Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu is an Incan citadel set high in the Andes Mountains in Peru, above the Urubamba River
valley. Built in the 15th century and later abandoned, its renowned for its sophisticated dry-stone walls
that fuse huge blocks without the use of mortar, intriguing buildings that play on astronomical alignments,
and panoramic views

Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire.[7] Its construction appears to
date to the period of the two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (143871) and Tpac Inca
Yupanqui(147293).[8] It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of
the Spanish Conquest.[7][9] It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by
travellers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area.[10]
Although located only about 80 kilometers (50 mi) from the Inca capital in Cusco, the Spanish never
found Machu Picchu and so did not plunder or destroy it, as they did many other sites. [11] The
conquistadors had notes of a place called Piccho, although no record of a Spanish visit exists. The
types of sacred rocks defaced by the conquistadors in other locations are untouched at Machu
Picchu.[9]
The complex of palaces and plazas, temples and homes may have been built as a ceremonial site, a military
stronghold, or a retreat for ruling elitesits dramatic location is certainly well suited for any of those purposes. The
ruins lie on a high ridge, surrounded on three sides by the windy, turbulent Urubamba River some 2,000 feet (610
meters) below.
Scholars are still striving to uncover clues to the mysteries hidden here high in the eastern slopes of the Andes,
covered with tropical forests of the upper Amazon Basin. Machu Picchu appears to lie at the center of a network of
related sites and trailsand many landmarks both man-made and mountainous appear to align with astronomical
events like the solstice sunset. The Inca had no written language, so they left no record of why they built the site or
how they used it before it was abandoned in the early 16th century.
Landscape engineering skills are in strong evidence at Machu Picchu. The sites buildings, walls, terraces, and ramps
reclaim the steep mountainous terrain and make the city blend naturally into the rock escarpments on which it is
situated. The 700-plus terraces preserved soil, promoted agriculture, and served as part of an extensive waterdistribution system that conserved water and limited erosion on the steep slopes.

The Sasanian Empire (/ssnn/ or /ssenn/), also known

as Sassanian, Sasanid, Sassanid or Neo-Persian Empire),[10] known to its inhabitants
as rnshahr[1] in Middle Persian language,[a] was the last Iranian empire before the rise of Islam,
ruled by and named after the Sasanian dynasty from 224 to 651.[2][12] The Sasanian Empire, which
succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its
neighboring arch rival the Roman-Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years.[13][14][15]

The Sasanian Empire during Late Antiquity is considered to have been one of Iran's most important
and influential historical periods, and constituted the last great Iranian empire before the Muslim
conquest and the adoption of Islam.[17] In many ways, the Sasanian period witnessed the peak of
ancient Iranian civilization. Persia influenced Roman culture considerably during the Sasanian
period.[18] The Sasanians' cultural influence extended far beyond the empire's territorial borders,
reaching as far as Western Europe,[19] Africa,[20] China and India.[21] It played a prominent role in the
formation of both European and Asian medieval art.[22] Much of what later became known as Islamic
culture in art, architecture, music and other subject matter was transferred from the Sasanians
throughout the Muslim world.[23]
The Sasanian kings were enlightened patrons of letters and philosophy. Khosrau I had the works
of Plato and Aristotle translated into Pahlavi taught at Gundishapur, and even read them himself.
Sasanian carvings at Taq-e Bostan and Naqsh-e Rustam were colored; so were many features of
the palaces; but only traces of such painting remain. The literature, however, makes it clear that the
art of painting flourished in Sasanian times; the prophet Mani is reported to have founded a school of
painting; Firdowsi speaks of Persian magnates adorning their mansions with pictures of Iranian
heroes; and the poet al-Buhturi describes the murals in the palace at Ctesiphon. When a Sasanian
king died, the best painter of the time was called upon to make a portrait of him for a collection kept
in the royal treasury.
Painting, sculpture, pottery, and other forms of decoration shared their designs with Sasanian textile
art. Silks, embroideries, brocades, damasks, tapestries, chair covers, canopies, tents and rugs were
woven with patience and masterly skill, and were dyed in warm tints of yellow, blue and green. Every
Persian but the peasant and the priest aspired to dress above his class; presents often took the form
of sumptuous garments; and great colorful carpets had been an appendage of wealth in the East
since Assyrian days. The two dozen Sasanian textiles that have survived are among the most highly
valued fabrics in existence. Even in their own day, Sasanian textiles were admired and imitated from
Egypt to the Far East; and during the Middle Ages, they were favored for clothing the relics of
Christian saints. When Heraclius captured the palace of Khosrau II Parvez at Dastagerd, delicate
embroideries and an immense rug were among his most precious spoils. Famous was the "Winter
Carpet", also known as "Khosrau's Spring" (Spring Season Carpet ) of Khosrau
Anushirvan, designed to make him forget winter in its spring and summer scenes: flowers and fruits
made of inwoven rubies and diamonds grew, in this carpet, beside walks of silver and brooks of
pearls traced on a ground of gold. Harun al-Rashid prided himself on a spacious Sasanian rug
thickly studded with jewelry. Persians wrote love poems about their rugs. [77]
Studies on Sasanian remains show over 100 types of crowns being worn by Sasanian kings. The
various Sasanian crowns demonstrate the cultural, economic, social and historical situation in each

period. The crowns also show the character traits of each king in this era. Different symbols and
signs on the crownsthe moon, stars, eagle and palm, each illustrate the wearer's religious faith and
beliefs.[

ARCHITECTURE
iii. Sasanian Periods
1. Building materials. Sasanian architecture is characterized by the widespread use of mortar
masonry and the associated vaulting techniques. Although mud brick had been developed long
before, and mortar constructions were known in Parthian times, both became preeminent in the
high-standard architecture of the Sasanians. Mud brick remained a most important building
material and only its impermanence shifts our attention to the better preserved stone and brick ruins
of Sasanian architecture. Among these, rubble stone masonry with gypsum mortar is predominant.
Brickwork was frequently used for vaults and domes, although there are a number of buildings made
entirely of brick. Dressed ashlar appears sporadically, mainly in the early and late phases of the
empire, and seems to be due to western influence
2. Construction and structural types. (a) Vaulted constructions. Sasanian vaulting techniques
depend largely on the special qualities of gypsum mortar, which allows vaulting without centering
because of its short setting time. Barrel vaults with pitched courses, the most frequent system, owe
their elliptical shape and their significant step out above the impost to this technical procedure,
which requires only a back wall or a narrow strip of centering for the first courses, with the following
ones successively glued in front. Notwithstanding its practical advantages, vaulting without centering
prevented the development of geometrically advanced constructions. Semicircular barrel vaults
appear only when built on centering as a voussoir arch with lying courses. The cross vault, resulting
from the intersection of two barrel vaults at right angles, was not developed. There are no examples
of pointed arches built by formal intention, although they occur as a result of building practice in
lesser monuments. The standard unit of the rectangular barrel-vaulted room was frequently enlarged
by vaulted bays. Adjoining semidomes occur rarely, although in vernacular architecture the use of
the squinch vault, probably an ancient technique and one widely regarded as the origin of the Iranian
dome, results in a hybridization of semidome or dome and cloister vault. With the barrelvaulted ayvn, a rectangular room with the front side open, the visible shape of the vault became the
dominant feature of the facade. Already present in Parthian time, the ayvn became the most
conspicuous element of Sasanian and later Iranian architecture.

(b) Domed constructions. The propagation of the dome on squinches above a square hall may be
regarded as the most significant Sasanian contribution to Middle-Eastern architecture. This most
uncomplicated and solid of all constructive systems already appears fully developed in the buildings
of Ardar I in Frzbd (Plate V). Its tectonic disposition remained basically unchanged throughout
the Sasanian period and had a decisive impact on Islamic architecture; its empirical form clearly
distinguished Eastern dome construction from the abstract geometrical concept of Western domes
with pendentives. The variety of squinch forms demonstrates an increasing effort to find satisfying
forms for what was originally a purely constructive element. In its early stage (e.g. Frzbd) the
cupola proper does not yet have a perfectly circular base, but rises on a fairly well rounded octagon.
Later examples (e.g. Qa r-e rn) draw nearer to geometric perfection, which is finally achieved in
Islamic architecture.
The elevation of the domed hall consists of three horizontal zones: (1) plain walls, generally with
doors or arches at the four axial intercepts; (2) a zone of transition including the corner squinches
and generally windows or decorative niches at the main axes; (3) the cupola proper. The addition of
barrel-vaulted bays to all four sides of the square produced the mature scheme that was to become a
standard type for representative architecture in Iran until the present. This cruciform plan, based on
the ahr-q,
the square with four arches, appears in the earliest examples of Sasanian architecture,
(e.g. Tat-e Nen in Frzbd); it may have been inspired by Roman and Parthian architecture,
although the central square was generally covered by cross or barrel vaults in those monuments.
(c) Columns and other supporting constructions. With the introduction of far-spanning vaults, the
use of columns as constructive elements was widely discarded. There are examples of archaizing
slender columns with bases, capitals, and sometimes fluted shafts that maintain Achaemenid or
Hellenistic traditions (e.g. Bpr, Nrbd, K), while those of later monuments (e.g. Bsotn,
q-e Bostn) reflect a fresh Western, Byzantine influence. But most often the column was
transformed into a massive, round or rectangular pillar suitable for vaulted masonry constructions.
Apart from their use in colonnades (e.g. Kangvar), pillars distinguish a characteristic group of
generally three-aisled halls covered by longitudinal or transversal barrel vaults (e.g. l arn,
Dmn, Ctesiphon, Tat-e Solaymn, Tepe Ml). Nonetheless the typical supporting elements
remained the massive wall, and pillars more often appear as relics of a wall pierced by arches than as
individual tectonic members.
(d) Constructive and decorative details. Clay remained the chief coating material for flat and vaulted
roofs as well as for floors which were frequently covered with gypsum plaster, stone, or in rare cases,
with Roman influenced mosaics (e.g. Bpr, Ctesiphon). Plaster of Paris, frequently painted
(Bpr, Ayvn-e Kara, K), was widely used for building facings and for the dominant mode of

architectural ornamentation, the stucco relief (l arn, Dmn, bd, K, Ctesiphon) (D.
Thompson, Stucco from Chal Tarkhan, London, 1976; J. Krger,Sasanidischer Stuckdekor, Mainz,
1982; M. Azarnoush, Excavations at Hjbd, 1977, Iranica Antiqua 18, 1983, pp. 159ff.). The
traditional stepped revetment remained a favorite decorative element, normally with four
rectangular stages, which were already becoming dovetail-like at the late Sasanian q-e Gerra.
3. Functional types of buildings. (a) Religious architecture. Frequent reference to sacred fires in
Pahlavi texts indicate the important role that sanctuaries of the Zoroastrian state religion played in
Sasanian architecture, but their architectural type remains disputed (F. Oehlmann Persische
Tempel, Archologischer Anzeiger, 1921, pp. 273ff.; U. Monneret de Villard, The Fire
Temples, Bulletin of the American Institute for Persian Art and Archaeology 4, 1936, pp. 175ff.; K.
Schippmann, Die iranischen Feuerheiligtmer, Berlin, 1971; M. Boyce, On the Zoroastrian Temple
Cult of Fire, JAOS 95, 1975, pp. 454ff.; Y. Yamamoto, The Zoroastrian Temple Cult of Fire in
Archaeology and Literature, Orient 15, 1979, pp. 19ff.; 17, 1981, pp. 67ff.). The prevailing theory
suggests that the main sanctuary structures were a freestanding ahr-q,
under which the sacred
fire, shining through the four lateral arches, was exposed to worshipers during the religious services,
and a small tegh some distance away, where the fire was kept at other times (A. Godard, Les
monuments du feu, Athr- Iran 3, 1938, pp. 7ff.; K. Erdmann, Das iranische Feuerheiligtum,
Leipzig, 1941, pp. 46ff.). Apart from religious prescriptions that raise doubts about this kind of cult
practice (Drb Hormazyrs Rivyat, ed. M. R. Unvala, I, Bombay, 1906, pp. 60, 65ff.),
archeological field work suggests another type of sanctuary: a closed chamber, where the fire was
permanently maintained and served by priests, with adjoining ambulatories or rooms for worship (E.
Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East, London, 1941, pp. 301ff.; E. Keall, Archaeology and the Fire
Temple, in C. J. Adams,Iranian Civilization and Culture, Montreal, 1972, pp. 15ff.; D. Huff, Das
Imamzadeh Sayyid Husain und E. Herzfelds Theorie ber den sasanidischen Feuertempel, Stud. Ir.
11, 1982, pp. 197ff.). If the suggested identification of the Tat-e Nen in Frzbd with a fire temple
of Ardar I proves right, the early type was a square, domed room with four interior bays and
with ayvns or rooms added to the four facades (Huff in Archologischer Anzeiger, 1972, pp. 517ff.).
A unique, semi-subterranean structure at Bpr, convincingly attributed to pr I, is believed to
be an ambulatory type fire temple because of its corridors; these surround a courtyard-like square of
uncertain roofing, apparently associated with Anhit, as it was connected with an underground
water canal (Ghirshman, RAA 12, 1938, p. 14; see, for a different interpretation, R. N. Frye, The Socalled Fire Temple of Bishapur, in The Memorial Volume of the VIth Internalional Congress of
Iranian Art and Archaeology, Oxford, Septemher 11-16th, 1972, Tehran, 1976, p.93). The Sasanian
phase of the mud brick structure at Kh-e a, identified as a fire temple by an altar in its principal
building, had a square, domed sanctuary surrounded by corridors and halls, with a vast complex of
subsidiary rooms andayvns around a central court (Herzfeld, op. cit., pp. 291ff.; G.
Gullini, Architettura iranica, Torino, 1964, pp. 87ff.). A similar layout was found at Tat-e
Solaymn, tentatively dated to the 6th century, which has been identified, on the basis of historical

tradition and the excavation of clay bullae bearing priests names and titles, as the shrine of dur
Gunasp (Figure 11), one of the three most important dur Wahrms (see ta; the others, dur
Farnba and dur Burznmihr, have not yet been precisely localized. A second shrine excavated
here, beside a dome-ambulatory temple, revealed an altar socle in a small sanctuary, preceded by two
successive pillar halls rather than ambulatories (H. H. Von der Osten and R. Naumann, Takht-i
Suleiman, Berlin, 1961; R. Nauman, Takht-i Suleiman,Archologischer Anzeiger, 1975, pp. 109ff.;
idem, Die Ruinen von Tacht-e Suleiman und Zendan-e Suleiman, Berlin, 1977, pp. 57ff.; D. Huff,
Takht-i Suleiman, AMI 10, 1977, pp. 211ff.). The ahr Qp at Qa r-e rn, attributed to osrow
II, seems to have been another dome-ambulatory type temple within a large architectural compound
(Bell, op. cit., pp. 51ff.; Reuther, op. cit., pp. 552ff.; differently J. Schmidt, Qa r-i irin, Baghdader
Mitteilungen 9, 1978, pp. 39ff.).
A great number of ahr-q
ruins, surveyed all over Iran and most frequent in Frs and Kermn,
are regarded as fire temples. Nearly all of them were closed to the outside by blocking walls in their
bays or the surrounding vaulted corridors (L. Vanden Berghe, Rcentes dcouvertes de monuments
sassanides dans le Fars,Iranica Antiqua 1, 1961, pp. 163ff.; idem, Nouvelle dcouverte de
monuments du feu dpoque sassanide, ibid., 5, 1965, pp. 128ff.; idem, Les Chahar Taqs du Pusht-i
Kuh, Luristan, ibid., 12, 1977, pp. 175ff.). See further D. Huff, Sasanian ahar Taqs in Fars,
in Proceedings of the IIIrd Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran, Tehran, 1975,
pp. 243ff.). The two types are represented by the excavated examples at Trang Tepe identified as a
sanctuary by an altar socle, and at Qa a-ye Yazdegerd, respectively (J. Deshayes, Un temple du feu
dpoque islamique Tureng Tp, in Le feu dans le Proche-Orient antique, Leiden, 1973, pp. 31ff.;
E. Keall, Qaleh-i Yazdigird, an Overview of the Monumental Architecture, Iran 20, 1982, pp. 51ff.).
Several open air altars including those at Naq-e Rostam and Tang-e Karam most likely served for
some Zoroastrian religious practice (A. Stein, An Archaeological Tour in the Ancient Persis, Iraq 3,
1936, pp. 175ff.; K. Erdmann, Die Altre von Naqsh-i Rustam, MDOG 81, 1949, pp. 6ff.; D.
Stronach, The Kuh-i Shahrak Fire Altar, JNES 25, 1966, pp. 217ff.). Christian churches discovered
at ra, Ctesiphon, and Rahalya have long prayer halls, mostly with two rows of pillars and tripartite
choirs (Reuther, Die Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Ktesiphon-Expedition, Berlin, 1930, pp. 11ff.; D.
Talbot Rice, The Oxford Excavations at Hira, 1931, Antiquity 6, 1932, pp. 276ff.; B. Finster and J.
Schmidt, Sasanidische and frhislamische Ruinen im Iraq, Baghdader Mitteilungen 8, 1976, pp.
27, 40ff.).
(b) Palaces. Although palaces provide the best known examples of Sasanian architecture, the number
of well defined monuments is smaller than generally assumed. They are characterized by a regular
layout along an axis of symmetry and an obligatory ayvn. The two palaces of Ardair I at Frzbd,
Qa a-ye Dotar (Figure 12) and tekada, both have as public reception areas a deep ayvn with
lateral rooms, followed by a central dome and domed or barrel-vaulted subsidiary halls. A courtyard
with ayvns and large, uniform halls behind or in front of the reception area is generally regarded as

the royal living quarters, although it gives the impression of belonging to the official area. Therefore
the private lodgings may be assumed in small rooms on the upper floor that are otherwise
unexplained (D. Huff, Qa a-ye Dukhtar bei Firuzabad, AMI, N.F. 4, 1971, pp. 127ff.; idem,
Ausgrabungen auf Qa a-ye Dukhtar bei Firuzabad, 1976, AMI 11, 1978, pp. 117ff.).
There are few palaces remaining from the middle Sasanian period, during which the characteristic
combination of ayvn and domed hall seems to have been abandoned. At the q-e Kesr, now
generally attributed to osrow I (Reuther, op. cit., pp. 15ff.; O. Kurz, The Date of the Taq-i
Kisra, JRAS, 1941, pp. 37ff.; differently Herzfeld, Damascus: Studies in Architecture II, Ars
Islamica 10, 1943, pp. 59ff.), and at the probably contemporary ayvn building at Tat-e Solaymn
(Nauman, Die Ruinen von Tacht-e Suleiman, pp. 44), the ayvn appears to be the only dominating
element. The inadequately documented Emrat-e osrow in Qa r-e rn and the nearby ruin of
Haw Kr, both attributed to the time of osrow II, also seem to lack a dome behind the ayvn,
where a transverse structure of uncertain elevation and a square courtyard were located instead (J.
de Morgan, Mission scientifique en PerseIV, Paris, 1896, pp. 341ff.; Bell, op. cit., pp. 44ff.; Reuther
in Survey of Persian Art I, pp. 533ff.). Regular house-like units added to the rear seem to have been
living areas. Both palaces stand on artificial terraces with double ramps like the ruin at Kangvar,
now thought to be a late Sasanian palace (V. Lukonin, The Temple of Anahita in Kangavar [in
Russian], VDI 2/140, 1977, pp. 105ff., cf. G. Herrmann, The Iranian Revival, Oxford, 1977, p. 107; M.
Azarnoush, Excavations at Kangavar,AMI 14, 1981, pp. 69ff.). Other terraces such as Tall ahab
and aram-e Kesr at Ctesiphon (Reuther, Ktesiphon-Expedition, pp. 23ff.; E. Khnel et al., Die
Ausgrabungen der zweiten Ktesiphon-Expedition, Berlin, 1933, pp. 1ff.) or Sarma (L.
Trmpelmann, Die Terrasse des Hosrow, Archologischer Anzeiger, 1968, pp. 11ff.) may have
carried palace-like super structures as well.
The residential function of a number of monuments generally regarded as palaces has been
questioned. The ground plan of the well-preserved building of Sarvestn suggests other than palatial
use. Its dating in the mid-Sasanian period has also come into question because of its highly
developed vaulting system, closely paralleled by early Islamic constructions such as Qar al-arna
in Jordan (O. Grabar, Sarvistan. A Note on Sassanian Palaces, in Forschungen zur Kunst Asiens.
Festschrift K. Erdmann, Istanbul, 1968, pp. 1ff.; M. Siroux, Le palais de Sarvistan et ses
votes,Stud. Ir. 2, 1973, pp. 49ff.; L. Bier, The "Sasanian" Palace near Sarvistan, New York, 1979).
The highly complex layout of the so-called palace of pr I in Bpr raises similar questions of
function (Ghirshman, Les fouilles de Chpour (Iran),RAA 12, 1938, pp. 15ff.; idem, Bchpour II,
Paris, 1956, pp. 11ff.; Huff,Archologischer Anzeiger, 1972, pp. 517ff.). The three-naved buildings of
Dmn (F. Kimball, apud E. F. Schmidt, Excavations at Tepe Hissar, Philadelphia, 1937, pp.
327ff.), l arn (Thompson, op. cit., pp. 3ff.), Tepe Ml (Krger, op. cit., pp. 202ff.), and K (P. R.
S. Moorey, Kish Excavations 1923-33, Oxford, 1978, pp. 134ff.) can be reasonably regarded as
forerunners of similar, early Islamic palaces such as Kfa and Tall al-Oayder but are formally

connected with the second fire temple at Tat-e Solaymn and other cult buildings as well. There is
little decisive evidence for the purpose of the hall on the city wall of Ayvn-e Kara (M.
Dieulafoy,Lart antique de la Perse V, 1889, pp. 79ff.; Ghirshman, MDAFI, Paris, 1952, pp. 10ff.) or
the buildings at Bozpar (L. Vanden Berghe, Le tombeau achmnide de Buzpar,
in Vorderasiatische Archologie. Festschrift A. Moortgat, Berlin, 1964, pp. 243ff.), Beheto Doza
(L. Vanden Berghe, Les ruines de Bihisht-u Duzakh Sultanabad, Iranica Antiqua 8, 1968, pp.
94ff.), and elsewhere. (c) Cities and houses. The political importance of city foundations in Sasanian
Iran is indicated by the almost obligatory component of the sponsor-kings name in the name of the
city. Although many attributions may concern some kind of re-founding or shifting of existing places,
a number of original foundations are known, the standard pattern of which is a rectangular system of
streets. The exceptional concentric and radiating plan of the circular city of Ardar-orra may reflect
an individual decision by Ardar I, demonstrating the cosmological and sociopolitical ideas of his
emerging empire (D. Huff, Zur Rekonstruktion des Turmes von Firuzabad, Istanbuler
Mitteilungen 19/20, 1969/70, pp. 319ff.; idem, Der Takht-i Nishin in Firuzabad,Archologischer
Anzeiger, 1972, pp. 517ff.; idem, AMI 11, 1978, pp. 117ff.). Archeological evidence for other circular
geometric city plans is scanty, although they appear at different periods in the ancient Orient and
with different stages of refinement. The round layout of Hatra, the best known Parthian example,
lacks a genuine geometrical concept. It is unlikely that the round perimeter of Drbgerd is a
prototype for Ardar-orra, as it probably dates from the 8th century (Creswell,Early Islamic
Architecture I/2, 1969, p. 21). The circular plan of Ctesiphon and the general topography of the site
of al-Maden are still under discussion (Reuther, inSurvey of Persian Art I, pp. 2ff.; J. M. Fiey,
Topography of al-Mad in, Sumer 23, 1967, pp. 3ff.), and the reportedly round city of Sasanian
Isfahan is not yet uncovered. Ardar-orra may have influenced the layout of later circular cities
such as al-Man rs Baghdad and its successors.
Few details are known about the architectural and sociological structure of orthogonal cities such as
Jondpr (R. McC. Adams and D. Hansen, Archaeological Reconnaissance and Soundings in
Jundi Shapur, Ars Orientalis 7, 1968, pp. 53ff.), Ayvn-e Kara, and Bpr, the last featuring a
commemorative monument at the intersection of its two orthogonal main axes
(Ghirshman,Bchpour I, pp. 21ff.; II, plan I). The majority of cities certainly continued older
settlements with regular or organically grown patterns, as at E ar
(D. Whitcomb, The City of
Istakhr and the Marvdasht Plain, In Akten des VII. internationalen Kongresses fr iranische Kunst
and Archologie, Mnchen, 7.-10. September 1976, Berlin, 1979, pp. 363ff.). Some residential areas
have been surveyed or excavated in K (S. Langdon, Excavations at Kish and Barghutiat
1933, Iraq 1, 1934, p. 113), Ctesiphon (Khnel, 2. Ktesiphon-Expedition, pp. 1ff.; R. Venco Ricciardi,
The Excavations at Choche, Mesopotamia 3-4, 1968/69, p.57; idem, Trial Trench at Tell
Baruda, Mesopotamia 12, 1977, pp. 11ff.), Lorestn (Morgan, op. cit., pp. 361ff.), Roqbat al-Maden
(Finster-Schmidt, op. cit., pp. 151ff.) and Qar-e
Ab Nar (W. Hauser and J. M. Upton, The Persian

Expedition 1933-34, Bulletin of The Metropolitan Museum of Art 29, December 1934/II, pp. 3ff.),
but the daily life of the middle and lower classes remains incompletely known.
(d) Fortifications. The main elements include ditches, walls with stepped niches, blind windows and
arrow slots with horizontal or triangular covering, stepped battlements, corridors or narrow rooms
within the walls, and far-protruding bastions, generally with semicircular headings. Unsophisticated
gates were placed between pronounced bastions, and gate chambers were connected with the defense
platform above by vertical shafts, probably for acoustic communication.
Few city ramparts have survived later changes. Ardar-orra clearly had an earth wall with bastions,
a ditch, and a small fore-wall. The ramparts of Bpr were originally lined with semicircular
bastions about 40 cm apart (A. A. Sarfarz, Bpr, the Great City of the Sasanians [in
Persian], Bastan Chenassi va Honar-e Iran 2, 1969, pp. 27ff.). The presumed palace section of the
ramparts of Ayvn-e Kara shows an elaborate arrangement of brick constructions
(Ghirshman, MDAFI, 1952, pp. 10ff.). The brick wall of Dastegerd, an unusual 16.6 m thick, harbored
narrow corridors with radiating arrow slots and connecting semicircular tower chambers (F. Sarre
and E. Herzfeld, Archologische Reise im Euphrat- und Tigris-Gebiet II, Berlin, 1920, pp. 76; IV, pl.
127). The exceptional cut stone facing of the wall at Tat-e Solaymn (Osten-Naumann, op. cit., p.
39) seems to be identical with that of the Darband walls (S. Khan-Magomedov, Derbent, Moscow,
1979). The standard Sasanian fortification type is represented by the mud brick ramparts of
Ctesiphon and E ar
(M. M. Negroponzi and M. C. Cavallero, The Excavations at
Choche, Mesopotamia 2, 1967, pp. 41ff.; Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East, pp. 276ff.) and by the
rubble stone walls of Qa a-ye Dotar at Frzbd (Huff, AMI 11, 1976, pp. 138ff.).
Most surviving fortresses served as isolated strongholds or protection for cities; this abundant but
scarcely explored military architecture gives some insight into the Sasanian social hierarchy.
Examples of the regular, generally square, Roman-type fort with rounded bastions are found in
Harsin, Qar-e
rn (Morgan, op. cit., pp. 354ff.), Srf (D. Whitehouse, Excavations at
Siraf, Iran 10, 1972, pp. 63ff.), and at several Mesopotamian sites (Finster-Schmidt, op. cit., pp.
49ff.). More frequent are irregular fortresses on strategically important heights; these usually have
straight curtains between rounded bastions, as at Frzbd, Bpr, Trang Tepe (R. Boucharlat,
La forteresse sassanide de Tureng-Tepe, in Colloques internationaux du C. N. R. S., No. 567: Le
plateau iranien et lAsie Centrale des origines la conqute islamique, Paris, 1977, pp. 329ff.), and
the tagh at Isfahan (M. Siroux, " Atesh-gh" prs d Ispahn, Iranica Antiqua 5, 1965, pp.
39ff.). Territorial defense lines are known from literary tradition and archeological evidence (R. N.
Frye, The Sasanian System of Walls for Defense, in M. Rosen-Ayalon, ed., Studies in Memory of
Gaston Wiet, Jerusalem, 1977, pp. 7ff.), such as the ditch of pr II west of the Euphrates, the limes
of Sstn (A. Stein Innermost Asia II, Oxford, 1928, pp. 972ff.), the walls of Darband from the
Caspian into the Caucasus (A. A. Kudryavtsev, O datirovke pervykh sasanidskikh ukrepleni v

Derbente, Sovetskaya Arkheologiya 3, 1978, pp. 243ff.), the wall of Tammisha (Tama) from the
bay of Gorgn/Astarbd to the Elburz (A.D. H. Bivar and G. Fehrvri, The Walls of
Temisha, Iran 4, 1966, pp. 35ff.), and the wall of Alexander north of the Gorgn river, although the
last may date back to Parthian times (D. Huff, Zur Datierung des Alexanderwalls, Iranica
Antiqua 16, 1981, pp. 125ff.; M. Y. Kiani, Parthian Sites in Hyrkania, AMI, Ergnzungsband 9,
Berlin, 1982, pp. 11ff.).
(e) Funerary, commemorative, and rock architecture. The remarkable lack of monumental funeral
architecture may be explained by Zoroastrian religious prescriptions (Vd. 6.44ff.) restricting burial
rites to exposure of the dead and a possible but not necessary preservation of the bones in bone
receptacles, orastdns. Rock-cut exposure platforms and small cavities for preserving the bones are
known mainly from southern Iran, notably around E ar
and Bpr, where the huge grotto with
the statue of pr I is interpreted as his tomb (Vanden Berghe,Archologie de lIran ancien, p. 45;
A. Stein, Old Routes of Western Iran, London, 1940, pp. 311ff.; Ghirshman, Bchpour I, pp. 180ff.).
Ritual texts describe astdns as freestanding buildings, a type possibly represented by a bone burial
in a fortification tower in ahr-e Qmes (J. Hansman and D. Stronach, A Sasanian Repository at
Shahr-i Qmis, JRAS, 1970, pp. 142ff.) and by the tower of Nrbd (D. Huff, Nurabad, Dum-i
Mill, AMI, N.F. 8, 1975, pp. 167ff.). Rock-cut tombs on the island of rg seem to belong at least
partly to non-Zoroastrian communities (E. Haerinck, Quelques monuments funraires de 1le de
Kharg dans le Golfe Persique, Iranica Antiqua 11, 1975, pp. 134ff.).
Some commemorative or triumphal monuments are identified by inscriptions. The Syro-Romaninfluenced twin-column monument in Bpr was dedicated to pr I (G. Salles and R.
Ghirshman, Chpour, RAA 10, 1936, pp. 117ff.). The tower-like monument of Pykl celebrates the
victory of Narseh over his rivals (E. Herzfeld,Paikuli. Monument and Inscriptions of the Early
History of the Sasanian Empire I-II, Berlin, 1924). There is as yet no definitive explanation for the
late Sasanian q-e Gerra, a small ayvn building with a Syro-Roman archivolt (H. V. Gall and W.
Kleiss, Entwicklung und Gestalt des Thrones im vorislamischen Iran, AMI, N.F. 4, 1971, pp. 2ff.; S.
Kambakhsh Fard, Larc de Guirra, monument en pierre,Traditions architecturales en Iran 4, 1976,
pp. 2ff.), or for a freestanding gateway building outside the wall of Bpr (Sarfarz, op. cit., pp. 27,
73). The tower in the center of Ardar-orra, which possibly carried a hall with the kings seat or his
fire, may symbolize God-given royalty (Huff, Istanbuler Mitteilungen l9-20, 1969/70, pp. 319ff.).
The late Sasanian q-e Bostn, an ayvn-like artificial grotto, is linked by its monumentality with
official Sasanian architecture, and by its decoration with the tradition of Sasanian rock reliefs (E.
Herzfeld, Am Tor von Asien, Berlin, 1920, pp. 57ff.; M. C. Mackintosh, Taq-i Bustan and Byzantine
Art, Iranica Antiqua 13, 1978, pp. 149ff.; S. Fukai et al., Taq-i Bustan I-IV, Tokyo, 1968-84). It may
be related to other, partly unfinished rock monuments, such as those at Bsotn (H. Luschey,
Bisotun, Geschichte und Forschungsgeschichte, Archologischer Anzeiger, 1974, pp. 114ff.; W.

Salzmann, Die Felsbearbeitung und Terrasse des Farhad in Bisotun, ibid., 1976, pp. 110ff.) and
Harsin (Godard, Athar- Iran 3, 1938, pp. 67ff.).
(f) Civil engineering architecture. The centralized Sasanian government enabled the realization of
large-scale community projects such as road communications, bridges, irrigation, and drainage
systems, most of which utilized the technical skill and manpower of Roman prisoners of war. Many
bridges (e.g. zestn and Lorestn, Frzbd, Bpr, and Bsotn) show Roman-style dressed
masonry with iron clamps at their preserved piers, which are generally rectangular with a triangular
prism upstream; the arched superstructures are mostly destroyed (Stein, op. cit., pp. 15, 48, 71).
Bridges were frequently constructed as weirs for irrigation and constituted the starting point of farreaching canal systems, as at tar and Dezfl (Dieulafoy, V, pp. 105ff.; G. Van Roggen, Notices sur
les anciens travaux hydrauliques en Susiane, MDAFI 7, 1905, pp. 167ff.; R. J. Wenke, Imperial
Investments and Agricultural Developments in Parthian and Sasanian Khuzistan: 150 B.C. to A.D.
640, Mesopotamia 10/11, 1975/76, pp. 31ff.). Aqueducts were carried on walls or bridges, and the
use of syphon tunnels seems to have been known (Adams-Hansen, op. cit., pp. 59ff.).

Aztec Civilization
Definition
by Mark Cartwright
published on 26 February 2014

The Aztec Empire flourished between c. 1345 and 1521 CE and, at its
greatest extent, covered most of northern
Mesoamerica.Aztec warriors were able to dominate their neighbouring
states and permit rulers such as Motecuhzoma II to impose Aztec
ideals and religion across Mexico. Highly accomplished
in agricultureand trade, the last of the great Mesoamerican
civilizations was also noted for its art and architecture which ranks
amongst the finest ever produced on the continent.
The Aztec state is actually the most well documented
Mesoamerican civilization with sources including archaeology,
native books (codices) and lengthy and detailed accounts from their
Spanish conquerors - both by military men and Christian clergy. These
latter sources may not always be reliable but the picture we have of
the Aztecs, their institutions, religious practices, warfare and daily life
is a rich one and it continues to be constantly expanded with details
being added through the endeavours of 21st century CE archaeologists
and scholars.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Sometime around 1100 CE the city-states or altepetl which were
spread over central Mexico began to compete with each other for local
resources and regional dominance. Each state had its own ruler
or tlatoani who led a council of nobles but these small urban centres
surrounded by farmland soon sought to expand their wealth and
influence so that by c. 1400 CE several small empires had formed in
the Valley of Mexico. Dominant amongst these were Texcoco, capital
of the Acholhua region, and Azcapotzalco, capital of the Tepenec.
These two empires came face to face in 1428 CE with the
Tepanec War. The Azcapotzalco forces were defeated by an alliance of
Texcoco,Tenochtitlan (the capital of the Mexica) and several other
smaller cities. Following victory a Triple Alliance was formed between
Texcoco, Tenochtitlan and a rebel Tepanec city, Tlacopan. A campaign
of territorial expansion began where the spoils of war - usually in the

form of tributes from the conquered - were shared between these

three great cities. Over time Tenochtitlan came to dominate the
Alliance, its ruler became the supreme ruer - thehuey tlatoque ('high
king') - and the city established itself as the capital of the
Aztec empire.

MASTERS OF THE WORLD, THEIR EMPIRE SO

WIDE AND ABUNDANT THAT THEY HAD
CONQUERED ALL THE NATIONS. DIEGO
DURN
The empire continued to expand from 1430 CE and the Aztec military bolstered by conscription of all adult males, men supplied from allied
and conquered states, and such elite groups as the Eagle and Jaguar
warriors - swept aside their rivals. Aztec warriors wore padded cotton
armour, carried a wooden or reed shield covered in hide, and wielded
weapons such as a super sharp obsidian sword-club (macuahuitl), a
spear or dart thrower (atlatl), and bow and arrows. Elite warriors also
wore spectacular feathered and animal skin costumes and headdresses
to signify their rank. Battles were concentrated in or around major
cities and when these fell the victors claimed the whole surrounding
territory. Regular tributes were extracted and captives were taken back
to Tenochtitlan for ritual sacrifice. In this way the Aztec empire came
to cover most of northern Mexico, an area of some 135,000 square
kilometres.
The empire was kept together through the appointment of officials
from the Aztec heartland, inter-marriages, gift-giving, invitations to
important ceremonies, the building of monuments and artworks which
promoted Aztec imperial ideology, and most importantly of all, the
ever-present threat of military intervention. Some states were
integrated more than others whilst those on the extremities of the
empire became useful buffer zones against more hostile neighbours,
notably the Tarascan civilization.

TENOCHTITLAN
The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on the western shore of Lake Texcoco
flourished so that the city could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by
the early 16th century CE, making it the largest city in the PreColumbian Americas. These inhabitants were divided into several social
strata. At the top were local rulers (teteuhctin), then came nobles
(pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs (mayeque), and finally
slaves (tlacohtin). The strata seem to have been relatively fixed but
there is some evidence of movement between them, especially in the
lower classes.

Temple Mayor, Tenochtitlan

Not only the political and religious capital, Tenochtitln was also a
huge trading centre with goods flowing in and out such as gold,
greenstone, turquoise, cotton, cacao beans, tobacco, pottery, tools,
weapons, foodstuffs (tortillas, chile sauces, maize, beans, and even
insects, for example) and slaves. The Spanish invaders were hugely
impressed by the city's splendour and magnificent architecture and
artwork, especially the Templo Mayorpyramid and massive stone
sculptures. Dominating the city was the huge Sacred Precinct with its
temples and monumental ball court. Tenochtitlan's water management

was also impressive with large canals criss-crossing the city which was
itself surrounded by chinampas - raised and flooded fields - which
greatly increased the agricultural capacity of the Aztecs. There were
also anti-flood dykes, artificial reservoirs for fresh water, and
wonderful flower gardens dotted around the city.
The whole city was designed to inspire awe in the people, especially
visiting nobles who, entertained with lavish ceremonies, could see that
the Mexica Aztecs truly were:
Masters of the world, their empire so wide and abundant that they had conquered all the
nations and that all were their vassals. The guests, seeing such wealth and opulence and
such authority and power, were filled with terror. (Diego Durn, the Spanish friar,
quoted in Nichols, 451)

RELIGION
Mythology and religion, as with most ancient cultures, were closely
intertwined for the Aztecs. The very founding of Tenochtitln was
based on the belief that peoples from the mythical land of plenty
Aztln (literally 'Land of White Herons' and origin of the Aztec name) in
the far northwest had first settled in the Valley of Mexico. They had
been shown the way by their god Huitzilopochtli who had sent an
eagle sitting on a cactus to indicate exactly where these migrants
should build their new home. The god also gave these people their
name, the Mexica, who along with other ethnic groups, who similarly
spoke Nahuatl, collectively made up the peoples now generally known
as the Aztecs.
The Aztec pantheon included a mix of older Mesoamerian gods and
specifically Mexica deities. The two principal gods worshipped were
Huitzilopochtli (the war and sun god) and Tlaloc (the rain god) and
both had a temple on top of the Templo Mayor pyramid at the heart of
Tenochtitlan. Other important gods were Quetzalcoatl (the feathered
serpent god common to many Mesoamerican

cultures), Tezcatlipoca (supreme god at Texcoco), Xipe Totec (god

of Spring and agriculture), Xiuhtecuhtli (god of fire), Xochipilli (god
of summertime and flowers), Ometeotl (the creator
god), Mictlantecuhtli (god of the dead) and Coatlicue (the earthmother goddess).

Quetzalcoatl

This sometimes bewildering array of gods presided over every aspect

of the human condition. The timing of ceremonies in honour of these
deities was dictated by a variety of calendars. There was the 260-day
Aztec calendar which was divided into 20 weeks, each of 13 days
which carried names such as Crocodile and Wind. There was also a
Solar calendar consisting of 18 months, each of 20 days. The 584 day
period covering the rise ofVenus was also important and there was a
52 year cycle of the sun to be considered. The movement of planets
and stars were carefully observed (albeit not as accurately, though, as
the Maya had done) and they provided the motive for the specific
timing of many religious rites and agricultural practices.
The sun, not surprisingly, had great significance for the Aztecs. They
believed that the world went through a series of cosmic ages, each had
its own sun but finally each world was destroyed and replaced by
another until the fifth and final age was reached - the present day for

the Aztecs. This cosmic progression was wonderfully represented in

the famous Sun Stone but also crops up in many other places too.
The gods were honoured with festivals, banquets, music, dancing,
decoration of statues, burning of incense, the ritual burial of precious
goods, penances such as blood-letting, and animal sacrifices. Humans,
both adults and less often children, were also frequently sacrificed to
metaphorically 'feed' the gods and keep them happy lest they become
angry and make life difficult for humans by sending storms, droughts
etc. or even just to keep the sun appearing every day. Victims were
usually taken from the losing side in wars. Indeed, the so-called
'Flowery Wars' were specifically undertaken to collect sacrificial
victims. The most prestigious offerings were those warriors who had
shown great bravery in battle. The sacrifice itself could take three
main forms: the heart was removed, the victim was decapitated, or
the victim was made to fight in a hopelessly one-sided contest against
elite warriors. There were also impersonators who dressed in the
regalia of a specific god and at the climax of the ceremony were
themselves sacrificed.

Xochipilli

ARCHITECTURE & ART

The Aztecs were themselves appreciative of fine art and they collected
pieces from across their empire to be brought back to Tenochtitln and
often ceremonially buried. Aztec art was nothing if not eclectic and
ranged from miniature engraved precious objects to massive stone
temples. Monumental sculptures were a particular favourite and could
be fearsome monstrosities such as the colossal Coatlicue statue or be
very life-like such as the famous sculpture of a seated Xochipilli.
Organised in guilds and attached to the main palaces, artisans could
specialise in metalwork, wood carving or stone sculpture, with
materials used such as amethyst, rock crystal, gold, silver, and exotic
feathers. Perhaps some of the most striking art objects are those
which employed turquoise mosaic such as the famous mask of
Xuihtecuhtli. Common forms of pottery vessels include
anthropomorphic vases in bright colours and of special note was the
finely made and highly prized Cholula ware from Cholollan.
Aztec art depicted all manner of subjects but especially popular were
animals, plants and gods, particularly those related to fertility and
agriculture. Art could also be used as propaganda to spread the
imperial dominance of Tenochtitlan. Examples such as the Sun Stone,
Stone of Tizoc, and Throne of Motecuhzoma II all portray Aztec
ideology and seek to closely correlate political rulers to cosmic events
and even the gods themselves. Even architecture could achieve this
aim, for example, the Templo Mayor pyramid sought to replicate the
sacred snake mountain of Aztec mythology, Coatepec, and temples
and statues bearing Aztec symbols were set up across the empire.

COLLAPSE

The Aztec empire, which controlled some 11,000,000 people, had

always had to deal with minor rebellions - typically, when new rulers
took power at Tenochtitlan - but these had always been swiftly
crushed. The tide began to turn, though, when the Aztecs were heavily
defeated by the Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo in 1515 CE. With the arrival
of the Spanish, some of these rebel states would again seize the
opportunity to gain their independence. When the conquistadors finally
did arrive from the Old World sailing their floating palaces and led by
Hernn Corts, their initial relations with the leader of the Aztecs,
Motecuhzoma II, were friendly and valuable gifts were exchanged.
Things turned sour, though, when a small group of Spanish soldiers
were killed at Tenochtitlan while Corts was away at Veracruz. The
Aztec warriors, unhappy at Motecuhzoma's passivity, overthrew him
and set Cuitlahuac as the new tlatoani. This incident was just what
Corts needed and he returned to the city to relieve the besieged
remaining Spanish but was forced to withdraw on the 30th of June
1520 CE in what became known as theNoche Triste. Gathering local
allies Corts returned ten months later and in 1521 CE he laid siege to
the city. Lacking food and ravaged by disease, the Aztecs, now led by
Cuauhtemoc, finally collapsed on the fateful day of 13th of August
1521 CE. Tenochtitlan was sacked and its monuments destroyed. From
the ashes rose the new capital of the colony of New Spain and the long
line of Mesoamerican civilizations which had stretched right back to
the Olmec came to a dramatic and brutal end.

Gupta Architecture
Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 22 May 2015

The Gupta Dynasty, founded by Chandragupta I (accession c. 320

CE), ruled in North Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries
CE and the period is considered a golden age of artistic
accomplishment. The Guptas were the first architects of purposebuilt Hindu (but sometimes also Buddhist) temples which evolved
from the earlier tradition of rock-cut shrines. Adorned with towers and
elaborate carvings, these temples were often dedicated to all the
Hindu gods. Unfortunately, relatively few of the large number of Gupta
temples built have survived.
Gupta architecture is very diverse in style, design and features. This
very diversity illustrates that Hindu temple architecture was in its
formative stage and was yet to arrrive at the standardised situation of
later centuries. Nevertheless, the influence of Gupta-era buildings on
later Indian temple architecture is indisputable and continued right
through to the Medieval period.

GUPTA CAVE SHRINES

The earliest examples of religious architecture were cave-temples
which typically had exteriors decorated with relief sculpture and a
single carved doorway. Inside the shrine, ritual sculptures were placed
such as a Shiva linga(phallus) and the walls were richly decorated

with more carvings showing scenes from mythology. Notable

examples are found at Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh where one cave
bears a date mark of 401 CE. Here in one shrine is one of the finest
examples of Gupta art, the celebrated relief showing Vishnu in his
incarnation as the boar-headed Varaha. The panel measures 7 x 4
metres and the central figure, carved almost in the round, is emerging
from the cosmic waters, having defeated a snake-like monster and
rescued the goddess Bhudevi (Earth). The scene, a famous Hindu
myth, may also be an allegorical reference to the peace and protection
offered by the Gupta kings.

Vishnu as Varaha, Udayagiri Caves

Finally, mention should be made of the Ajanta caves, a row of 29

rock-cut caves following the Waghora river bed ravine in north-west
Deccan. Dating from the 2nd century BCE to 7th century CE, they
contain some of the earliest and finest examples of Indian wallpainting. The subject matter is largely scenes from the life of Buddha.
Cave 1 contains a columned shrine in typical Gupta style with flat

cushion-topped column capitals. Cave 19 was built in the 5th century

CE and has a Gupta-style chaitya (shrine) facade with columned porch
and large, almost semi-circular aperture above. The whole facade is
covered in rich carvings and relief panels showing scenes from
Buddhist lore.

Cave 19, Ajanta, Deccan

GUPTA TEMPLES: MATERIALS & FEATURES

Not satisfied with caves the Guptas were the first dynasty to build
permanent free-standing Hindu temples and so they began a long
tradition of Indian temple architecture. It is perhaps important to note
here that Hindu temples were not designed for congregations but
rather as the dwelling place (devalaya) of a deity. This decorated
palace (prasada) allowed priests to give offerings to the gods and
individuals could also offer prayers, flowers, and food (puja), usually to

a sacred relic or statue representing a particular god which was

housed in a relatively small and windowless architectural space
(the garbhagriha). Believers would also walk around the temple in a
ritual act of worship.

IN GUPTA ARCHITECTURE THE SQUARE WAS

CONSIDERED THE MOST PERFECT FORM AND
TEMPLES WERE DESIGNED TO BE
APPRECIATED FROM ALL SIDES.
The Gupta style was influenced by Kusana, Mathura, and Gandhara
and borrowed the common features of T-shaped doorways, decorated
door jambs, sculpted panels with high-relief figures, and laurel-wreath
and acanthus motifs. Constructed using sandstone, granite, and brick,
Gupta-era temples added to this architectural heritage with
horseshoegavakshas arches and distinctive curved shikhara towers
which are frequently topped with a ribbed disk ornamentation known
as an amalaka. These elaborate buildings are further decorated with a
mass of ornate mouldings and sculptures set in niches. In Gupta
architecture, the square was considered the most perfect form and
temples were designed to be appreciated from all sides so that each
carries decorative architectural features.
Most temples also adopt a square plan with the single
cubicle garbhagriha in the centre. This is normally entered by a short
columned porch set over a single, highly decorated doorway with a
projecting lintel. Columns can support a pot-and-foliage capital, and
roofs were generally flat, as in surviving examples at Tigawa and
Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. Other typical Gupta decorative features
include triangle motifs inside doorways and lion's heads at the ends of
stone beams.

Vishnu Anantasayana Panel, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

Whether all temples had a second floor is difficult to determine, due to

their often ruinous condition. The late 5th century CE Parvati temple at
Nachna Kuthara is notable for its surviving second-story shrine room.
From the 6th century CE, Gupta temples were built on a platform
(jagati) and a good example is the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in
Madhya Pradesh. At Deogarh the platform had reliefs running around it
depicting scenes from theRamayana epic poem. In the centre of
the jagati stood the principal shrine, which was without windows and
accessed by a flight of steps on all four sides. Four lesser shrines stand
at each corner of the complex.
Typical of the period in general, Gupta temples were dedicated to a
large number of Hindu gods rather than a single deity. Accordingly,
architectural sculpture represents a wide range of gods in scenes from
Hindu mythology. The doorway to the square sanctuary tower of the
Dashavatara temple is a fine example and carries sculpture of
Vishnu, Brahma, Indra, Ganga, and Yamuna, as well as attendants
and mithuna couples. The temple also carries one of the most famous

sculptural panels from ancient India, the Vishnu Anantasayana panel.

The scene contains many gods but is dominated by a sleeping Vishnu
who rests on the multi-headed serpent Ananta and floats on the
waters of oblivion whilst from his navel sprouts a lotus leaf on which
sits Brahma, the god of creation.

Bhitargaon

BHITARGAON
The temple at Bhitargaon in Uttar Pradesh is one of the most complete
surviving Gupta temples. It is a rare early example of a Hindu temple
constructed entirely of brick, dating to the late 5th century CE.
Although damaged in its upper portion, the four-sided and
curved shikhara tower of the temple maintains its gavaksha niches and
shallow pilasters which diminish in size as the tower rises to a

pinnacle. These and the decorated capitals create frames in which

were once set terracotta panels.
Few panels survive intact but examples from other sites demonstrate
that they would have once shown lively scenes from mythology, in
particular figures of river goddesses. Panels still in their original
position in the upper tiers of the tower display grotesque faces which
remind of the gargoyles of European Gothic cathedrals (Harle, 115).

Inca Civilization
Definition
by Mark Cartwright
published on 15 September 2014

The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and

1533 CE, and their empire eventually extended across western South
America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south, making it the
largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world
at that time. Undaunted by the often harsh Andean environment, the
Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in such diverse

settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for

their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and
imposing buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular
adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and
mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern visitors at such
world famous sites as Machu Picchu.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
As with other ancient Americas cultures, the historical origins of the
Incas are difficult to disentangle from the founding myths they
themselves created. According to legend, in the beginning, the creator
god Viracocha came out of the Pacific Ocean, and when he arrived
at Lake Titicaca, he created the sun and all ethnic groups. These first
people were buried by the god and only later did they emerge from
springs and rocks (sacred pacarinas) back into the world. The Incas,
specifically, were brought into existence at Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco)
from the sun godInti, hence, they regarded themselves as the chosen
few, the 'Children of the Sun', and the Inca ruler was Inti's
representative and embodiment on earth. In another version of the
creation myth, the first Incas came from a sacred cave known
as Tampu T'oqo or 'The House of Windows', which was located
at Pacariqtambo, the 'Inn of Dawn', south of Cuzco. The first pair of
humans were Manco Capac (or Manqo Qhapaq) and his sister (also his
wife) Mama Oqllu (or Ocllo). Three more brother-sister siblings were
born, and the group set off together to found their civilization.
Defeating the Chanca people with the help of stone warriors
(pururaucas), the first Incas finally settled in the Valley of Cuzco and
Manco Capac, throwing a golden rod into the ground, established what
would become the Inca capital, Cuzco.

40,000 INCAS GOVERNED A TERRITORY

WITH 10 MILLION SUBJECTS SPEAKING
OVER 30 DIFFERENT LANGUAGES.

More concrete archaeological evidence has revealed that the first

settlements in the Cuzco Valley actually date to 4500 BCE when
hunter-gather communities occupied the area. However, Cuzco only
became a significant centre sometime at the beginning of the Late
Intermediate Period (1000-1400 CE). A process of regional unification
began from the late 14th century CE, and from the early 15th century
CE, with the arrival of the first great Inca leader Pachakuti ('Reverser
of the World') and the defeat of the Chanca in 1438 CE, the Incas
began to expand in search of plunder and production resources, first to
the south and then in all directions. They eventually built an empire
which stretched across the Andes, conquering such peoples as the
Lupaka, Colla, Chimor, and Wanka civilizations along the way. Once
established, a nationwide system of tax and administration was
instigated which consolidated the power of Cuzco.
The rise of the Inca Empire was spectacularly quick. First, all speakers
of the Inca language Quechua (or Runasimi) were given privileged
status, and this noble class then dominated all the important roles
within the empire. Thupa Inka Yupanki (also known as Topa Inca),
Pachakuti's successor from 1471 CE, is credited with having expanded
the empire by a massive 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The Incas
themselves called their empire Tawantinsuyo (orTahuantinsuyu)
meaning 'Land of the Four Quarters' or 'The Four Parts Together'.
Cuzco was considered the navel of the world, and radiating out were
highways and sacred sighting lines (ceques) to each
quarter: Chinchaysuyu(north), Antisuyu (east), Collasuyu (south),
and Cuntisuyu (west). Spreading across ancient Ecuador, Peru,
northern Chile, Bolivia, upland Argentina, and southern Colombia and
stretching 5,500 km (3,400 miles) north to south, 40,000 Incas
governed a huge territory with some 10 million subjects speaking over
30 different languages.

Map of the inca Empire

GOVERNMENT & ADMINISTRATION

The Incas kept lists of their kings (Sapa Inca) so that we know of such
names as Pachakuti Inka Yupanki (reign c. 1438-63 CE), Thupa Inka
Yupanki (reign c. 1471-93 CE), and Wayna Qhapaq (the last preHispanic ruler, reign c. 1493-1525 CE). It is possible that two kings

ruled at the same time and that queens may have had some
significant powers, but the Spanish records are not clear on both
points. The Sapa Inca was an absolute ruler, and he lived a life of great
opulence. Drinking from gold and silver cups, wearing silver shoes,
and living in a palace furnished with the finest textiles, he was
pampered to the extreme. He was even looked after following his
death, as the Inca mummified their rulers. Stored in
the Coricancha temple in Cuzco, the mummies (mallquis) were, in
elaborate ceremonies, regularly brought outside wearing their finest
regalia, given offerings of food and drink, and 'consulted' for their
opinion on pressing state affairs.
Inca rule was, much like their architecture, based on
compartmentalised and interlocking units. At the top was the ruler and
ten kindred groups of nobles called panaqa. Next in line came ten
more kindred groups, more distantly related to the king and then, a
third group of nobles not of Inca blood but made Incas as a privilege.
At the bottom of the state apparatus were locally recruited
administrators who oversaw settlements and the smallest Andean
population unit the ayllu, which was a collection of households,
typically of related families who worked an area of land, lived together
and provided mutual support in times of need. Each ayllu was
governed by a small number of nobles or kurakas, a role which could
include women.
Local administrators reported to over 80 regional-level administrators
who, in turn, reported to a governor responsible for each quarter of
the empire. The four governors reported to the supreme Inca ruler in
Cuzco. To ensure loyalty, the heirs of local rulers were also kept as
well-kept prisoners at the Inca capital. The most important political,
religious, and military roles within the empire were, then, kept in the
hands of the Inca elite, called by the Spanish the orejones or 'big ears'
because they wore large earspools to indicate their status. To better
ensure the control of this elite over their subjects, garrisons dotted the

empire, and entirely new administrative centres were built, notably at

Tambo Colorado, Hunuco Pampa and Hatun Xauxa.
For tax purposes censuses were taken and populations divided up into
groups based on multiples of ten (Inca mathematics was almost
identical to the system we use today). As there was no currency in the
Inca world, taxes were paid in kind - usually foodstuffs, precious
metals, textiles, exotic feathers, dyes, and spondylus shell - but also in
labourers who could be shifted about the empire to be used where
they were most needed, known as mit'aservice. Agricultural land and
herds were divided into three parts: production for the
state religion and the gods, for the Inca ruler, and for the farmers
own use. Local communities were also expected to help build and
maintain such imperial projects as the road system which stretched
across the empire. To keep track of all these statistics, the Inca used
the quipu, a sophisticated assembly of knots and strings which was
also highly transportable and could record decimals up to 10,000.

Khipu

Although the Incas imposed their religion and administration on

conquered peoples, extracted tribute, and even moved loyal
populations (mitmaqs) to better integrate new territories into the
empire, the Incas also brought certain benefits such as food
redistribution in times of environmental disaster, better storage
facilities for foodstuffs, work via state-sponsored projects, statesponsored religious feasts, roads, military assistance and luxury
goods, especially art objects enjoyed by the local elite.

MOST SPLENDID WERE THE TEMPLES BUILT

IN HONOUR OF INTI AND MAMA KILYA - THE

FORMER WAS LINED WITH 700 2KG SHEETS

OF BEATEN GOLD.

CUZCO
The Inca capital of Cuzco (from qosqo, meaning 'dried-up lake bed' or
perhaps derived from cozco, a particular stone marker in the city) was
the religious and administrative centre of the empire and had a
population of up to 150,000 at its peak. Dominated by the sacred
gold-covered and emerald-studded Coricancha complex (or Temple of
the Sun), its greatest buildings were credited to Pachakuti. Most
splendid were the temples built in honour of Inti and Mama Kilya - the
former was lined with 700 2kg sheets of beaten gold, the latter with
silver. The whole capital was laid out in the form of a puma (although
some scholars dispute this and take the description metaphorically)
with the imperial metropolis of Pumachupan forming the tail and the
temple complex of Sacsahuaman (or Saqsawaman) forming the head.
Incorporating vast plazas, parklands, shrines, fountains, and canals,
the splendour of Inca Cuzco now, unfortunately, survives only in the
eye-witness accounts of the first Europeans who marvelled at its
architecture and riches.

INCA RELIGION
The Inca had great reverence for two earlier civilizations who had
occupied much the same territory - the Wari and Tiwanaku. As we
have seen, the sites of Tiwanaku and Lake Titicaca played an
important part in Inca creation myths and so were especially revered.
Inca rulers made regular pilgrimages to Tiwanaku and the islands of
the lake, where two shrines were built to Inti the Sun god and
supreme Inca deity, and the moon goddess Mama Kilya. Also in the
Coricancha complex at Cuzco, these deities were represented by large
precious metal artworks which were attended and worshipped by
priests and priestesses led by the second most important person after

the king: the High Priest of the Sun (Willaq Umu). Thus, the religion of
the Inca was preoccupied with controlling the natural world and
avoiding such disasters as earthquake, floods, and drought, which
inevitably brought about the natural cycle of change, the turning over
of time involving death and renewal which the Inca called pachakuti.
Sacred sites were also established, often taking advantage of
prominent natural features such as mountain tops, caves, and springs.
These huacas could be used to take astronomical observations at
specific times of the year. Religious ceremonies took place according to
the astronomical calendar, especially the movements of the sun, moon,
and Milky Way (Mayu). Processions and ceremonies could also be
connected to agriculture, especially the planting and harvesting
seasons. Along with Titicaca's Island of the Sun, the most sacred Inca
site was Pachacamac, a temple city built in honour of the god with the
same name, who created humans, plants, and was responsible for
earthquakes. A large wooden statue of the god, considered an oracle,
brought pilgrims from across the Andes to worship at Pachacamac.
Shamans were another important part of Inca religion and were active
in every settlement. Cuzco had 475, the most important being
the yacarca, the personal advisor to the ruler.
Inca religious rituals also involved ancestor worship as seen through
the practice of mummification and making offerings to the gods of
food, drink, and precious materials. Sacrifices - both animals and
humans, including children - were also made to pacify and honour the
gods and ensure the good health of the king. The pouring of libations,
either water or chicha beer, was also an important part of Inca
religious ceremonies.
The Incas imposed their religion on local populations by building their
own temples and sacred sites, and they also commandeered sacred
relics from conquered peoples and held them in Cuzco. Stored in the
Coricancha, they were perhaps considered hostages which ensured
compliance to the Inca view of the world.

Machu Picchu

INCA ARCHITECTURE & ROADS

Master stone masons, the Incas constructed large buildings, walls and
fortifications using finely-worked blocks - either regular or polygonal which fitted together so precisely no mortar was needed. With an
emphasis on clean lines, trapezoid shapes, and incorporating natural
features into these buildings, they have easily withstood the powerful
earthquakes which frequently hit the region. The distinctive sloping
trapezoid form and fine masonry of Inca buildings were, besides their
obvious aesthetic value, also used as a recognisable symbol of Inca
domination throughout the empire.
One of the most common Inca buildings was the ubiquitous one-room
storage warehouse the qollqa. Built in stone and well-ventilated, they
were either round and stored maize or square for potatoes and tubers.
The kallanka was a very large hall used for community gatherings.
More modest buildings include the kancha - a group of small singleroom and rectangular buildings (wasi and masma) with thatched roofs
built around a courtyard enclosed by a high wall. The kancha was a

typical architectural feature of Inca towns, and the idea was exported
to conquered regions. Terracing to maximise land area for agriculture
(especially for maize) was another Inca practice, which they exported
wherever they went. These terraces often included canals, as the Incas
were expert at diverting water, carrying it across great distances,
channelling it underground, and creating spectacular outlets and
fountains.
Goods were transported across the empire along purpose-built roads
using llamas and porters (there were no wheeled vehicles). The Inca
road network covered over 40,000 km and as well as allowing for the
easy movement of armies, administrators, and trade goods, it was
also a very powerful visual symbol of Inca authority over their empire.
The roads had rest stations along their way, and there was also a relay
system of runners (chasquis) who carried messages up to 240 km in a
single day from one settlement to another.

INCA ART
Although influenced by the art and techniques of the Chim, the Incas
did create their own distinctive style which was an instantly
recognisable symbol of imperial dominance across the empire. Inca art
is best seen in highly polished metalwork (in gold - considered the
sweat of the sun, silver - considered the tears of the moon, and
copper), ceramics, and textiles, with the last being considered the
most prestigious by the Incas themselves. Designs often use
geometrical shapes, are technically accomplished, and standardized.
The checkerboard stands out as a very popular design. One of the
reasons for repeated designs was that pottery and textiles were often
produced for the state as a tax, and so artworks were representative
of specific communities and their cultural heritage. Just as today coins
and stamps reflect a nation's history, so, too, Andean artwork offered
recognisable motifs which either represented the specific communities
making them or the imposed designs of the ruling Inca class ordering
them.

Inca Ruler Atahualpa

Works using precious metals such as discs, jewellery, figures, and

everyday objects were made exclusively for Inca nobles, and even
some textiles were restricted for their use alone. Goods made using
the super-soft vicua wool were similarly restricted, and only the Inca
ruler could own vicua herds. Ceramics were for wider use, and the
most common shape was the urpu, a bulbous vessel with a long neck
and two small handles low on the pot which was used for storing
maize. It is notable that the pottery decoration, textiles, and
architectural sculpture of the Incas did not usually include
representations of themselves, their rituals, or such common Andean
images as monsters and half-human, half-animal figures.

The Inca produced textiles, ceramics, and metal sculpture technically

superior to any previous Andean culture, and this despite stiff
competition from such masters of metal work as the expert craftsmen
of the Moche civilization. Just as the Inca imposed a political
dominance over their conquered subjects, so, too, with art they
imposed standard Inca forms and designs, but they did allow local
traditions to maintain their preferred colours and proportions. Gifted
artists such as those from Chan Chan or the Titicaca area and women
particularly skilled at weaving were brought to Cuzco so that they
could produce beautiful things for the Inca rulers.

COLLAPSE
The Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the
ruling Incas were very often unpopular with their subjects (especially
in the northern territories), a situation that the
Spanish conquistadores, led by Francisco Pizarro, would take full
advantage of in the middle decades of the 16th century CE. The Inca
Empire, in fact, had still not reached a stage of consolidated maturity
when it faced its greatest challenge. Rebellions were rife, and the
Incas were engaged in a war in Ecuador where a second Inca capital
had been established at Quito. Even more serious, the Incas were hit
by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox, which had
spread from central America even faster than the European invaders
themselves, and the wave killed a staggering 65-90% of the
population. Such a disease killed Wayna Qhapaq in 1528 CE and two of
his sons, Waskar and Atahualpa, battled in a damaging civil war for
control of the empire just when the European treasure-hunters
arrived. It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of
rebellion, disease, and invasion - which brought the downfall of the
mighty Inca Empire, the largest and richest ever seen in the
Americas.
The Inca language Quechua lives on today and is still spoken by some
eight million people. There are also a good number of buildings,

artefacts, and written accounts which have survived the ravages of

conquerors, looters, and time. These remains are proportionally few to
the vast riches which have been lost, but they remain indisputable
witnesses to the wealth, ingenuity, and high cultural achievements of
this great, but short-lived civilization.

The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in preColumbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located
in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime
in the early 13th century.