natureof many birdsounds (Greenewalt,
1968).
403
Fig. 6. Cross section through a typical oscine syrinx, in this case a European blackbird. Abbreviations: Tr, trachal ring; T, fused trachal rings; B, modified bronchial ring; Br, bronchial half-ring; Ps, pessulus; M, musculature; s, semilunar membrane; ml, medial labium;
11,lateral labium; mtm, medial tympaniform membrane; f, foramen continguous with interclavicular airsac; bd, bronchidesmus (interbronchial ligament). Modified from Hacker
(1900, Figure 2).
This model of how birdsong is produced has little in common with the
acoustic sources found in wind instruments, most of which are described
as pressure- or flow-controlled valves (Benade, 1976). A recent alternative
to the Greenewalt model, however, suggests that birds generate sound in
a manner similar to a hole-tone whistle (Nottebohm, 1976; Gaunt, Gaunt,
&CCasey, 1982; Casey &cGaunt, 1985). This hypothesis was proposed in
part because theoretical analyses of membrane vibration did not support
Greenewalt's (1968) view that the MTMs would oscillate in an essentially
sinusoidal fashion (Casey &cGaunt, 1985; Gaunt &cGaunt, 1985). A holetone whistle, also known as a "Rayleigh bird call" (Rayleigh, 1896, v. II,
p. 410), generates sound by creating stable vortices in the air flow that are
shed as the result of a constriction. Such a whistle is capable of creating a
relatively pure tone (Rayleigh, 1896; Chanaud &cPowell, 1965; Wilson,
Beavers, DeCoster, Holger, &CRegenfuss, 1971; Casey & Gaunt, 1985).
404
in Birdsong
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Fig. 7. Sonagram of the terminal trill of a wood thrush song (Kay Digital Sona-Graph Model
7800, 16-kHz analysis range, 300-Hz analysis bandwidth). It illustrates the simultaneous
presence of two "voices" that are harmonically unrelated and independently modulated, but
note that they are pitched within the pass band of a single vocal tract resonance.
instrumentexample,thesourceandacousticresonatorarestronglycoupled
suchthat the sourceis constrainedto vibrateonly at frequenciespermitted
by the associatedresonances.In humanspeech,by contrast,the source(the
vocalfoldsof the larynx)andthe associatedresonancesof the vocal cavities
actindependentlysuchthatthe sourceis not directlyinfluenced.Insteadthe
resonancesact as a complexacousticfilter,selectivelyemphasizingparticular frequencybands and attenuatingothers. In both cases, the emitted
sound is modulatedby changesin acoustic resonances.
The fact that the two sides of an oscine bird'ssyrinx appearto operate
independentlyoriginallyled to the hypothesisthat vocal tract resonances
play no role in the productionof birdsong(Greenewalt,1968). The avian
vocal tractcould not be actingas a coupledresonatorin the mannerof a
musicalinstrument,sincea singleresonator,the vocal tract,could not supporttwo harmonicallyunrelatedsounds.It was also arguedthat vocal resonancescould not be actingas an uncoupledacousticfilter,in the manner
of humanspeech,becauseno relationshipwas found betweenthe amplitude and frequencyof song syllablesand the predictedresonancesof the
tracheaof songbirdsmodeledas a simpletube closedat one end. Similarly,
analysisof the broadbandglissandifoundin manybirdsongsuncoveredno
relationshipbetweenamplitudeand frequencycorrespondingto these inferredtuberesonances(Greenewalt,1968). This argumentagainstacoustic
filtrationby vocal resonancesassumesthat the filterpropertiesof a bird's
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Fig. 8. (A) Sonagram of a normal "chick-a-dee" call with two introductory and four "dee"
notes (Kay Digital Sona-Graph Model 7800, 8-kHz analysis range, 45-Hz analysis bandwidth). (B) Amplitude spectrum for a 40-msec section of a "dee," as marked with an arrow
in A (Nicolet Mini-Ubiquitous FFT analyzer; frequency resolution, 25 Hz). The first two
components with significant energy and the component of maximum amplitude are numbered, as described in the text. Reprinted with permission from Nowicki and Capranica
(1986a, Figure 1). Copyright 1986 by the AAAS.
409
Fig. 9. Comparison of pre- and postoperative amplitude spectra for four different chickadees. (A-D) Preoperative spectra, with frequency components numbered as in Figure 8B.
(E,F)Postoperative spectra following section of the nerve leading to the right side of the syrinx. (G, H) Postoperative spectra following section of the left nerve. Arrows indicate postoperative harmonic components as described in the text. Each postoperative signal was generated by the same bird responsible for the preoperative signal above it. Note the
relationshipbetween preoperative Component #1 and the postoperative fundamental in the
case of a right nerve section and between preoperative Component #2 and the postoperative
fundamental in the case of a left section. Reprinted with permission from Nowicki and Capranica (1986a, Figure 2). Copyright 1986 by the AAAS.
410
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Fig. 10. Sonagrams of typical song and swamp sparrow songs recorded both in normal air
and in helium air. (a) Song sparrow song, normal air; (b) same song sparrow songtype, but
in helium air; (c) swamp sparrow song, normal air; (d) same swamp sparrow songtype, but
in helium air (Kay Digital Sona-graph Model 7800, 16-kHz analysis range, 300-Hz analysis
bandwidth). Note that every note appearing as a pure tone in normal air displays harmonic
overtones in helium.
413
Fig. 11. (a, b) Sonagrams of "chick-a-dee" calls in normal air (a) and helium air (b) (Kay
Digital Sona-Graph Model 7800, 8-kHz analysis range, 300-Hz analysis bandwidth), (c, d)
Amplitude spectra of the second "dee" notes of the calls illustrated in a and b, respectively
(spectragenerated digitally, using a 25-kHz sampling rate, 10-kHz analysis range, 128 point
FFT,yielding a frequency resolution of 156 Hz; each spectrum is an average calculated over
the entire duration of a note). Note the shifted emphasis to higher frequencies in the helium
case (b, d).
414
Fig. 12. Sonagraphs of two song sparrow songtypes recorded in normal air (a, c) and helium
air (b, d) (Kay Digital Sona-Graph Model 7800, 16-kHz analysis range, 300-Hz analysis
bandwidth). Arrows mark notes illustrated in Figures 13 and 15, as discussed in the text.
415
Fig. 13. Amplitude spectra of notes marked with arrows in Figure 12a, b (above is normal
air, below is helium air), as described in the text. Note the lack of a significant shift in the
fundamental frequency as well as the appearance of a true harmonic in helium. The amplitudes of signals in helium have been increased in gain by 10 dB compared to their counterparts in normal air to best illustrate the emergent frequency component. Spectra are averages generated digitally as described for Figure lie, d. Modified from Nowicki (1987,
Figure 2).
416
unpubl.data).That is, the birddoes not appearto open its beakwider for
higher amplitudesounds, but does open it wider for higher frequency
sounds, as predictedif the beak is a partialdeterminantof acousticresonancesof the tract.
Theseresultsdemonstratethat by no meansare all of the acousticpropertiesof birdsongssourcegenerated.Likehumanspeech,the vocal tractis
activelyinvolvedin shapingthe emittedsounds.Thereare significantcontrastsas well, perhapsthegreatestbeingthatoscinebirdspossesstwo sound
417
Fig. 15. Amplitude spectra of three consecutive syllables in normal air (solid lines), illustrating the overlap in frequency ranges of the second harmonic component of Syllable 2,
apparent only in helium (dashed line), and the normal fundamental frequencies of adjacent
Syllables 1 and 3. Syllable 2 here corresponds to the syllable marked with arrows in Figure
12c, d. The amplitude spectrum in helium is shown for Syllable 2 only. Note that a change
in the frequency response characteristics of the vocal filter must occur from syllable to syllable in order to account for the lack of energy in the second harmonic component of Syllable
2 in normal air (spectra are averages generated digitally as described for Figure lie, d).
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Fig. 16. Sonagrams illustrating typical exemplars of songs produced by song and swamp
sparrows under four conditions: (1) normal learning in the wild (A & E, with one syllable
of a second dialect also shown in A), (2) acoustic isolation, but with intact hearing (B &
F), (3) isolated, but trained with tape recordings of normal adult songs of their species (C
& G), and (4) isolated and deafened (D & H). (Kay Digital Sona-Graph Model 7800, 8-kHz
analysis range, 300-Hz analysis bandwidth, frequency markers are 1-kHz intervals, time
marker is 0.5 sec.)
422
theirinfluenceon how a song should sound to the singerhimself.This information,althoughnot sufficientto completelyspecifynormaladultsong,
is exploited even if birds are deprivedof access to normalmodels. There
are still abnormalitiesin the tonal qualityof songs of isolatedbirds,however,suggestingthat accessto externalmodelsalso influencesthe development of normalcoordinationbetweenthe two sides of the syrinx,and between syrinx and vocal tract.As can be discernedin Figure16F, songs of
isolatesoften have a complexspectralstructure,with a muchstrongeremphasison overtonesthan is the case in normalsong. In fact, thereareoften
strikingsimilaritiesbetween the spectralorganizationof songs of birds
rearedin isolationand songs of birdssingingin a heliumatmosphere(see
Marier & Sherman,1985; Nowicki, 1987). This correspondenceis so
widespreadas to suggestthat the capacityto developnormalvocal coordinationis dependentupon some form of learning,the precisenatureof
which has yet to be established.It may be a directconsequenceof experience of adult songs that are themselvestonal in nature.
423
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