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Higher education institutions are institutions that provide post secondary education and
produce human resource, conduct research, and involve in community services. They are
tertiary level institutions that should educate students to become well informed and deeply
motivated citizens, who can think critically, analyze problems of society, look for solutions
to the problems of society, apply them and accept social responsibilities through lectures,
practical work, fieldwork, tutorials, etc. for the development of knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
To achieve these goals, they need to recast curricula, using new and appropriate methods, so
as to go beyond cognitive mastery of disciplines. New pedagogical and didactical approaches
should be accessible and promoted in order to facilitate the acquisition of skills,
competencies and abilities for communication, creative and critical analysis, independent
thinking and team work in multicultural contexts, where creativity also involves combining
traditional or local knowledge and know-how with advanced science and technology. These
recast curricula should take into account the gender dimension and the specific cultural,
historic and economic context of each country. The teaching of human rights standards and
education on the needs of communities in all parts of the world should be reflected in the
curricula of all disciplines, particularly those preparing for entrepreneurship. Academic
personnel should play a significant role in determining the curriculum. New methods of
education will also imply new types of teaching-learning materials. These have to be coupled
with new methods of testing that will promote not only powers of memory but also powers of
comprehension, skills for practical work and creativity.
Teaching and learning involve the interaction of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum
(knowledge, skills &values) under learning situation.
THE LEARNER THE LEARNING SITUATION
The learners are human beings with their own physical, moral, psychological, mental social
aspects of personality and material and financial resources that influence their learning
abilities. Who are the students of higher institutions?
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The Learning Situation
The learning situation or the teaching environment is the set of resources available for
implementing the teaching/learning process. These include human resources (lecturers,
learners, administrators and support personnel); physical resources (e.g. classrooms, library,
laboratory, and workshops); material resources (teaching material, audiovisual materials and
others) financial materials (operational allowances, scholarships, training grants and others);
and the political and social context (democracy versus dictatorship, peace versus war).
The Teacher and the Learner
Learning is influenced by the teacher - learner relationship. The roles of the teacher and the
learner vary in this relationship. On the one hand, the teacher can be a mere transmitter of
knowledge; the learner is entirely dependent on what the instructor says or does. He or she is
then more of a "recipient" than a "learner". On the other hand, the teacher can play the role of
a guide, or a facilitator. The learner is assisted in becoming autonomous, that is to say, in
being able to plan his/her learning.
The higher education curriculum
What is curriculum? What do you we mean by the higher education curriculum?
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Curriculum is defined as the sum total of the planned experiences of the education level that
is to be offered both inside and outside of the institution. It reflects the aims of the programs,
objectives of the different courses, content areas to be covered, activities and methods of
teaching, the assessment mechanisms, resources required, etc.
How are courses designed? What are the basic elements to be incorporated?
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What do we know about the curriculum and learning environment of higher education
institutions of Ethiopia?
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Let us see the following issues in brief (see the attached documents and notes)
What are (could be) the missions and goals of higher education institutions in Ethiopia?
Missions___________________________________________________________________
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Goals______________________________________________________________________
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What are the profiles of the instructors and students in Ethiopian higher education
institutions?
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Are there theories about teaching in higher education institutions? If yes, what are they?
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1.1.2. MISSIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
The mission are related to educate, to learn and to undertake research
The core missions and values of higher education are to contribute to the sustainable
development and improvement of society as a whole. It should be preserved, reinforced and
further expanded, namely, to:
educate highly qualified graduates and responsible citizens able to meet the needs
of all sectors of human activity, by offering relevant qualifications, including
professional training, which combine high-level knowledge and skills, using courses
and content continually tailored to the present and future needs of society;
provide opportunities for higher learning and for leaning throughout life, giving to
learners an optimal range of choice and a flexibility of entry and exit points within the
Secondary education is over. With the necessary entry requirements and funds, it is now
time to proceed for further studies within the higher education sub-system The shift from
secondary to higher education begins with a period of transition. The transition period is
characterized by a lot more freedom no more school uniforms, assembly at 8.00 a.m., lights
out, punishment by seniors and inhibition from attending parties. Prospective higher
education learners bring with them various social and educational experiences. We expect
that our interventions would foster desirable changes in behavior and enhance positive
characteristics. Improved understanding of our learners antecedents at the point of entry
would help us select appropriate educational experiences as well as provide adequate
guidance and counseling services. Thus, we need to know many things about the learners and
the situation.
They are in transition. The formal education system in all countries of the world is
segmented into cycles primary, secondary and higher. As the learner moves from one level
or cycle to another, there are changes that are noteworthy for the teacher. At the period of
transition, there are physical, psychomotor, socio-affective, emotional, intellectual
(cognitive) and aspiration changes. As lecturers, we want to take the learner through the
change process in a smooth, gradual and painless way. We want the inter-phase between the
end of secondary education and the freshman year to blend. No bumps, no dramatic shifts
and no agonizing changes. To achieve this, we need a deep understanding of the
characteristics of learners at the two poles end of secondary education and the fresh student
year.
Academic and Social Antecedents of the Higher Education Learner
Who are prospective higher education learners? The majority are young male and female
adults aged between 16-26 years who have had 12-14 years of formal education. They would
have obtained the school leaving certificate with the minimum pass grades to earn them
places in higher educational institutions. As primary and secondary school pupils, their
academic and social life would have been organized and sometimes regimented by
principals, and teachers. They would have been expected to obey laid-down rules and
regulations without question as well as recognize and respect the schools hierarchical
structure of authority. Those who may have had the privilege of attending boarding schools
would have experienced even greater management of their time and indeed of their lives.
Graduates of single-sex schools often have additional problems of adjustment in their
interactions with the opposite sex.
Our learners typical school day could be broken into several very short periods during which
various subjects would be taught in typically under-resourced classrooms, and by teachers
with extremely low morale. With few exceptions, the learners would have been exposed to
predominantly traditional methods of learning and teaching. With regard to assessment, the
educational system of most countries now is in favor continuous assessment. The message
that emerges is that schools are about testing. This has implications for learners attitudes
towards learning and teaching.
students crammed with as many as 3,000. It is also noteworthy that such lecture halls hardly
provide an enabling environment for teaching as they have more in common with markets or
sports studio than with places for reflection. Under the circumstances, access to knowledge is
largely determined by the students ability to arrive 3 or 4 hours in advance to occupy the
best place so as to hear the lecturer.
As a result of the limitation of academic infrastructures and shortage of human and material
resources, the quality of education has declined. Indeed, several institutions were already
forced to cancel practical and field work.
Factors Affecting Learning
During the period of transition, the freshman brings in several characteristics and attributes
that could impact on learning. Some of these characteristics and attributes are discussed in
this section.
Home background
Many learners come from a rural setting. Some have grown up in polygamous homes
characterized by many children and scarce resources. They would speak one or more of the
indigenous language as well as English, French or Portuguese which are major media of
teaching and learning in higher education in Africa. The language question has further
implication because education in a foreign language places the learner at a disadvantage. He
or she is required to master that language before battling with content in education. The
decline in proficiency in English in Anglophone Africa has hampered teaching and learning.
A small group would come from the middle class and would have experienced the benefits of
growing up in urban areas. Some in this group would have traveled widely outside their
homeland and had access to information and various forms of educational materials and
technology. Some others would have enjoyed the benefits of pre-school education and would
be proficient in English, French or Portuguese.
A very small percentage of learners would have had post-secondary school work experience
in either the private or the public sector. They would therefore have acquired skills, which
would serve them well in their future learning. Further they would have had greater control
of their lives and resources than learners who enter higher educational institutions at a
younger age.
Impact of prior experiences on the learners learning
Contrary to popular opinion, our learners are not blank states on which imprints can not be
made, nor are they empty vessels to be filled. On entry, they would normally have knowledge
and skills acquired from their earliest socialization in appropriate means of constructing the
world around them and creative approaches to solving problems. Further they are expected to
be largely at the Piagetian stage of formal operations in their cognitive development and
could therefore be expected to operate at that level.
These positive gains notwithstanding, experience shows several deficiencies which could
constrain the ability or desire of higher education learners to function effectively in the
learning/teaching situation in institutions of higher learning. For example, they are expected
to manage their time as well as do independent work (conduct investigations in their areas of
study). They must also have a view of learning which emphasizes construction of knowledge,
creativity and problem solving. Their school experiences, characterized by external controls,
traditional teaching and learning styles (notably rote learning) and threatening learning
environments have certainly not prepared them to take responsibility for their learning.
The nature of the school leaving examinations has the tendency to encourage regurgitation
of rehearsed opinion and dictated notes rather than evidence of ability to analyze and
synthesize. This impedes the ability to apply knowledge, think critically, solve new problems
by responding in creative ways and reflect on their learning. This situation sends wrong
messages to the students and creates enormous obstacles for learners who gain admission to
institutions of higher learning.
Most of learners behaviors on entry can be explained with reference to their background.
Can you think of instances where other factors would have to be explored?
Selection/Admission criteria and procedures
All institutions of higher learning in Africa have selection procedures designed not only to
ensure that only the best of candidates are admitted, but also because of constraints imposed
by diminishing financial resources, deterioration and inadequacy of the physical structures
and inadequate staffing of departments. As a general rule, prospective learners have to meet
university requirements, which may be credit in five subjects including English and
Mathematics, in the appropriate international examination. Some departments may also
demand a high level of attainment in certain subjects other than those preferred by the
learners to facilitate good performance in the major areas. This means that merely meeting
matriculation requirements does not always guarantee learners a place. For instance, some
institutions, notably Nigerian universities, administer a general university entrance
examination, conducted by the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Success
in this examination may earn a candidate a place in one university, but not necessarily in
another because admission is offered on the basis of level of performance.
A recent phenomenon is the Remedial Initiative for Female Teachers (RIFT) at Gambia
College, the Gambia, which is intended to correct the gender balance in education by helping
adult female learners who cannot meet the selection criteria to do so by the end of the
programme. These learners are admitted on the basis of performance in a special college
examination. They are then given remedial course of the programme to increase their chances
of passing the international school leaving examination before certification. There are other
reported instances of admission of learners who are under qualified at the beginning but who
became highly proficient after attending specially arranged remedial classes.
Selection procedures are also influenced by equity and gender issues, societal demands in
terms of human resources, and the need to give access to education to special groups for
example military personnel and their dependants. Provision is also made in some institutions
for mature learners. To satisfy these and similar categories universities often have to take
affirmative action. The process of selection/admission can therefore be seen as evaluative,
based on the priorities of the period.
Do you think the selection/admission criteria and procedures are fair, given the paucity of
educational outlets for the school leaver?
What would you say are some of the arguments for retaining or modifying the current criteria
and procedures? How far do you support or oppose them?
Psychological factors are normally resident within the learner. These include intelligence,
motivational level, self-concept and emotional traits. Sociological factors on the other hand,
are usually resident within the external environment. The environment in this case includes
the family, peer and the community. Sociological factors include family background, peer
group influence, school setting and societal expectation. The interaction between these two
groups of factors (psychosocial) is important in student learning
Psychosocial Characteristics
Casual observation is that psycho-social characteristics do provide some general explanation
of learners behavior. We might also look in other areas for explanations which might be
helpful in illuminating learner characteristics. The following list represents some of the areas
that should be explored in relation to the learners psychosocial characteristics on entry into
higher education:
Cognitive development
friendship patterns and linkages
-perception/esteem/ concept
and world view
religious orientation
This list is not exhaustive. You can make additions from your experience
Factors affecting psychosocial characteristics:
Socio-economic Factors
National Economy
Historical factors/colonialism
The Socio-Cultural Factor
Peer Group
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Political Climate
Profile of the Higher Education Teacher
Why do we need to gain understanding of the higher education teacher? Perhaps the
straightforward answer can be found from a quote from Julius Nyerere "It is by gaining
insight of our potentialities that we understand others better". When we know who we are as
teachers, our strengths and weak points, we become well positioned to appreciate our
students and to carry out our teaching tasks more meaningfully. Profiling the higher
education teacher is the central goal of this module.
The mastery of technical skills now takes a back seat to the development of the teacher as a
self-reflective, ethical and continuously developing, competent practitioner. Far from
providing 'tips for teachers', professional programmes emphasize the value laden nature of
teaching and the ethical position of the teacher.
There is a sophisticated discourse concerning teaching and learning in higher education that
many practitioners never appear to interact with. A likely reason is that academics see
themselves as professionals in their own discipline-based research area, rather than as
professionals in the area of university teaching. They qualify and are credentialed by research
in a discipline area and they undertake continuing professional development in that research
area by reading relevant journals and attending conferences. It is important that academics
consider themselves to have a dual professional allegiance: to their professional
(disciplinary) responsibility as a university researcher and to the profession of teaching. The
latter role can be successfully accomplished with teacher training experience.
The professionalisation of teaching is little more than a century old. During its development,
teaching progressed from a primitive, relatively unskilled trade, to an occupation requiring
vocational training, and finally to a profession demanding thorough, specialized preparation.
The preparation of the teacher is viewed increasingly as a continuous process that extends
throughout his or her tenure
General Characteristics of the Higher Education Teacher
Practically, the higher education teacher is expected to be an exemplar in teaching research;
and community service.
The higher education academic is expected to be an exemplar of good teaching, a productive
researcher and someone who can provide good quality extension service to the institution and
to the larger community. Teaching, research and community service are the three
traditionally known clusters of duties of the higher education teacher.
Activity: - Think of the work you do and the work expected of you by your students, the
community, and the administration of your institution. Is this work covered by the three
traditional areas? If your answer is no, provide a list of those activities that are not so
covered.
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Profile as a Teacher
What teaching characteristics are we expecting of a teacher in a higher institution? A listing
of some of these characteristics is provided below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
In displaying these characteristics, the expectation is that the teacher should have:
1. designed a teaching programme or scheme of work from a course outline,
document or syllabus;
2. used a wide and appropriate range of teaching and learning methods
effectively and efficiently in order to work with large groups, small groups,
and one-to-one;
3. provided support to students on academic issues in a way which is acceptable
to a wide range of students;
4. used a wide and appropriate range of assessment techniques to support student
learning and to record achievement;
5. evaluated their own work with a range of self, peer and student monitoring
and evaluation techniques;
6. performed effectively their teaching support and academic administrative
tasks;
7. developed personal and professional strategies appropriate to the constraints
and opportunities of their institutional setting
1. Higher Education Teaching
A list of the major goals of higher education teaching would include such objectives as
changing students' factual knowledge and competence in the course material, strengthening
various cognitive capacities (e.g., study skills, reasoning, writing and speaking skills), and
fostering intellectual appreciation of the subject matter. For many, imparting knowledge and
skills to students is the major objective of higher education teaching.
Teaching offers singular opportunities for the realization of many important, intrinsic values
in life. It enables, indeed requires the teacher to engage in a never-ending pursuit of
knowledge. The world of the teacher is a world of learning. The opportunity for selfeducation and for satisfying intellectual curiosity is unmatched in any other profession. It is
in the education of others that the teacher finds the secret of his/her own. The teachers role
in educating others is becoming increasingly profound. We have traditionally thought of the
teacher as a dispenser of information. Today he or she must be conceived as something far
more than that. The knowledge explosion has forced upon us, fortunately, a new concept of
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the teacher. It is no longer possible to dispense during the school years all the knowledge that
students will need in their lifetime, so we have come to stress "learning how to learn" as the
essence of modern education. Thus the new role of the teacher becomes that of stimulating
the learners curiosity, sharpening powers of independent intellectual discovery, and
strengthening the ability to organize and use knowledge. In short, it is helping the learner
acquire lifelong powers of self education.
The teacher has often been spoken of as an exemplar of fine scholarship, a model scholar
whom students may emulate, and the very embodiment of his or her discipline. This new role
of the teacher as exemplar, far more profound than a role as mere dispenser of information,
extends the impact of the teacher on the modes of thought and methods of study of the
student throughout life. Thus, the teacher is sustained by the challenge of implanting this
important intellectual vestige in others. To help in guiding another generations chance to
grow is perhaps the noblest form of human expression. How well have you used this
opportunity as a teacher?
Table 2.1 Effective and Ineffective Behaviors of Teachers
Effective behaviors
Ineffective behaviors
Is cheerful, optimistic
Is patient
Is impatient
Is friendly and courteous in relations withIs aloof and removed in relations with students
students
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Anticipates reactions of others in social Does not anticipate reactions of others in social
situations
situations
Encourages students to try to do their bestMakes no effort to encourage students to try to
do their best
Classroom procedure is planned and well Procedure is without plan, disorganized.
organized
Classroom procedure is flexible within
overall plan
Gives clear, practical demonstrations and Demonstrations and explanations are not clear
explanations
and are poorly conducted.
Is clear and thorough in giving directions Directions are incomplete, vague
Encourages students to work through
their own problems and evaluate their
accomplishments
Foresees and attempts to resolve potentialIs unable to foresee and resolve potential
difficulties
difficulties
Let us examine the qualities of the higher education teacher in a little for detail.
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intellectual curiosity
mastery of his or her field of knowledge and its methods of inquiry
respect for truth
intellectual honesty, and
fundamental understanding of the learning process.
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Bring copies of the required texts to the first class meeting. Make them Know, which stores
besides the campus bookstore stock the texts. Are used copies available? Is the textbook on
reserve in the library?
Creating a Positive Classroom Environment
Introduce yourself to your class. In addition to telling students how you wish to be addressed,
say something about your background: how you first became interested in the subject, how it
has been important to you, and why you are teaching this course. Convey your enthusiasm
for the field and the subject. For many students, the teachers enthusiasm about the course
material is a key motivator for learning.
Ask students to tell you their names, year in school, and major field. What they hope to learn
in the course, tentative career plans, and something about their outside interests, hobbies, or
current employment (if any).
Begin to learn student's names. By learning your student's names, you can create a
comfortable classroom environment that will encourage student interaction. Knowing your
students' names also tells them that you are interested in them as individuals. Call students by
name when you return homework or quizzes, and use names frequently in class.
Setting Course Expectations and Standards
Discuss the objectives of the course. As specifically as possible, tell your students what you
wish to accomplish and why, but also ask for what they want to learn from you and what
sorts of problems they would like to tackle. Be sure to acknowledge all contributionsyour
attentiveness to students' ideas will encourage students participation throughout the
semester.
Ask students to list the goals they hope to achieve by taking the course. Have students, in
small groups or individually, list three to five goals in the form of statements about
knowledge, skills, appreciation, interests, or attitudes. Describe how you propose to spend
class time. How will sessions be structured? How will discussions be organized? Will a
specific time be set aside for questions, or may students ask questions as they arise? Should
questions requiring a lengthy response be saved for office hours?
Give your students ideas about how to study and prepare for class. Study strategies are
especially important in an introductory class. Give examples of questions students might
wish to think about or strategies for approaching the material. Tell students how much time
they will need to study for the course, and let them know about campus academic support
services.
If appropriate, give a brief diagnostic pretest. Explain that this "test" will not be graded but is
designed to give you information on topics students have mastered and areas in which they
need additional review. You could present a list of key concepts, facts and figures, or major
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ideas and ask students to indicate their familiarity with each. In a writing course, you might
assign a short essay that will allow you to identify students' strengths and weaknesses.
Some Hints to Enhance the Profile of the Teacher
Provided below are some suggestions to enhance your profile as a teacher.
Giving Clear Explanations
Use concrete, real-life, and relevant examples. Present practical applications and
experiences. Use illustrations, graphs, and diagrams where appropriate. Use relevant
audiovisual aids (films, tapes, maps, slides, etc.). Develop effective metaphors or
analogies for difficult concepts. Suggest mnemonic aids for memorizing complicated
ideas. Paraphrase technical explanations in understandable language. Define
unfamiliar terms. Write key terms on the blackboard or overhead. Repeat difficult
ideas in diverse ways. Speak more slowly for difficult or particularly important ideas.
Ask if students understand before proceeding.
Speak in a clear, well-paced, and expressive manner. Use appropriate teaching aids
effectively (e.g., blackboard, overhead projector, handouts,).
Effective Speaking
Speak at suitable rate, not too fast for understanding and note-taking. Speak loudly
enough for the room. Pronounce words distinctly. Modulate voice; speak expressively
rather than in a monotone. Speak fluently, without excessive pauses or "ums" and
"ahs." Speak naturally without over reliance on verbatim reading (outlines can help).
Use facial expressions (e.g., smiling, laughter), bodily gestures, and movement.
Avoid distracting mannerisms (e.g., playing with chalk, rocking). Make eye contact
with students. Move about the classroom; do not fix on a desk or lectern. Display a
relaxed manner. Include humor. Use blackboards, other audiovisual aids, and a
variety of methods. Be enthusiastic and dynamic.
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activities. Encourage new ideas from students. Use varied activities, media, and
formats (e.g., guest lecture, panel discussions).
Openness to Ideas
Be open to different opinions and points of view. Let students feel free to question
you, to think independently, and to express dissenting views. Present and explore
points of view other than your own. Be flexible in your thinking. Contrast the
implications of different theories. Let students be creative (e.g., generate alternative
explanations). Demonstrate and encourage original and independent thought.
Promoting Rapport
Be reasonably available for consultation. Talk with students before, after, and outside
class. Learn students names (e.g., use class cards). Show interest in how students are
doing. Show interest in students and their ideas. Be sensitive to student progress and
motivation (e.g., knows when students are having difficulty or are bored). Show
concern that students understand and learn the subject matter. Take action when
students lose interest or have excessive difficulty (e.g., use more examples, modify
requirements?). Make students feel welcome (e.g., announce availability for help, be
approachable). When students seek help, be understanding, patient, helpful, and not
overly critical. Be tolerant of other points of view. Provide opportunities in class for
questions. Engage in give and take with students. Show approval for student ideas
(e.g., positive comments, praise, smile, and nod head). Respect thoughts, opinions,
and rights of students and others.
Effective Communication
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Research is about problem solving. Thus, the ability to identify, state and define the
boundaries to problems is an important characteristic of a researcher. Premium is placed
more on problems of concern to the immediate environment of the researcher. For example,
an educational researcher will be applauded for seeking solutions to pressing educational
problems within the local community or country. Same goes for agricultural scientists
addressing problems faced by farmers in a region or country.
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Problem identification is one thing; the methodology for solving the problem is another. The
researcher needs to have the ability to employ an efficient and parsimonious design for
solving the problem.
Objectivity
Research is the pursuit of truth which comes about as a result of an objective quest. In his or
her procedures, data collection and interpretation, the researcher must exercise objectivity,
that is, no bias throughout the implementation of the research plan.
Honesty
Perseverance
The researcher ought to keep going on the research plan in spite of delays and
disappointments. Difficulties do arise. The researcher never gives up until all the evidence
needed for decision making are in.
Solo efforts in conducting research are good. Joint and co-operative efforts are better, after
all, two heads are better than one. A good attribute is for the researcher to be able to work
as part of a team. He or she should be able to bring knowledge, experience and expertise to
bear on a segment of the research project to complement knowledge and skills of the other
members of the team. It has been observed that collaborate group research projects receive
better evaluation than individual projects.
A researcher should be able to effectively supervise the research work of students and junior
colleagues.
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Most high-quality research projects are funded by the institution or agencies external to it.
Funding agencies receive several proposals for funding from which only a few are chosen.
The competition generated by the process demands that researchers are able to write
proposals that have high likelihood of winning grants.
On concluding the research, a report on the results is usually sent in a form of an article to a
publication for journal. The skill in writing good quality journal articles for publication
consideration is an important hallmark of a researcher.
3. Community Service
It is not enough for the teacher in a higher institution to be concerned only with his or her
teaching and research. There is the need to serve the community in other ways. By
community we mean both the community within the institution and the community outside it.
This includes committee work and membership of task forces, patron to student and staff
societies, and office holder of staff societies.
Examples of service offered by higher education teachers to the community outside the
university are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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The curriculum of an educational institution deals with all the scheduled activities undertaken
in that institution. Where any of these aspects is deficient, the curriculum becomes
inadequate and therefore a subject of improvement and/or revision. Advances in knowledge
and technology also make curriculum revision necessary by including in college programmes
the new and relevant developments to keep pace with the needs of society. In some cases, a
new subject may need to be added to the existing programme and this new subject should be
developed using existing materials in similar programmes elsewhere as resources.
Is Curriculum Development Needed in Higher Education? Yes, it is needed.
The major Reasons for undertaking Curriculum Development in Higher Education
1. Improvement of what is taught in higher education by revising and including current
and relevant content matter.
2. Filling the gaps that currently exist in higher educational programmes.
3. Responding to the needs of society.
4. Responding to research evidence from internal and external efficiency studies of the
higher education sub-sector.
Changes in society tend to immediately require corresponding changes in the curriculum of
higher education institutions presumably because it is the end of formal education and the
last opportunity for entry into the world of work. Besides, higher education has the capacity
to constantly investigate itself in order to make adjustment to improve both its internal and
external efficiency. Also, new developments in various fields and new thinking and visions
may necessitate changes in the curriculum in higher education.
In many higher institutions, the development of a new course or programme of studies is
initiated by the subject department. Here, specialist academics put together topics as they
know them to have been taught elsewhere. The department presents these to the Faculty or
Academic Board where approval essentially gives authorization for the course to start. The
higher bodies of the institution, like the Senate and Governing Councils in the case of
Universities, endorse the decision of the Faculty Board under normal circumstances. These
activities are part of curriculum development in higher education.
There are three types of curriculum commonly used in educational institutions. The first is
one in which all subjects or courses are treated as equal. The second is an integrated
curriculum in which several subjects are fused together in such a way that the identities of the
individuals are lost. Integration of subjects is done so that teaching and learning become
more meaningful and applicable in the real world. Some groups of subjects bear a lot of
relationship to each other and are considered by many specialists to be more effective if they
are fused together. The case in point is that of the natural sciences (physics, chemistry and
biology). These subjects are often considered to have artificial boundaries between them and
that since, in the real world we do not use them separately it is better if they are fused
together as Integrated Science and taught accordingly. A second example of a group of
subjects that have often been fused together at the school level is the social science group,
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(geography, history, civics etc). However, the extent to which these groups of subject are
treated in integrated form in higher education is low.
The third is the core curriculum. This is the course or set of courses that are deemed to be the
main components of a programme of studies. These courses or subjects are expected to
constitute the programme of studies under normal circumstances. They are required for the
provision of the general skills, attitudes and knowledge required by a programme of training.
In a programme of studies or training where a core curriculum is provided there is usually
another set of courses or subjects referred to as elective or optional subjects. The prescribed
selection of optional subjects plus the core gives the student the full dosage of the
programmes.
Prevailing Practices of Curriculum Development in Higher Education
A common practice of curriculum development in higher education is the construction or
revision of syllabuses for new or existing courses. Many courses in higher education in
Africa were transplanted from Western Europe or the United States of America and the only
form of curriculum development undertaken in respect of these courses is the revision of
what already exists so as to reflect the African context. Another form of curriculum is the
inclusion of new developments in the field of study resulting from research and public
declarations into existing programmes.
Today, many African higher educational institutions teach national languages and used some
of these languages are used as subjects of research for higher degrees. In 1996, a Declaration
was made in Accra, Ghana on the promotion and use of African national languages in
education. In some cases, central governments specific request to a higher educational
institution to mount specific programme of studies.
Some of the successful models of curriculum development in higher education are found
when the development is originated from within the institution. Also, education policy
documents by the Ministry of Education have been found to be effective in promoting
curriculum revision and development in higher education.
The development of courses in higher education in many instances involves the listing of
topics for the several years for which the course is made to run. Rigorous curriculum
development procedures are hardly adopted in these course development exercises.
Prevailing practices in curriculum development in higher education is therefore limited
largely to syllabus construction or revision.
Curriculum Content Format
A few reasons have been given for the need for a change from the course outline format for
curriculum content in higher education to one that should contain more details of the content,
objectives and the use of sound theoretical basis for the selection and organization of content.
Instead of the current elements of topic, and content, we advocate themes, objectives, topics,
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content and evaluation/assessment guide. The theoretical basis for content selection is the use
of any of four approaches. Details are in Ivowi (1995).
1. Topical approach leads to many topics (much content) based on knowledge
and experience. No clear relationship among content elements.
2. Conceptual approach leads to fewer content clustering around major and
sub-concepts and their interactions. Relatedness of content elements is
emphasized.
3. Thematic approach being a combination of concepts (i.e subsuming of
concepts) has most of the advantages of conceptual structure plus flexibility in
terms of innovative ideas without necessarily being overloaded.
4. Modular approach leads to complete units of instruction that provide
employable skills. This is the common approach in technical and vocational
courses
The thematic approach is recommended for content selection. We are very
familiar with the use of themes and sub-themes at conferences, seminars and
workshops; so generating appropriate themes and sub-themes for our courses
should be fairly easy. As regards content organization, the spiral approach is
recommended; and in fact, it is what is being used in higher institutions whereby
courses are graded in order of difficulty or complexity (e.g. solid state physics I
and II). In the proposed format, the following will feature: theme, topics,
objectives, content and evaluation. The three additions here are themes,
performance objectives and assessment guide. The performance objectives are
particularly important. Given the intellectual level of the students and their access
to literature, this will give them direction in their studies and so make them to
prepare more adequately for the courses. The assessment guide gives very specific
and clear indication of the level at which a test should be pitched in a domain.
Some Practical Hints on Course Development and Implementation
Provide basic information. Include the current year and semester, the course title and
number, the number of units, the meeting time and location. Indicate any course meetings
which are not scheduled for the assigned room. List your name, office address (include a map
if your office is hard to locate), office phone number, email address, website URL, fax
number, and office hours. For your office hours, indicate whether students need to make
appointments in advance or may just stop in. If you list a home telephone number, indicate
any restrictions on its use (for example, "Please do not call after 10 p.m.").
Describe the prerequisites to the course. Help students realistically assess their readiness
for your course by listing the knowledge, skills, or experience you expect them to already
have or the courses they should have completed. Give students suggestions on how they
might refresh their skills if they feel uncertain about their readiness.
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Give an overview of the course's purpose. Provide an introduction to the subject matter and
show how the course fits in the college or department curriculum. Explain what the course is
about and why students would want to learn the material.
State the general learning goals or objectives. List three to five major objectives that you
expect all students to strive for: What will students know or be able to do better after
completing this course? What skills or competencies do you want to develop in your
students?
Clarify the conceptual structure used to organize the course. Students need to understand
why you have arranged topics in a given order and the logic of the themes or concepts you
have selected.
Describe the format or activities of the course. Let students know whether the course
involves fieldwork, research projects, lectures, discussions with active participation, and the
like. Which are required and which recommended?
Specify the textbook and readings by authors and editions. Include information on why
these particular readings were selected. When possible, show the relationship between the
readings and the course objectives, especially if you assign chapters in a textbook out of
sequence. Let students know whether they are required to do the reading before each class
meeting. If students will purchase books or course readers, include prices and the names of
local bookstores that stock texts. If you will place readings on reserve in the library, you
might include the call numbers. If you do not have access to the call numbers or if it makes to
reading list look too cluttered, give students as their first assignment the task of identifying
the call numbers for the readings. Let students know that this will make it easier for them to
locate each week's readings, and more importantly, it will give them practice in using the
library's electronic resources.
Identify additional materials or equipment needed for the course. For example, do
students need laboratory or safety equipment, art supplies, calculators, computers, drafting
materials?
List assignments, term papers, and exams. State the nature and format of the assignments,
the expected length of essays, and their deadlines. Give the examination dates and briefly
indicate the nature of the tests (multiple-choice, essay, short-answer, take-home tests). How
do the assignments relate to the learning objectives for the course? What are your
expectations for written work? In setting up the syllabus, try to keep the workload evenly
balanced throughout the term.
State how students will be evaluated and how grades will be assigned. Describe the
grading procedures, including the components of the final grade and the weights assigned to
each component (for example, homework, term papers, midterms and exams). Students
appreciate knowing the weighting because it helps them budget their time. Will you grade on
a curve or use an absolute scale?
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Discuss course policies. Clearly state your policies regarding class attendance; turning in
late work; missing homework, tests or exams; make-ups; extra credit; requesting extensions;
reporting illnesses; cheating and plagiarism. Include a description of students' responsibilities
in the learning. You might also list acceptable and unacceptable classroom behavior ("Please
refrain from eating during class because it is disturbing to me and other students").
Invite students with special needs to contact you during office hours. Let students know
that if they need an accommodation for any type of physical or learning disability, they
should set up a time to meet with you to discuss what modifications are necessary.
Provide a course calendar or schedule. The schedule should include the sequence of course
topics, the preparations or readings, and the assignments due. For the readings, give page
numbers in addition to chapter numbers--this will help students budget their time.
Examination dates should be firmly fixed, while dates for topics and activities may be listed
as tentative. Provide an updated calendar as needed.
Schedule time for fast feedback from your students. Set a time midway through the term
when you can solicit from students their reactions to the course so far. See "Fast Feedback"
for ways to get feedback from students.
List important drop dates. Include on the course calendar the last day students can
withdraw from the course without penalty.
Estimate student workload. Give students a sense of how much preparation and work the
course will involve. How much time should they anticipate spending on reading assignments,
problem sets, lab reports or research?
There are several other weaknesses in current practices of curriculum development in
higher education. In the first place higher education curriculum has remained largely teachercentered. The teacher is conceived as a reservoir of knowledge while the students are a
repository to receive knowledge from the teacher and return it on demand. It is advisable that
the curriculum becomes more learner-centered so that the learners initiatives are developed
for use in the world of work. The learners would also have the confidence of practicing what
they have learnt.
The practice of constructing syllabuses and not undertaking systematic curriculum
development appears to have discouraged curriculum reform projects in higher education.
Curriculum reform projects are usually innovative in procedure and products and since
higher educational institutions have continued to remain largely unchanged in their curricula
offerings no reform projects could be undertaken.
The approach to curriculum development in higher education is largely ad hoc rather than
systematic occurring as and when individuals or groups of individuals had been influenced
by their own training. Most of the time, changes come through students who have had
training in Western Europe or the United States and are recruited in our institutions to teach.
Their experiences are brought to bear on the systems they meet and so even though the
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institutions strive for relevance they cannot because outside influences continue to supersede
policy directives. Besides, policy directives on higher education in the area of curriculum are
very few.
Consequently, traditional subjects and practices abound and remain unquestioned. The old
school subject of English or French Grammar, Geography, History, Chemistry, Physics,
Biology, etc. are common place. It appears the metropolitan institutions of higher education
have continued to influence our institutions through these courses. Newer subject areas like
remote sensing, aeronautics engineering, environmental resources management are still
outside the reach of some higher educational institutions in Africa. Even in the institution
where some developments are taking place in these directions these movements are very
slow. The curriculum is kept very narrow and the process of expanding is very slow.
Curriculum reforms taking place in various Institutions of Higher learning are in pursuit of
this objective. New degree programmes have been developed to replace irrelevant
programmes, and there is increasingly more use of locally authored texts, however, it should
be noted that not every aspect of the curricula can be Africanized given the universal nature
of certain truths in the various disciplines. What is required is a new working definition
which translates knowledge into development. Constraints pertaining to inadequate facilities,
equipment and lack of instructional material, and crowding which hinder effective
implementation of curricula thus affecting quality, need to be addressed.
The Needs and Goals of Society as Determinants of Curriculum Development
The national philosophy of education in a country affects the content and structure of
education. This national philosophy is an expression of the needs, goals and aspirations of
society in the field of education. The aims and objectives of all activities in the field of
education should derive from the needs goals and aspirations of society Curriculum
development, which is the planning of these activities, is thus influenced by the needs, goals
and aspiration of society.
The aims of education in many African countries do not always express the needs, goals and
aspirations of society. Curriculum development in higher education is therefore faced with
the dilemma of planning and developing curriculum based on aims which are not of the
society.
The study of the society involves identification of the needs and goals of society that can be
used as influences on curriculum development in higher education. The need for relevant and
functional human resource by society to provide the expertise required depends on the
curriculum materials planned and developed. And it is in this sense that curriculum
development, especially in higher education, is considered to be very important in the
development of education and human resource in any nation.
Curriculum development for higher education should take place at various levels and must
involve a cross section of society especially those from industry and commerce (the private
sector) to ensure more relevance. Involvement of national governments is ensured by
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The first of the stages dealt with is selection or survey of content matter. The content is
sometimes taken from existing documents (e.g. existing syllabuses, college prospectus
spelling out the courses in each programme, books and research journal, articles in related
subject areas for a new course that is to be originated). The selection of content is in three
parts:
identification of topics
sequencing of the topics according to one of the known methods of arrangement of
content matter (e.g. spiral, simple to complex, concrete to abstract or known to the
unknown). A spiral arrangement is one in which the same topics are presented at the
different levels of the system with increasing complexity and difficulty.
definition of the scope to be reached in the treatment of each of the topics.
All learning, whether at university, school or in the work place should be organized to help
learners achieve these outcomes. The critical outcomes state that learners should be able to:
1. Identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking.
2. Work effectively with others as members of a team, group, organization or community.
3. Organize and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively.
4. Collect, analyze, organize and critically evaluate information.
5. Communicate effectively, using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the modes of oral
and/or written presentation.
6. Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the
environment and health of others.
7. Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognizing that problemsolving contexts do not exist in isolation.
These outcomes have been adopted by SAQA and agreed by the Departments of Education
and Labor after a great deal of debate and consultation with a wide range of stakeholders.
They reflect essential qualities that all South Africans will need if we are to build a new
democratic society and to create a thriving economy.
Objectives of Higher Education in Ethiopia (proclamation no 650/2009
According to the proclamation, the objectives of higher education are to:
1/
2/
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3/
4/
design and provide community and consultancy services that shall cater to the
developmental needs of the country;
5/
6/
7/
promote and uphold justice, fairness, and rule of law in institutional life;
8/
9/
There is the demand to produce graduates who have the necessary knowledge,
skills and values/attitude towards life/the world of work.
(Possible elements include: the preliminary parts such as name of institution,
course title course No, Cr/hrs, contact hrs, classification (prerequisite . . .); course
description, learning outcome, contents, methods, resources, evaluation
mechanisms, references, etc)
In both cases, the designer considers the learners' need and ability, societal needs,
the various development areas such as intellectual, physical, emotional, social,
moral developments, etc of the learners. Therefore in designing a
course/curriculum, the designers need to consider:
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applicable to life;
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Logical-mathematical intelligence;
Linguistic intelligence;
Spatial intelligence;
Musical intelligence;
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence;
Interpersonal intelligence;
Interpersonal intelligence;
Naturalist intelligence.
includes. It begins with the lives and experiences of the learners. It sets the stage for
learning by sharpening perception. It tells the learner what s/he has to learn as well as
find out what s/he perceives s/he already knows. It is either a rude awakening or a
corroborating experience. Then, the dialogue begins. It may be a warm-up activity.
Content of learners perceptions is the substance of the task. It aims to connect new
knowing with the former learning, and prior knowledge with new content. It helps
self-motivation for new learning.
(b) Input task: Invites the learners to grapple directly with new content/tasks. The new
content is presented, the challenge is set, and the gauntlet is thrown. It involves
presenting substantive concepts, data, skill sets, and attitudes for examination,
comparison, reflection, practice, editing, rearranging, reconstructing. This is done
within the frame of a learning task. New material is met head on. It is presented as an
integral part of the learning task, for learners to work over, struggle with, contest, and
usually recreate to fit their context. Constructed knowledge is the result. This involves
dialogue; deep understanding; the thought characteristic of a skilled practitioner in the
field, and action from reflection, not memory.
(c) Implementation task: It invites the learner to implement new knowledge, skills and
attitudes in the learning environment, immediately, implementing them in the
workshop, class, or session, in a safe environment. This is done to get feedback on the
learners interpretation as well as practice the behavior. Offer practice and
reinforcement. Let learners know what they know.
(d) Integration task: learners are invited to apply what they have learned to their life and
work. This may be done through a projection task inviting the learners to imagine
what integration of such would accomplish in their workplace or life. It may involve
sending a report later for scrutiny by supervisor or instructor. These tasks examine
transfer, the use of such in their workplace or life. Offering feedback on such ensures
that the task gets accomplished and reinforces it at the same time. It is an ongoing
opportunity for assessment, without being a testing task.
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The task affords learners the opportunity to examine the problem from a variety of theoretical
and practical perspectives, rather than a single perspective that learners must imitate to be
successful. The uses of a variety of resources rather than a limited number of pre-selected
references require students to detect relevant from irrelevant information.
5. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity to collaborate
Collaboration is integral to the task, both within the course and the real world, rather than
achievable by an individual learner.
6. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity to reflect
Tasks need to enable learners to make choices and reflect on their learning both individually
and socially.
7. Authentic tasks can be integrated and applied across different subject areas and lead
beyond domain-specific outcomes
Tasks encourage interdisciplinary perspectives and enable diverse roles and expertise rather
than a single well-defined field or domain.
8. Authentic tasks are seamlessly integrated with assessment
Assessment of tasks is seamlessly integrated with the major task in a manner that reflects real
world assessment, rather than separate artificial assessment removed from the nature of the
task.
9. Authentic tasks create polished products valuable in their own right rather than as
preparation for something else
Tasks culminate in the creation of a whole product rather than an exercise or sub-step in
preparation for something else.
10. Authentic tasks allow competing solutions and diversity of outcome
Tasks allow a range and diversity of outcomes open to multiple solutions of an original
nature, rather than a single correct response obtained by the application of rules and
procedures.
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there are two families of learning theories behavioral and cognitive and that many subgroups
exist within these two families (Parkay, et al, 2006, pp. 165-169).
What counts as a "reward" varies from learner to learner. Rewards are often effective
for certain types of learners:
Slow learners;
John B. Watson (1849-1936) and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators
of behaviorist approach to learning. Watson asserted that human behavior was the result of
specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. His view of learning was based partially on
experiments conducted by a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov, who noticed that a dog was
working with salivated shortly before it was given food. Pavlov discovered that by ringing a
bell when food was given and repeating this several times, the sound of the bell alone (a
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Watson
believed that all learning confirmed to the Pavlovs S-R model, which has become known
as classical or type S conditioning Expanding on Watson's basic S-R model, Skinner
developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning known as Operant (or type R)
conditioning.
Skinner's model was based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned,
Unsatisfying ones are not; as he put it: "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or
strengthening effect on our behavior" (Skinner, 1972, p.74) He believed that educators could
turn their attention from ill-defined inner qualities and facilities to the observable and
manipulability by focusing on external conditions that shape and maintain human behavior.
Social learning theories which are widely endorsed by sociologists, anthropologists, and
social psychologists maintain that human beings have an unlimited capacity to learn. This
capacity, however, is limited by social expectations and by constraints on behavior patterns
that the immediate social environment considers appropriate. According to this view, the
learning process is primarily social, and learning occurs through socialization. Socialization
occurs in a variety of settings, and the job, and it continues throughout life. According to
Albert Bandura (1997, p. 12), the originator of social learning theory, virtually all learning
phenomena resulting from direct experience occur on a vicarious basis by observing other
peoples behavior and its consequences for them. Banduras view of learning is often
referred to as modeling or observational learning.
(iii) Cognitive learning theories
Cognitive learning theories focus on the mental processes people use as they acquire new
knowledge and skills. Unlike behavioral theories, which focus on observable behavior,
cognitive theories focus on the unobservable processing, storage, and retrieval of information
from the brain.
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According to cognitive learning theories, the individual acts, originates, and thinks, and this
is the important source of learning, but in the case of behavioral learning theory, the
individual learns by reacting to external forces.
Cognitive learning theories emphasize:
-
personal meaning
discovery learning
generalizations
principles
advance organizers
Cognitive views of learning provide the theoretical basis for current approaches to
authentic pedagogy and assessment of learning that emphasis the importance of teaching
and learning high intellectual quality & teaching understanding.
iv) Gestalt-Field Views of Learning
During the first few decades of the 20th century, several psychologists in Germany and later
in the United States began to look at how learners organize information into patterns and
wholes.
theorists maintain that wholeness is primary; one should start with the total aspects of a
learning situation and then more to particulars in light of the whole. Thus, obtaining an
overview is often an important step to learning.
(v) Constructivist Learning Theories
Since the mid-1980s, several educational researchers have attempted to identify how learners
construct understanding of new material. Constructivist views of learning, therefore, focus
on how learners make sense of new information how they construct meaning based on what
they already know. In part, the roots of constructivism can be traced back to Gestalt views of
learning in that learners seek to organize new information into meaningful wholes.
According to constructivism, students develop new knowledge through a process of active
constructivism. They do not passively receive or copy input form teachers or textbooks.
Instead, they actively mediate it by trying to make sense of it and relate it to what they
already know (or think they know) about the topic (Good and Brophy 2003, p. 398).
The following are seen as common elements of constructivist learning theories:
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Learning should equip students with knowledge, skills, values, and dispositions
that they will find useful both inside and outside the school.
The curriculum balances breadth and depth by addressing limited content but
developing this content sufficiently to foster conceptual understanding
The teachers role is not just to [resent information but also to scaffold and
respond to students learning efforts.
The students role is not just to absorb or copy input but also to actively make
sense and construct meaning.
Students prior knowledge about the topic is elicited and used as a starting place
for instruction, which builds on accurate prior knowledge and stimulates
conceptual change if necessary (Good and Brophy, 2003, pp. 420 421)
The concept of
Behaviorist
Cognitivists
Humanist
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Social learning
Constructivist
Bandur, Rotter
process
(including
insight,
fulfill potential
information
processing,
with
and
Construction of meaning
memory, perception)
Locus of learning Stimuli
in
external
Internal
environment
cognitive
Affective
structuring
cognitive needs
and
Interaction of a person,
Internal construction of
behavior,
and
reality by individual
environment
Purpose
of
Produce
education
change
behavioral
Develop
in
capacity
desired
skills to learn better
direction
Teachers role
and
Become
actualized,
autonomous
content
of
Facilitates
development
Socialization;
Experiential learning;
whole person
Manifestation
Behavioral
in
objectives;
Cognitive
development;
Andragogy;
adult learning
Competency-based
education;
memory as function of
learn;
Mentoring;
control.
Self-directed learning;
Locus
of
Perspective
transformation;
Reflective practice.
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Self-enhancement;
Formal training;
Credentialing;
Creation of subculture;
Legal reinforcement;
Public acceptance;
Ethical practice;
Penalties;
Hamilton (2002) noted that members of a profession must maintain high standards of
performance restrain self-interest and promote the ideals of public service in the area of
their responsibilities. In turn, the society accords them substantial autonomy with which
to regulate themselves.
Every profession:
1. Involves an intellectual activity/ body of subject matter knowledge/ and system of
skills;
All professions demand mastery of subject matter that help the individual learn the
theoretical aspect and undergoing a certain period of training to develop the required
skills to perform the particular activity. Teaching as purposive social activity is a
profession because teachers have to attend study area(s) in a certain subject(s), which
they are supposed to teach/ perform.
2. is practicable/practical;
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This is related to the freedom/ autonomy the individual gets to practice the activities
without any restrictions, or impositions. Teaching satisfies this for it is done openly and
legally without any restrictions.
3. requires an extended period of preparation for entry;
This is related to taking special training to handle the activities prescribed.
An
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3. Meeting the admission qualifications (criteria) and keeping up-to date through inservice programs;
4. A high level of intellectual energy;
5. Forming organization
6. Trying to get opportunities for advancement, specialization and independence;
7. Ensuring permanent membership in the profession and taking teaching as ones
life-long career.
Teachers who decide to be permanent members of the profession can contribute better
than those who are always ready to leave the profession.
Teachers have commitments to their students, the home and the community, and the
profession
1.3.2
The teachers professional codes of ethics are related to their accountability to their
students, the profession, their employers, the home and the community.
A. Teachers responsibility to their students
This refers to such responsibilities as respecting their rights, providing good
education that would enable them to become productive citizens, helping them set their
future goals, etc.
B. Teachers commitment to the profession
Teachers are expected to perform their duties as teachers being honest to their
colleagues, treat their colleagues as they want to be treated, acknowledge the works of
others, and work towards the improvement of the profession.
C. Teachers responsibility to their employers
Every employee is expected to accomplish tasks the employer wants him/her perform in
the organization faithfully and honestly with the required quality.
D. Teachers responsibility to the parents and the community
Parents have the right to say about the education of the children. Thus, listening to them
and respecting their opinion is mandatory. A teacher never blames the parents for what
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they say on the education of their children. The community is the body that supports the
school financially, materially, and guards the school from destructive activities.
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time, material, finance, etc. Thus, teaching effectiveness is concerned with the learning
outcomes, which the students gain.
Effectiveness is determined by concrete factors and personal qualities. The concrete
factors are related to the basic, identifiable, measurable and acquired issues which can be
achieved through training. They include general knowledge, specialized knowledge,
professional knowledge & skills. The personal factors are related to personal qualities
which are more natural than acquired and are difficult to quantify.
The personal factors are teachers personality traits that affect students behaviors. It is
true that, Students behaviors are greatly affected by teachers overall behavior and acts
(Azeb Desta, 1983). Thus, teachers being the important persons in schools need to have
good qualities. According to Teka Wolle (2004), an effective teacher is the one who:
identifies and develops his/her special interest and has the ability to be adaptable
to situations;
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impartiality, has good judgment, foresight, honesty, intelligence, modesty, simplicity and
punctuality.
Teachers qualities include the teachers capacity of creating students feeling of
acceptance by responding to students ideas, calling students by their name, giving
recognition, taking students questions seriously, avoiding ridicule and sarcasm, showing
respect for human personality, encouraging friendliness, refraining from sending students
from class, giving encouragement at times of failures, and avoiding the use of fear as
motivation.
The qualities also include making use of different methods and techniques such as
problem solving instead of reciting, becoming realist rather than verbalism, learning
through action, encouraging individual and group learning, guiding and all- round
development, democratic human relations as opposed to authoritarian or laissez-faire
type, etc.
In general, effectiveness in teaching depends on the teachers
students work;
procedures;
an appreciative attitude;
experiment.
Teachers style of teaching such as the use of voice, gait/walking/, facial expression,
gesture; etc contribute to the effectiveness of teachers .Similarly, pace (sense of
timing),use of ones creative power (imagination),use of materials (illustrations),
combing feeling and intellect such as love, hate, anger, frustration, interest with the
factual, which contribute to qualities of teachers.
To sum-up, the qualities of effective teachers are related to their personality,
preparation, lesson planning, avoiding side tracking, reviewing main body, illustrations,
guiding questions, deciding on scope and depth, presentation, that is, the ways by which
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they convey/impart/, demonstrate, the use of visual materials, chalkboard adequately and
effectively.
Good human relations are established in schools, and teachers develop a culture of
learning from each other and helping each other.
Teachers have taken the initiative to develop their profession.
Teachers have used teaching strategies that encourage students problem solving
capacities, talents and tolerance.
The learning experience and achievement are maximized for every pupil.
Teachers solve local educational problems through research conducted individually or
with others.
Each one of these modules is designed to take 20 hours to complete in each of the first
three years of post-induction service. Each school is expected to appoint a CPD
facilitator and a CPD committee.
Teachers
Ascertain that teacher trainees have the ability, diligence, professional interest, and
physical and mental fitness; appropriate for the profession.
Create a mechanism by which employers, training institutions and the Teachers
Association participate in the recruitment of trainees;
Teacher education and training components will emphasize basic knowledge
professional code of ethics; methodology and practical trainings.
Teachers will be certified before assigned.
1.3.3. Skills and Qualities of Effective Instructor
Effective instructor can have the following qualities:
(a) Ability of working with students:
Practice tough love. Support students while remaining firm as an authority figure
who enforces rules, has clear expectations and follows through with appropriate
consequences.
Accept the students where they are. Do not push them too hard to change, do not preach
to them nor force ones own thoughts and opinions on them.
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Elevate or advance students who are doing well to positions with greater status,
Privilege and responsibility (e.g., allow long-term students to lead parts of classes or
to substitute when the instructor is absentwith school staff in the room.)
Be flexible. Change lesson plans as needed and provide repetition to meet the special
education needs of students.
Help students set goals and support them in achieving them. Find and use
appropriate incentives to support students pursuit of their goals.
Have patience, perspective and the ability to not take things personally.
Live what you teach. Lead by example and be a good role model.
Have a strong sense of self, be honest with students and have good personal
boundaries.
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Break the lesson into small steps when working with different abilities and skill
levels.
Have experience in teaching the discipline. While novices sometimes do well with
youth (they are younger and may build easy rapport with youth), it is best to have
someone who is more seasoned and able to handle alternative education youth.)
Convey the ethical and philosophical aspects of the discipline and guide the
students in practicing these principles in class and outside of class.
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3. Compulsory- they make teachers effective in achieving the instructional objectives and
efficient in the use of time, energy, materials, space, money etc their teaching activities.
Effectiveness and efficiency are interrelated terms, which represent different issues.
Effectiveness is always related to the achievement of instructional objectives while
efficiency is used in relation to the wise use of resources such as time, energy, and
financial and material resources. Therefore, the principles of teaching make teachers to
achieve objectives of their lessons with minimum expenditure of resources.
4. Socially determined the principles are results of long years of observation of life
activities and the observation of the principles of teaching in all instructional activities
help teachers satisfy the demands of the society and meet the needs of the learners at all
levels.
The Main Principles of Teaching and their use in Teaching
The different principles of teaching and their applications are presented below.
1. The principle of planning lessons in line with the curriculum;
Teachers are both planners and practitioners. They are expected to refer to the curriculum
materials. The curriculum/course gives the appropriate information on the subject under
consideration. It is obligatory to follow the curricular documents in planning lessons. It
helps teachers achieve the desired end results. It makes the outcomes fit to what has been
planned. If a teacher has no access to the above-mentioned documents and plans as he/she
feels and thinks, the results of teaching become the result of what the teacher has set rather
than what was expected in planning the curriculum.
A teacher who doesnt have the syllabus will directly write objectives of his/her own rather
than focusing on the intended profile.
2. The principle of linking / connecting school learning activities to social life;
Teaching has purpose. There is no education for the sake of education. Students need to
acquire knowledge, develop skills and form value systems, which will help them, respond to
life requirements. Therefore, all what a teacher teaches must be related to economic, social
political, cultural etc life outside of the school. It must enable students to discharge their
responsibilities in the society.
socially, stable emotionally, active politically and culturally and appreciate art, music and
literature.
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Therefore, the teachers lessons need to unite the theoretical to the practical activities.
The lessons should enable students to think creatively and critically as well as to be able to
see reality objectively.
Teachers need to show where and how the theoretical lessons can be applied in actual life
situation. Practice helps students associate what they learn with the thing that is represented.
It also helps students remember what they learned to a longer period of time.
3. The principle of verbalization in instruction;
The principle advocates making students verbalize of what they are learning in their own
words. The exchange of ideas takes shape and develops through languages. Therefore, to
get a clear understanding and meaning of the material to be learned, students must be
encouraged to talk on the content Areas. Retention increases as the learner articulates what
he/she learned.
For instance, the following data give as the capacity of individuals after different activities.
10% of what is read;
The teaching materials could be real objects, models, still pictures such as photographs,
drawings, charts, graphs, posters, mobiles, tape recorders, etc. The scientific basis for the
principle elaborates that the beginning of knowledge is sense perception. No ideas are
formed without sense perception
5. The principle of recognizing individual differences in teaching:
According to the psychologists, every person is an individual. He/she possesses different
features that make him/her different from others. Similarly, they tell us that there has been no
duplication anywhere. There is no and there will be no one in the future who will be exactly
the same as any one of us. However, as no two individuals are exactly alike, they are more
alike than they are different. This in turn makes the grouping of students in a class and
making them learn together.
Individuals differ in their perception, intelligence, maturity level and rates, responses to the
demands of the society and needs as well as interests. Thus, the implication of this to
teaching is that teachers should consider the presence of the individual differences in a class
and try to accommodate the differences. Grouping students and giving tasks that match to
their ability, experiences and skills serve the purpose. Therefore, teachers shouldnt expect
all their students to learn in the same way at the same pace. They perceive the something in
different ways. Thus, to reduce the differences giving a number of examples or use different
audio-visual materials that clarify the issue under discussion is advisable.
Grouping students and reducing the gap can best be done depending on the nature of the
subject and students. For instance, mixed ability grouping provides students to exchange
their views and share their experiences. Similarly, students involvement in individualized
instruction helps resolve some of these problems.
6. The principle of uniting instruction with scientific findings and procedures
Things are in a state of constant change. What was taken as functional at one time becomes
obsolete at other times. What was workable becomes out of fashion / out dated. The
principle advocates the need for focusing on scientific procedures, techniques and recent
findings. It gives emphasis to relying more on the how of things rather than on what of
them.
Teachers need to make themselves up to date through personal efforts not to be out dated.
Search for recent research findings and teaching their students on the basis of workable
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principles, laws and theories are the expected responsibilities. If they dont provide lessons
that are dependent on those recent findings or on the procedures of doing things, they may
teach those rules, formula, laws, principles and theories, which dont work in the actual
situation. For instance, teaching Daltons Atomic Theory today as a working theory makes
students out of date.
However, this doesnt mean that they dont have any relationship.
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9.2. Starting lessons from the simple and preceding to the complex
This is a rule of presentation that a teacher must present those contents, which are the
prerequisites for those contents, which have to come later. We shouldnt forget that what is
simple to the presenter is not necessarily simple to the learners. For instance, teaching
multiplication before division makes lessons better understandable than trying in any other
ways. If anyone starts in the reverse way, it becomes very difficult to grasp the operation.
9.3. Presenting lessons from the easy and proceeding to the difficult
The rule advocates the consideration of the psychological and the logical arrangements. It is
appropriate to start from the basics of something and gradually moving to those which are
difficult. In every subject you find the easy contents and the difficult ones. Teaching letters is
easier than teaching how to form words, or write complete sentences following the
grammatical rules of the language under treatment. Teaching addition is easy to that of
subtraction.
9.4. Starting from the concrete and proceeding to the abstract;
The learners imaginations are greatly aided by concrete materials. Presenting lesson with
the support of concrete things help students better understand than presenting them verbally.
Small children learn better with concrete things than with verbal abstractions.
For instance, a lesson in Biology becomes interesting with the help of models, pictures, and
illustrations of bodies, etc. However, as the students grow and get matured, they can learn
abstractions. However, concrete things make lessons more understandable than abstract ones.
9.5. Starting from the whole and proceeding to the parts (specific) and the vice versa
It is found out that perception is better when it is on whole objects than on specific parts.
The presentation from the whole to the part is simple for it is very general and easily
observable. For instance, one can say something better on the whole/general ones than on the
particular issues which need a thorough knowledge. The rule is an expression of the
deductive approach/analysis. It is a process of teaching by applying general rules or
principles to a concrete situation.
Example: All green plants produce their food
Man is mortal;
Tadesse is a man
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The presentation of rules, formula, theory, law, procedures first and trying to show its
application in different situations is the application of the rule.
The part to the whole is a process of starting from particular cases and finally trying to make
generalizations, rules, laws or theories. A good example of this could be that a person who
repeated by observes a piece of paper floating in air may conclude that, a piece of paper
floats in air. The approach is an expression of inductive approach. One may give a number
of examples first and finally lead to a certain conclusion.
9.6 Starting from the immediate and proceeding to the remote
It is a rule that proposes the presentation of those things, which are known to the learner and
proceeding to those, which are remote. For instance, in social studies it is common to start
from the family issues to the Kebele, and then to Wereda, Zone and Region, Country,
Continent, and then to the World. The knowledge gained about the immediate environment
serves as a foundation for those that come later.
10. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of learning;
The main results of teaching are the knowledge, the skills and values. These achievements
gained by the leaner need to be retained and applied in new and different situation in the
students life.
Retention of results of learning is possible if the student a chance to practice, drill, exercise,
repeat, apply, systematize, or make summaries of what is learned.
Thus, to make knowledge, skills and values durable, solid and permanent, the teacher must
provide exercises, tasks or problems that require the application of the learned rules,
procedures, formula, theory or principles.
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Perceiving how the components of the task are related facilitates memory.
Practice in using information (not just repetition) helps the learner to remember it
Evaluating the adequacy and accuracy of ones information is essential for attaining
independence in learning factual information.
Similarly, to help students in skill learning the following work as reference principles.
Feedback enables the learner to adjust his/her performance so that it can be corrected.
In learning complex skills, cues may help the learner complete the task and thus learn to
perform the proper sequence of steps.
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3.2. Methods and Techniques of Teaching: Concepts, classifications, the Methods and
their Application
Methods of teaching are ways or means by which teachers import or convey a given
subject matter content to the learner and enable him or her to acquire knowledge develop
skills, and form attitudes, habits, convictions, characters, and value systems.
Thus, methods are tools for the teacher to transmit the message to the learners and make
them interact with the external factors in the teaching and learning environment. They have
to be selected and be applied to achieve the intended educational objectives.
In other words, one may consider
Methods of teaching as series of discrete steps the teacher uses or takes to achieve
educational objectives.
They are the sum total of the teachers work with learners to
determine learners goals, to plan, organize, guide and facilitate their roles in carrying out
their goal seeking activities and to evaluate their achievements.
As it can be seen from the above definition, teaching method is a sequential arrangement of
contents and activities on the basis of their appropriateness to students developmental levels
and educational outcomes aimed at. It is an orderly planned progress towards a given and
co-ordinate system of principles for the performance or conduct of practice. Example:
Lecture method, discussion, etc.
Techniques of teaching refers to how will and effectively the teacher applies and follows
specific steps, procedures, ways and manner in teaching or performing specific teaching
acts
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activities,
maintaining
classroom
discipline,
questioning
technique,
Methods of teaching are traditional if the objectives of teaching are taken as, Filling in the
minds of the learner with knowledge Those methods of teaching, which consider the
individuality of the learner and guiding the instructional activity to draw out the potentialities
of the learner are modern methods of teaching
In the traditional methods the teacher centralizes power and dominates the classroom
activities by making students passive listeners specifically in the traditional methods the
teacher:
-
In the traditional methods, the student teacher relationships are autocratic type. They are
teachers dominated or centered ones. In terms of time they are the oldest methods of
teaching.
The modern methods attempt to involve the students actively and develop skills and values in
addition to the acquisition of knowledge. The students participation in the teaching
learning process, especially in planning, organizing and performing the different tasks under
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the guidance of their instructor(s) is very high. In this category of methods, much attention is
given to directing students efforts towards learning by doing rather than through
memorization or recitation of the learned materials. Encouragement and guidance in the
activities are given instead of warning of failure and punishment. The modern methods
include problem solving, group discussion, project work, students independent activities
/study, individualized instruction, etc. They have activities that require making analysis,
reasoning and forming generalization on the basis of the data collected. Applications of what
are learned in particular and new situations are common activities. The methods enhance
democratic teacher student relationships
Both the traditional and modern methods are in use today. The traditional methods are
useful in teaching and memorizing rules, theorems, theories, drama, formula, medical
instruction, etc. The modern methods are also useful in making instruction applicable, solid
and durable. They make the use of modern instructional technologies possible and are
student centered. They are based on recent psychological and scientific findings.
The classifications of methods of teaching also include classifying methods of teaching as:
1. teachers presentation methods
2. teacher students conversation methods and
3. students independent work methods
In teachers presentation method, the teacher plays a significant role in the classroom the
teacher is more active than the students.
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activities. In these methods the teacher is not considered as source of information, but a coinvestigator.
They are multi directional verbal interactions. The common methods of this category are
the factual and problem (heuristic) conversations and group discussion methods.
The students independent work methods are methods where the student carries out
his/her activities at his/her own pace and time. He/she will do it with self responsibility,
self planning and self actions. The student involves actively in practical and purposeful
learning activities.
The roles of the teacher in these activities are so little and the control is not felt very much.
He/she encourages the students to have good experiences and conduct experiments to
discover principles by themselves. The methods include the assignment, project and problem
solving methods.
Other classifications put the different methods as student centered, teacher centered and
active methods.
Whatever, the classifications are the different methods of teaching are the tools for the
teacher in his/her interaction with the students and the materials to be taught under a certain
classroom condition. He/she must select the methods and use them in his/her teaching.
and d
Disadvantages
The Lecture Method: It is the oldest teaching method, which is identified as a method of
explanation or clarification of contents to students verbally. It is a method where the teacher
is more active and students are made passive. It is usually a one way communication where
the teacher narrates or presents on social or natural events, processes, procedures, etc by citing
authorities in the field of the subject but not students.
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The lecture method can be classified as unmodified and modified lecture. The unmodified
lecture is a formal lecture where the teacher talks for the whole of a period without a pause /
interruption. In this form of lecture method, the teacher doesnt check students learning.
He/she doesnt ask questions and will not allow any student to ask questions. Usually the
teacher doesnt write points even topics and subtopics on the chalkboard.
This form of the lecture method is highly applicable in higher learning institutions where
the students are matured, well experienced in taking their notes and referring to other
related materials in the libraries. The students are passive listeners and observers depending
on the topic, which is under treatment; the use of instructional aids is almost unthinkable.
This form of lecture saves time, manpower and helps the teacher to cover large portion
within a short period of time.
The teacher usually uses different audio visual (AV) materials. The pauses or the breaks in
the middle of the lecture help students get chances of systematizing, exercising, applying,
processing, etc of what they are learning. It gives an opportunity to check the theoretically
treated issue against the reality. The feedback the teacher gets help him or her evaluate the
effectiveness of the method employed, the conditions, and the problems of the learners, the
teaching environment, facilities, etc and to make an immediate remedial measure. It is
applicable at primary, secondary and higher learning institutions.
The Advantages of the Lecture Method
The lecture method benefits the teacher for the teacher is the one who selects, refers, plans,
or outlines, organizes and presents the material. It is a method which is usually used to:
All these advantages of the method depend on the teachers ability and skill of planning,
organizing, delivering lessons and asking question.
Thus, the advantages of the lecture method include that
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Students usually lose attention, if the demonstration is too long; too much involved; and
cover too many materials. Therefore, it is advised that demonstrations should be short in
terms of time, short in terms of steps and cover few materials.
It is very important that the teacher must consider the class size, the length of time at hand,
the availability of materials, and students experience at the planning stage. All students
must follow the safety rules and do the demonstrations just after the teacher has done the
tasks. If it is not, it may expose the students to danger and results in damages to the schools
property.
3. The Group Discussion Method: Definition, Nature and Condition for Use
In-group discussions, students usually discuss on a topic, make a review, clarify points, make
corrections, apply their earlier knowledge and skills and reinforce their learning. The method
is particularly suitable to contents that involve matters of opinion. It can be applied when the
objective of the lesson is to bring about changes in the attitudes of the learners. One can use
it whenever there is the need for obtaining feedback about the learners level of
understanding and ability to apply the already acquired knowledge.
When should a teacher use the group discussion method?
The situations where one uses the group discussion are many and varied. The possible
conditions to use the group discussion method could be:
1. When the teacher expects the ideas of students to analyze a problem and decide on a plan
of action;
Most of the time, group discussions at any level provide opportunities to get better ideas; to
make analysis; and device mechanisms to make sensible decisions.
A group usually
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2. When the teacher feels that there is the need to expand the total amount of information
obtained in the class by drawing out suggestions and opinions from many students, not
from the teachers;
This helps to enrich the information on what is to be discussed whenever the teachers
experience is limited.
For instance, a teacher may make his/her students to discuss on:
a) activities that are to be done to reduce soil erosion in the immediate community or
in the country as a whole?
b) measures to be taken to overcome the problem of illegal hunting in the near by
park:
It definitely results in a lot of ideas. Better ideas can be forwarded by the group members
and expand the amount of information which individuals might have acquired from class
lectures.
3. When the teacher wants to make his/her students to get an understanding of a program, a
principle or a policy;
This is one of the important points to justify the need for group discussion. It is a common
experience that a deep understanding of a program has a positive effect on its
implementation. Distortions may occur when a program or a policy is implemented without
having a clear understanding. However, distortions and failures can be reduced, if views are
exchanged and opinions are forwarded regarding the issue in question.
The questions depend on students level of understanding and the nature of the subject. For
instance, the question could be on, Students role in preventing HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia?
The students discussion under the guidance of their teacher provides them a chance to get
better understanding on the policy.
4. When the teacher wants to incorporate the discussion method as an essential part of most
other methods;
The group discussion method can be used along with other methods.
Lectures,
demonstrations, field trips, role-playing and some other methods may become more effective
if they are followed by group discussions.
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1. criticism is forbidden and adverse judgments of ideas must be with held until late;. Thus,
no one is allowed to make a negative remark. Judicial judgment is ruled out.
2. free wheeling is accepted, i.e. the wilder the ideas the better. Thus, unusual ideas are
encouraged;
3. quantity is wanted. Because the greater the number of ideas the greater likelihood of
devising solutions to problems;
4. combinations and improvements are sought. I.e. in addition to contributing ideas of their
own, participants should suggest how the ideas of others can be improved or how two or
more ideas can be synthesized. A secretary notes all the suggestions that are advanced.
Later a judging committee usually composed of other members of class screens these
ideas.
Advantages and Shortcomings of the Discussion Method
The group discussion method as a two-way communication has the following advantages.
1. In discussions different views and opinions are forwarded. This enables students to
comprehend an issue from different angles;
2. It exposes students to valuable experiences which develop their skills of listening and
speaking
3. It gives the students an opportunity to analyze and synthesize facts at a higher intellectual
development.
4. It provides the possibility of constant feedback between the teacher and the students.
When the response is erroneous or inappropriate, immediate modification can be
introduced and justified
5. It helps students to learn and function efficiently in a group setting.
6. As it is fewer teachers centered, it allows students a chance to develop their ideas.
In general, group discussion enhances personal growth and competence. Students develop
their communication skills, professional attitude and intellectual abilities.
The shortcomings of the discussion method are related to preparation and presentation group
discussions have to be planned properly before the discussions. If group discussion is not
well planned and directed, it consumes time unnecessarily. Only few students may dominate
the situation. Thus, the group discussion method becomes productive if the teachers plan and
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conduct it properly one shouldnt forget that the group discussion method is an approach
where the teacher and students work together in small groups. They discuss on questions and
reports it serves as a discussion panel. The students are allowed to carry on discussion on a
topic make reviews, clarifications, corrections, applications, and reinforce their learning by
attending the presentations of groups independent works. If the teacher expects other things
it doesnt serve.
4. Role playing Method
The role playing method is an approach, which is carried out by the guidance of the teacher,
and it is presented before observers. It involves the spontaneous acting out of a prescribed
role in a given realistic situation by two or more actors. Thus, it can be defined as follows.
Role playing method is unrehearsed dramatization in which the players attempt to take
situation clear to themselves and to the audience by playing the role of participants in the
situation. There is no script to be studied.
The dialogue and actions of the actors grow out of the situation as it develops in the ways and
directions the individuals lead it. It is not a play acting or dramatization. It is a method
where the instructor and the other students in the class serve as observers and critics.
Role-playing is a form of experience learning. It is more impact than everyday experience. It
involves observation, discussion, and analysis, i.e. systematic reflection on the experience
with the aim of learning something from it.
It makes evident what a person has as the ability to do, thus illustrating dramatically the gap
between knowledge and ability to apply it or the gap between thinking and doing. It also
teaches the interrelationship between intellectual solutions to problems and the emotional
aspects of implementing these solutions.
The role playing method is a uniquely effective method of stimulating real-life situation in
which persons are trying to persuade each other or reach an agreement. After every act of /
role in a specific situation, there is a discussion.
The role playing method plays a great role to train students in skills of dealing with other
people and helps them understand other students feelings and reactions. Because the
method provides the opportunity to experiment with ways of handling other people in
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different situations without the loss and expense which would result from practice in real life
situations without the loss and expense which would result from practice in real life
situations. For instance, schoolteachers can be trained by this method on How to maintain
discipline in a disturbing class and school directors learn How to resolve student teacher
disputes through role playing method.
Shortcomings of the Role-playing Method
1. The learners acquire more direct experiences of feelings and concepts than reading,
discussing and attending lectures.
2. It have the loss and expense which would result from practicing in real-life situation
3. Motivation is seldom a problem and concentration is easy to maintain, because everyone
is interested and readily perceives the application of the episode to him/herself. On top of
that, everyone in the audience quickly identifies with one or another of the characters and
follows.
4. It provides practical experiences in human relations and serves as a means for changing
attitudes. It also provides opportunities to see oneself. It brings reality to classrooms and
it does so dramatically and convincingly.
5. It brings theory to life and teaches that ones perception of a situation is not always like
others.
5. The Questioning and Answering Method
It is a method of posing a series of questions to students in order to promote thinking and
understanding. As a method, it is an informal assessment technique, which is used with large
groups of students. It is a way of ascertaining the existing level of learning or entry behavior
in the introduction to a lesson and/or assessing the learning that has taken place at the end of a
lesson.
The method can have a number of questions that may involve students capacity to recall or
involve in making analysis and thinking to respond/solve a problem. Thus, there could be
variations. The common questioning mechanisms include:
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1. factual questioning method where the questions demand students ability to recall or
reproduce the learned facts, ideas, procedures, techniques, classifications, rules, laws,
formula, theories, conventions, articles, etc.
These questions are questions of what, where?, who?, when? etc.
They dont demand analysis, but simple recall of the established facts, ideas, etc. as they are.
2. Problem solving questioning (Heuristic) method
It is an aspect of the questioning and answering method, which requires critical thinking;
making analysis; and passing judgments. These are questions where the answers to a
question are plenty and diversified. They are questions of why?, how?, Is?
Group participation questioning method
A method where the teacher asks a question that involves group discussion of those who are
near by to each other and giving answers through a representative the answers could be
plenty and diversified.
The questioning and answering method stimulates students to get new knowledge, to solve
problems, to form attitudes, conviction to develop abilities of arguing, interpreting, and
linguistic skills and abilities. The method:
1. makes students active participants and feel that they are contributing to learning
2. helps teachers identify misconceptions at an early stage;
3. can be built from simple to the complex;
4. demands advance preparation of questions on major points;
5. provides opportunities to exercise, make drills or practice;
6. develops the ability to think, organize, indicate relationships, evaluate, etc of students;
7. helps to find out the students knowledge, area of interest, agreements and disagreements;
8. assists the teacher to get feedback on quality of learning; etc.
To make the questioning and answering method effective the teacher must:
a) formulate clear and precise questions
b) adapt the questions to the students level of maturity and capacity;
c) make all students active participants;
d) state the questions before naming a student to respond;
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e) give enough time to think over and must demand complete answers;
f) listen to the given answer carefully and evaluate it;
g) not repeat the wrong answers to avoid confusion and not to affect the feelings of these
made errors;
h) be able to respond quickly to the students answers
i) use praise and other encouragement;
j) be active in accepting students responses in positive manner;
k) paraphrase students responses but not answering ones own questions.
6. The project Method
It is a method where students are usually given an individual topic for an in depth analysis.
They often have to work independently do a kind of research and report either in writing or
verbally to a group. The project could involve a group of students working together on
different aspect of the same problem.
It is a co-operative study where students are grouped and are made to produce tangible
product. It is done with relatively little direct interaction with the teachers
The teacher is required to identify the task(s) and give direction clear instruction. He/she
must make a continuous follow up and give appropriate advises on how the students(s)
should accomplish the task(s) at hand. The teacher combines the results and forms the
whole.
The project method has a great application in teaching practical subjects which may involve a
number of skills and direct contact with actual life problems. The projects could be on
construction of model houses, growing crops, preparation of food, collection of insects,
rocks, cultural materials, plants, seeds, sample products, models, etc. There are a lot of
project types.
The common types of projects are classified as:
a) the producer type - where the emphasis is to actual construction of a material object or
article,
b) the consumer type - where the chief concern is to obtain either direct or vicarious
experience, such as reading and learning stories, listening to music etc.
c) the problem type - in which the chief purpose is to solve a problem involving the
intellectual process;
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e) the drill type - where the objective is to attain a certain degree of skill in a reaction as
learning a vocabulary.
Specific criteria to make projects useful
Yes, there are specific, criteria to make projects useful. Thus,
1.
timely - projects should be related directly to the lesson and vocational interest. They
should suit to the particular mental and chronological ages of students
Environmental and seasonal factors need to be considered:
2. useful - the practical aim of the project must be identified. It must fulfill a long-standing
need. The learning experiences in a project must be capable of being applied in life;
3. challenging - project should neither be too simple and easy nor too long and difficult. It
must challenge the students being in between.
4. economical - projects should not unnecessarily tax energy and money of students. There
should be optimum use of the time;
5. rich in experience - a lot of experiences of the sociable nature should be provided in a
projects. It must be capable of correlating different subjects and practical activities of life;
6. enhancing co-operation it should allow students to think and plan independently and co
operatively. The project (s) should be implemented in such a way that the students are
kept active both physically as well as mentally.
The project method provides the following advantages.
it provides a conductive environment for learning through practice and
independently;
it gives satisfaction and happiness to students;
it provides situation to create unity of different subjects;
it provided sufficient opportunities to the students to work co-operatively for
common purpose;
it cultivates virtues like tolerances, independence, open- mindedness, resource
fullness, etc.
it discourages cramming and memorization.
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it solves disciplinary problems for students dont get time to involve in anti-social
acts;
it makes learning durable, and makes students to get they joy and learn in a
natural way.
Limitations
Yes, it has its shortcomings: According to authorities it has the following shortcomings or
problems.
a) A project method is a time-consuming this is so for students are left to work on their
projects by themselves. They may take long to complete the work.
b) It is very expensive in terms of getting financial and materials required.
c)
It requires highly trained teachers who are well rounded in many fields of study.
d) The materials required for project method may not be available easily and cheaply.
e) The assignments may be limited to a certain area of study. Therefore, it creates a problem
of assessment of what students have learned in a particular area of study.
f)
generalizations, laws and theories (inductive approach) from his/her particular experiences or
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Identifying and defining the problem. Make a clear conception of the problem and
state it in a manner that it leads to a solution.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The method:
a)
develops the cognitive skills of searching for information and data processing, the
concepts of logic and causality that would enable the individual student to inquire
autonomously and productively;
b) gives the learners a new approach to learning by which they could build concepts
through the analysis of concrete activities and the discovery of relationships between
variables;
c)
helps the learners capitalize on two intrinsic sources of motivation, the rewarding
experiences of discovery and excitement that is inherent in autonomous searching and
data processing. The method allows learners to demonstrate and develop a wide range
of skills and personal qualities, which include the ability to show initiative, to take
responsibility and plan, to solve problems, to make decisions and communicate
effectively. It is a highly active and participatory method, which gives opportunity for
involvement.
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The visits can be used to develop critical thinking and broaden the horizons of the learners as
they see different things and activities. They can also be used to make the relationship
between the school and community programs closer.
Every field trip has three major parts. They are:
1. pre-trip discussion period;
2. the trip itself; and
3. the post-trip discussion period.
What are the main activities to be done at the different parts?
1. The pre-trip discussion is a phase where the teacher is required to select the place to be
visited and discuss about the visit with the students and the concerned bodies.
In planning a field trip, the teacher is required to:
a) arrange the visit with the relevant authorities and obtain permission for the trip from
the school administration;
b) discuss the purpose of the trip with the students and emphasize specific point to be
observed;
c) give background information to arose interests;
d) prepare and distribute any materials to the learners which can be used profitably in he
course of the trip;
2. The trip itself:- on the trip the teacher should draw the students attention to points of
interest. He/she should mix with the students, be observant and must ensure the students
to be adequately protected.
3. The post trip discussion
After the trip, it is important to hold a post-trip discussion period to summarize what was
seen and draw conclusions about what was learnt. It is a stage to determine the value of the
total experience to the group by raising questions for further study.
9. The student Independent study method
It is a method of teaching where the student is allowed to work independently according to
hi/her ability, plan time and pace.
The method is established on the assumption that learning is best achieved when it is
individualized. As a method, it permits the learner to learn mainly through his/her own
active involvement in practical and purposeful learning activities.
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To make it
effective, large numbers of students attend lectures commonly, and then, they will be
grouped into smaller groups for discussion. If will be followed by independent studies by
every student. They may go on investigating some thing new in the area.
Although there are variations in team teaching method, the two major forms, which are in
use, are:
1. Hierarchic team
2. Synergetic team
What is a hierarchy team?
The hierarchic team is a teaching team that may be likened to a pyramid, with a team leader
at the apex, master teacher just below and regular (assistant) teacher at the base.
It gives a means for professional advancement. The team leader gives leadership and gets
benefits from what he/she does.
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The synergetic team is a team formed of two or more teachers working together as a
professional equal. There is no master regular teacher concept. The leadership rotates
according to need or interest. One of the team members assumes leadership for a certain
period and unit of work and relinquishes it for the next. The stress is one working with, not
for colleagues. Permanent leader for administrative purposes can be selected. But the leader
doesnt receive extra-pay or privileges for accepting the assignment.
The teams vary in their approaches from limited co-operation to complete association. So
they are sometimes referred to as co-operative or associative teams. Students learn from
teachers, from each others interaction and from themselves as independent actors.
The teachers involve in the study of the curriculum, develop the objective, and determine
essential ideas (contents) to be taught. They answer the questions:
1.
What can the students learn from the large group instruction?
2.
3.
ad - hoc team approach - is a team organized in one of the above forms and works for a
short time. it doesnt last long. A few teachers who are interested in some innovations
are asked to discuss their innovations of classroom teaching to one group of learners.
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stimulates though and discussion among teachers who are jointly responsible for a group
of students;
2.
3.
4.
provides opportunities for the development of human relations which are essential for
social adjustment.
5.
provides opportunities for the students to get better knowledge, make proper use of
resources, staff, etc.;
6.
helps to make lessons fit to the needs of the learners and maintain classroom discipline;
7.
helps teachers to evaluate the work of one another, to improve their own teaching and
instruction
8.
provides a flexible class size and help to provide guidance for the learners as well as
inexperienced teachers, etc.
In order to learn a skill, the learner must first attend to the task.
The learning of a cognitive skill presumes the availability in memory of the prerequisite
cognition and skills; etc.
Nowadays, the active learning methods are the repeatedly raised issues. What are they?
Which methods are considered as active learning methods?
Active learning refers to techniques where students do more than simply listen to a lecture.
Students are DOING something including discovering, processing, and applying information.
Active learning "derives from two basic assumptions: (1) that learning is by nature an active
endeavor and (2) that different people learn in different ways" (Meyers and Jones, 1993).
Research shows greater learning when students engage in active learning. It is important to
remember, however, that lecture does have its place and that you should not do active
learning without content or objectives
The following active learning techniques used in small and large classes, and with all levels
of students in any discipline. (But, it is up to the teacher to choose the appropriate active
learning techniques for the concerned topic)
1. Think-Pair-Share
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Give students a task such as a question or problem to solve, an original example to develop,
etc. Have them work on this 2-5 minutes alone (think). Then have them discuss their ideas
for 3-5 minutes with the student sitting next to them (pair). Finally, ask or choose student
pairs to share their ideas with the whole class (share). I have used these in classes ranging
from 12 to 340 students.
2. Collaborative learning groups
These may be formal or informal, graded or not, short-term or long-term. Generally, you
assign students to heterogeneous groups of 3-6 students. They choose a leader and a scribe
(note-taker). They are given a task to work on together. Often, student preparation for the
CLG has been required earlier (reading or homework). The group produces a group answer
or paper or project. These work best in small to medium size classes, but I have also used
them in a class of 340 students. If interested, see my short paper on "Collaborative Learning
Groups in the Large Class: Is it Possible?" in Teaching Sociology, 1993, 21, 403-408.
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6. Student debates
These can be formal or informal, individual or group, graded or not, etc. They allow students
the opportunity to take a thesis or position and gather data and logic to support that view,
critically. Debates also give students experience with verbal presentations. Some faculty
members ask students their personal view on an issue and then make them argue the opposite
position.
7. Student generated exam questions
This can be used for review or for the actual exam. This technique helps students actively
process material, gives them a better understanding of the difficulties of writing reliable and
valid exam questions, helps them review material, and gives them practice for the exam.
8. Mini-research proposals or projects; a class research symposium
Have the students work on designing a research study on a topic from the class. In some
situations, you may be able to have them collect data during class time (observe some
situation or give out some short surveys) or you may have them doing this as part of an
outside-of-class project. Either way, have students present their research in a class research
symposium similar to what we do at professional meetings. Invite other faculty and students.
9. Analyze case studies
Bring in case studies for students to read (for example, I will put a case example of sexual
harassment on an overhead). Have students discuss and analyze the case, applying concepts,
data, and theory from the class. They can work as individuals or in groups or do this as a
think-pair-share. Consider combining this with a brief in-class writing assignment.
10. Keeping journals or logs
Have students make journal or log entries periodically (on paper or computer, in or outside of
class). Require a brief critical reflection or analysis of each entry as well. For example, in my
gender class, students must record instances of sex inequality (sex discriminations, sexism,
sexual harassment against women or men) they observe. They then discuss this instance
applying course terms and theories. Be aware of ethical issues if you ask students to record
and analyze personal events or issues.
11. Write and produce a newsletter
Have small groups of students produce a brief newsletter on a specific topic related to class.
Students should include articles with relevant research, post information on upcoming related
public events, and so on. Share these with faculty and students in related courses or in the
major.
12. Concept mapping
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Here students create visual representations of models, ideas, and the relationships between
concepts. They draw circles containing concepts and lines, with connecting phrases on the
lines, between concepts. These can be done individually or in groups, once or repeated as
students acquire new information and perspectives, and can be shared, discussed, and
critiqued.
NB:PLEASE INCLUDE OTHER ACTIVE LEARNING METHODS
Group Two: (could be many groups of 5 rather than one of many students, depending on the
size of the whole group)
What do you suggest are the roles of instructional materials in teaching and learning at
the Higher Education level? Discuss effective utilization procedures of the major groups
of IM
There will be group report for another 15 minutes followed by whole class discussion.
What is Instructional Material (IM)?
IM is the means of encoding course content for presenting the content to students to be
sensed for learning purposes. It serves as a means of creating an indirect link in the space
between lecturers' intention and students learning. Meaning or understanding is a mental
process in individuals. They cannot be sent out of the individual. Words and pictures that can
be produced (encoded) in a physical form out of the individual represent ideas and meanings
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in the mind of the individual. These are content forms that others learn how to read and listen
and infer meaning out of them. When the content is new knowledge to be learned, the form it
is found out of individuals' mind is called Instructional Material. Examples are content
written on chalkboard or whiteboard, textbooks, pictures on paper, overhead presentations,
handouts, etc.
As there are many senses to be stimulated, the methods of presentations are numerous. There
has been continuous development in the creation of encoding mechanisms, which perhaps
started with the manipulation of body parts to create word of mouth. In the interest of over
coming human physical limitations and strengthening our sensory capacity many devices
have been created that can help to:
Store,
Reproduce and
Disseminate or distribute content to individuals and groups, near and far.
The list of the created materials is numerous. They serve different social interests. Some have
crossed thresholds of Higher Education lecture halls. All the Printed materials (books,
picture, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams...), the tele-devices-like television, computer,
telephone, audio devices, the different display boards, (chalkboard, Bulletin B., Whiteboard,
OH, LCD presentation, Film show on TV screen, ...) are but a few of the many that are
applied in lecture halls.
These materials when used to carry instructional content to be learned by students are named
Instructional Materials. They are many. Thus we have to be selective. Here our interest is the
Higher Education Teaching and Learning and we will limit it with instructional materials
most used at HE level.
There is no all-perfect device created yet. Each has its own unique strength that justified its
creation and limitations that could be alleviated by use of other means.
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Wherever the production, the utilization part is all the time of the instructors. Here again the
focus will be on what individual teachers can do in the preparation, and utilization as well as
in the preservation (prolonging the use time) of IMs.
4.1 Production of Instructional Materials
Group Work:
What are the repeatedly used IMs in Higher Education of Ethiopia at present?
From the group work and whole class discussion repeatedly used IMs will be identified. The
list may be too much if we try to consider all the various disciplines taught and learned at
higher education level. Thus we have to be selective. The following list of groups of IMs
may help in the selection process.
Instructional Materials at Higher Education in Ethiopia
As such, one of the major roles of an instructor besides the planning, organization,
facilitation, management, assessment and evaluation roles is being information source to
students. As a matter of fact, a decent observation of what goes on in most lecture halls of
Higher Education institutions in Ethiopia reveals that the information delivery has been
taking the instructors domineering role, even when the presentation can be done better by
other means.
Effective end result of all the instructional materials depends on the effort exerted to
systematically plan and produce the instructional materials.
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Instructors should develop their communication skills their encoding skills meaning the
way they speak and write, and their decoding skills (their reading and listening).
They have to project there sound out so that each attendant of their speech can hear
and listen to it.
Their free handwriting on paper or chalkboard should be easy to read from any spot
on the lecture hall. Letter shapes should be accurate and given enough space and size.
The lay out should be attractive and colorful. There should be no overwriting which
obscures readability.
Production Procedure
Group work:
What are the important procedures of producing instructional materials for HE Teaching
and Learning?
Each specific instructional material takes specific procedure of production. Here you will
look at the common and general procedure to serve as the starting point for all IMs
production process.
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Utilization of each IM may differ in some ways. Here again one can identify some steps that
should be considered in all kinds of IMs utilization. The following is an Example:
Making sure pre-activities are done such as organized content, produced
appropriately, well rehearsed by presenter, and environment arranged
Clearly stated objectives notified to students or users at the start
Clear direction of how to use IM given
Students exposed to content of instructional material well instructed about what to do
with the instructional content.
Making sure that students are acting according to directions.
Facilitating activities and giving necessary support
Assessing students participation and keeping record
Making sure that objectives are met from student feedbacks.
Making summative evaluation keeping record of comments.
These are general procedures for all the utilization of all IMs. Specifics of some of the
outstanding instructional materials are briefly given under.
Paper-Based Teaching and learning Materials
Modules, Handouts, and Worksheets
Perhaps one of the most frequently used instructional materials in colleges and universities is
the module or hand out to serve as the main source of information for students. Worksheets
serve to involve in exercising instructional content. The effective utilization of these
instructional materials demands selection of content considering the objectives and target
population (students).
The instructional role of the three varies. Modules are written to serve as self instructional
material where:
Content is structured in units and sections having introduction, body part summary,
Objectives are clearly stated at the beginning of a module, unit, and section,
There are inbuilt questions to probe student thinking, to check student learning and
achievement of objectives
There are self-check test question at the end of units with answers given at the end of
module.
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Reading material list and other reference material list are give.
The writing style of the module is conversional type with a lot of action verbs used.
Simple, easy to understand and short sentences are used in the writing of content and
illustration with a number of examples.
Modules combine content and methodology in the presentation. They are written as standalone learning materials.
Handouts can be a page size or many paged instructional material. Usually they are used as
support material. They contain important points to be studied by students. They serve as
review materials for lectures and discussions done in class. They can also serve as lecture
notes.
Worksheets contain exercises to be worked out by students outside class time. They can be
open ended or closed time with specific information to be filled in by students.
All the paper based instructional materials can be reproduced using different methods.
Photocopying and stencil duplicating are the common methods. Many-paged materials are
bind together and distributed to individual or groups of students.
All these printed materials have the advantage of serving as repeated reference material for
student individual study. The printing gives the content prolonged lifetime than the
ephemeral verbal explanation.
Pictures
Another paper-based material is picture. Pictures are of two forms: photographic and graphic
pictures.
i) Photographic Pictures (Still Pictures)
Still pictures are photographic (or photograph -like) representations of people, places and/or
things. They directly imitate reality and show the reflection on a flat surface or paper in
frozen or still state. Photographs or realistic paintings or story pictures are examples of this
group.
ii) Graphic pictures
Graphic pictures are non-photographic, hand drawn pictorial representations of processes,
entities or relationships. They are all mental constructs and not direct imitations of reality.
Some of them may have some clues or hints of reality like cartoons or sketches while others
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are totally abstract like graphs. Under this group you have charts, graphs, posters, maps,
diagrams, cartoons, and the likes.
Pictures in general are visualizing means or present information to human sense of sight.
Most learners are visual minded, so pictures are a great help in teaching.
Advantages:
They remind the learner of the meaning and help him/her communicate
They are summarizing devises. A picture reminds stories of events. One graph or
chart briefly shows content that takes several pages of explanation.
The picture clues or hints can suggest movement, time, depth, texture and the
likes
Etc.
Limitations:
Utilization Procedure:
The picture should be large enough for the entire class to see clearly.
Small pictures can be used for pair work, group work, and games.
The picture should illustrate, at first glance, the point under the study.
The colored pictures are more effective than black and white ones and can be used
for many purposes.
The picture should tell the learner something familiar to connect it with real life.
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What must you do to ensure that you have good pictures available when you
need to use them? Here are some suggestions:
Build a collection of pictures all kinds of pictures: big, small, black and
white, colorful from various sources: magazines, newspapers, books,
calendars, brochures and leaflets, posters, catalogues, book jackets, those
downloaded from the Internet, by writing to commercial and social
organizations, even drawing your own pictures.
Mount pictures that you are going to use regularly or if the mounting helps
them to be shown more effectively.
What factors must you consider when selecting a picture for a particular lesson?
Jot down your ideas and compare them with the suggestions below.
Appeal: the picture should capture the interest and imagination of your
students.
Relevance: the picture should be appropriate for the purpose of the lesson it
must contribute directly to the aim of the lesson. Dont use a picture just
because it is attractive or that your students find it fascinating.
Size: If you are showing a picture to the whole class, it must be large enough
to be seen clearly by all. For pair and group work, the picture can of course be
smaller.
Clarity: Avoid crowded pictures they can confuse and distract your
students. The relevant details must be clearly seen. Choose pictures with
strong outlines and contrast in tone and color to avoid ambiguity.
The other non- paper based groups of instructional materials include the following:
a. Realia (real instructional materials)
Realia are all the living and non-living materials that are around us. Realia are people and
real objects that give us information. "People" means anybody in the environment: students,
teachers, visiting people, etc. The teacher can make use of his/her movements, gestures,
signals, mimics, and hands. When you use them for learning purpose, like for instance, the
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person in front of the class or objects, artifacts, records, stamps, coins, old tickets, ticket
stubs, postcards or specimens used in class, they are grouped as Non-projected Visuals. They
are visuals because they are seen, sensed through sense of sight.
Advantages:
Give students a chance of direct sensory contact with reality leaving rich visual
imagery in the mind, which helps for visual identification thereafter.
Limitations:
Utilization Procedure:
Real objects should be small enough to bring into the classroom but large enough
to be clearly seen by the group
Make sure each learner has more or less similar interpretation of the realia.
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Advantages:
Removes the dangers of dealing with reality; students can manipulate at their own
convenience.
Limitations:
Imitation may give way for imperfection; in correct imitation can cause imperfect
conception. e.g. a model of a donkey painted green
Utilization Procedure:
Should be used when it is appropriate and when the reality is not around.
To that much possible, the shape, size, color and body proportion should resemble
the reality it stands for.
c. Simulators
Models imitate physical features. Simulators are models that imitate reality with the action
and interaction. It gives chance to dramatize actions. Airplane pilots learn part of their
training by using simulators. Computers have simulation games that you may have tried. You
may create simulation in your class by letting adult students practice community activities in
class. One corner of the class can serve as a service giving office where students act as
service givers and receivers.
Advantages:
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Limitations:
Is costly
Utilization Procedure:
The environment and necessary simulators should be prepared before the action.
Students should be informed about the role they play during simulation.
Teachers should check that learning is taking place with the play action of
simulation
Display Materials:
The way visuals are displayed is as important as the way they are prepared. If visuals can not
be seen; if they do not attract and hold attention; if they can not present visual content clearly
then all the effort put into the preparation becomes fruitless. Display mechanisms have equal
importance and should not be overlooked. Visuals are presented in different ways to sight.
Under normal condition movement of hands, facial expressions and body movements
accompany the verbal communication. In addition to these, there are also many display
materials, of which many are boards.
a. Chalkboards (blackboard)
The oldest on-the-spot visualizing devise that you find in the classroom is the chalkboard,
usually known as blackboard because of the black paint used to cover the surface most of the
time. Nowadays there different colored boards commonly using chalk to write on. Hence the
name chalkboard is replacing blackboard. The moment you have an idea that you want
visualize you rush and put it on the chalkboard.
The base material is plywood; framed all round for protection and the smooth side serves as
chalkboard surface after painting. It is the most common visualizing aid available to teachers
in the classroom. It is the signpost of teaching -learning.
Usually the smooth surface of plywood is used for chalkboard surface. We roughen it a little
bit by sand paper to add to the adhesion between paint and surface. Then it is cleaned and the
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paint applied in an evenly distributed manner. Using two different directions in applying the
paint helps for even distribution-one horizontal all over the surface and the second time
vertically. Next cover the whole surface with chalk dust; leave it to dry; clean the chalk dust;
and then you get easy to write on and easy to erase chalkboard surface.
Advantages:
Easy to write on and easy to erase. It is ready for use in a matter of seconds.
Limitations:
Utilization:
What is important in chalkboard presentation is easy readability. Illegible or obscured work
shatters student learning. When using chalkboard, some points should be kept in mind:
Write legibly and large enough so that the students can read without difficulty
Organize the material effectively so that students can easily understand what you are
trying to do.
You should give care to the chalkboard. Do not use wet duster to clean the board surface;
do not use scotch tapes, sharp edged materials on the board surface.
Chalkboard is for on the spot visualization. Do not draw diagrams that you want to keep
for long time on the chalkboard. Put it on paper.
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It is dustless. There is none of the mess that always results when chalk is used.
A much wider range of colors and tone strengths can be used, and the resulting
display is invariably sharper, better defined and clearer than is possible using
chalk.
Limitations:
There is, however, one possible problem that can arise with marker boards: difficulty in
cleaning the surface properly so that 'ghost' marks are not left behind. For this reason, it is
strongly advisable to use only the types of marker pens or crayons that are recommended
by the manufacturer of the particular board you are using, and to make sure that you
know how the board should be cleaned. In some cases, simply wiping with a dry or damp
cloth can do, while in others a special cleaning fluid or solvent is required. In both
writing and cleaning, always make sure that suitable supplies are readily available - pens,
cloths and erasers.
Initial and replacement costs for ruined marker boards are high.
Utilization:
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The techniques for producing displays on marker boards are basically the same as those
described for chalkboards. Write easily visible words and diagrams and erase when you are
done.
c. Bulletin Boards
The second most used visualizing device that
you see in school compounds is Bulletin Boards.
Bulletin means information. Bulletin boards are
visual information boards. The bulletin board
surface is soft and can easily be pierced by any
sharp edge of pins, thorns, thumb tucks, etc for
attaching the visual on paper material on to the
board.
Different kinds of visuals like photographs; students written works, diagrams, charts, posters,
different kinds of graphs and maps are displayed for presenting visual information to
viewers. Bulletin or notice boards are the same in the way they are made, but bulletin boards
are different from notice boards in that notice boards are mainly for showing memorandums
or notices while bulletin boards are mainly for displaying visual of educative use.
Advantages:
Bulletin boards are eye catchers; they attract attention at a distance.
They act as continuous reminders of visual content.
Allow reshuffling of placement of visuals
Many students can participate in the organization and placement of visuals
Etc.
Limitations:
Will loose attraction if displayed visuals are not change for a long time.
Cannot stand being wet.
Utilization:
The utilization procedure of bulletin board is common to all display materials
Effective use demands planning about design of visual placement and the labeling
of parts.
Size depends on the expected number of audience - the more the number of
audience the bigger the size will be.
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Replace or change position of visuals quite often. Do not put too many visuals at
one time; rather replace each after short time.
When too many eyeholes are seen as a result of long use, paint the surface with
thick paint or cover it with large piece of cloth or paper.
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should check this by inspecting them from the back of the class, from the furthest distance in
the room from which they have to be viewed, or from appropriate positions around table-top
versions.
The other main way in which flipcharts can be used is by providing an instantly renewable
series of blank surfaces on which material can be jotted down on an impromptu (on the spot)
basis in the course of a lesson, group discussion or other activity. They can, for example, be
used to list replies from class members to questions or ideas generated by buzz groups.
When a series of flipcharts is produced arising from discussions and questions, it is often
useful to arrange that they can continue to be visible. This can be done using adhesive tape to
stick completed charts onto doors, walls, window frames and other surfaces of the room.
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Portable
Need no electricity
Effective they help to focus your learners attention
Useful for background information
Can reveal successive bits of story
Can be used to record ideas from discussions and keep for future reference
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f. Accordion Fold and Folding EaselThese are two easy to prepare but very useful display materials for teachers.
Accordion Fold is simply a chain of connected hard papers in a series folded in a way that
one fold goes opposite to the other. It serves just like photo albums- to preserve mounted
visuals and to display them.
When opened the folds on either side look like the part for pumping air into in an accordion
musical instrument.
Attached
Accordion fold is advantageous for preserving and displaying small instructional visuals.
Folding Easel is only for display one picture at a time. It is also easy to prepare. You take a
medium sized rectangular piece of hard paper. Cut it diagonally on the longer side of the
triangular piece or the side that you cut diagonally, cut out an L shape of small piece that
later serve as bottom support of the picture. Then attach the two triangular pieces together as
in 3 on the figure. You can use folding easel to display small visuals.
Folding Easel
The major advantage of these display materials is letting the hands of teacher be free during
teaching. They are easy to prepare from cheap materials and are easy to carry from class to
class.
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Advantages
Direct reference
Summarized representation
Endless variety
Wide distribution
Simple storage means
Live and up to date information of radio
User familiarity and friendliness
Limitations
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There many kinds of projectors, but here you will study the ones most used for educational
ends. These are: Filmstrip, Side, Opaque, Over Head (OH), Motion Picture and Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD). You will study each in turn, but first some common features of
projection equipment
Television and Computer Screens
Still other display materials for visuals are Television screens and Computer monitors.
Television is perhaps the most important form of communication ever invented. It is certainly
the most popular and influential in our society. It is an effortless window on the world,
requiring of the viewer only the right time and the right channel, or for the nondiscriminating viewer, any time and any channel.
Computer presentation of information could certainly benefit from the color, motion, and
sound that television offers. Television viewers could similarly benefit from the control and
personalization that is promised by computer technology.
Computer displays are generally designed for close viewing, usually in an office
environment--most often as a solitary activity. The display is sharp and precise. Displays
strongly emphasize text, sometimes exclusively so. Graphics and color are sometimes
available. Displays are generally static. Only recently have computers been given interesting
sound capabilities.
Television, on the other hand, was designed for distant viewing, usually in a living
room environment, often as a group activity. The screen is alive with people, places, and
products. The screen can present text, but viewers are not expected to receive much
information by reading. The sound track is an essential part of the viewing experience.
Indeed, most of the information is carried audibly.
Both television and Computers are being used for educational purposes inside the
classrooms. Too much is being recorded and stored in these communication devices that it
will be very defective to think of instructional situations devoid of their display. If you don't
use them, you will be living out too much of present day information.
Recent Trends in Audiovisual Media Technology
Currently the trend seems to be Merging of Media, creation of information superhighways
and the decrease in size and price of devices that are more users friendly.
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A major trend of our age in the development of audiovisual media technology is that of
observable combination created or Merging. Now computer has merged all audiovisual
means of presentations together.
The digitization of print, images, and sound made these combinations possible.
Digitization has allowed systems of storage, retrieval and transmission of information that
made some of the old single medium obsolete. Why do you need a slide when your digital
camera can feed your computer with digitized information to be stored, retrieved and
transmitted through your computer to any where in the world.
It leaves no one in doubt that in the near future the common language of most educated
people is going to be computer language as ones print used to be. The moment you have an
idea you will be running to use your computer language in its varied forms-calculator, image
recording in digital form (digital camera), writing, etc. It is very difficult to think of a
person's success without the use of computer language. You would not be the one to miss it,
would you? Computer did not only dominate in changing other signals into digitization but
also created a way transmitting huge amount of information through satellite communication
and the fiber optics cable connections. One satellite stationed over Atlantic can transmit over
30,000 phone calls simultaneously.
The electronic devices that are used for audiovisual recording and retrieving are becoming
more potable and easy to use (push button) devises. The price is also going down as time
goes on. As such change is the order of the day. So, it is up to you to keep up with the change
in order to be successful in whatever works you do including your community adult teaching.
4.3
We are living in the computer age, in the digital age where most information seems to be
stored, processed, reproduced, disseminated and retrieved in digital form in bits and bytes
form. It seems to be obligatory for Higher education graduate to be well versed in the
utilization of the digital system. Thus it goes with out say that instructors should be all the
time be searching for instructional resources from internet services to help there student
qualify for work demands of their time.
Browsing the World Wide Web (WWW)
Computer allied with the tele-devices of the present time like the digital telephone system
and satellites has created information superhighway to all who have the connection. Higher
education institutions have such access though there are disparities of quality among
institutions.
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It is mandatory that instructors and students browse through possible sources using the
available means. As mentioned earlier He can afford loosing information that is stored
manipulated and distributed through computers.
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Some instructional materials require the organization of students and activities individually
or in-groups. For instance, reading a book mostly an individuals activity while watching a
film and later involve in a discussion is a group task. Hence, the kinds of resources to be
used dictate the kinds of classroom organizations.
c) the roles and responsibilities for carrying out immediate actions and events;
Activities such as oral answering and writing workbook entries usually demand arranging the
tasks for individuals. Here each student is required to act individually and learn what is set
for him/her. By doing this, the teacher helps students acquire the knowledge, develop the
skills and form the appropriate attitudes, convictions, habits and characters.
d) rules of appropriateness
Some kinds of classroom or field or workshop activities demand students to behave in some
way while others dont allow some kinds of behaviors. For instance, group discussion
method definitely encourages active involvement of students in talking while seatwork
demands silence.
Thus, teachers consider a number of variables and organize activities. A change in one or
more of the above mentioned dimensions represent potential change in the nature of the
situation in which students and the teacher work. The basic unit of classroom organization is
the activity. Activities are relatively short blocks of classroom time. Activities are
distinguished by duration, the number of students involved, the public or private nature of
students responses, the roles of participants, the focus of the content and processes, stability
attending and features related to evaluation and feedback.
Therefore, the types of classroom organizations are determined by the instructional
objectives to be achieved. The kinds of activities, which the students have to involve
actively, also affect the choice of the arrangement.
According to researchers such as Berliner (1983) and Stodolsky (1981), the classroom
organizations differ in their nature. For instance, the classroom can be organized for a
reading circle, seat work, one-way or two way presentation, silent reading, construction
group, play, game, individualized seat work, discussion, demonstration, tests, contests,
students reports, tutorials, checking work, group work, etc.
In addition to activity types and students behaviors, classroom organization includes the
arrangement of the physical environment or students seating arrangements. The pattern of
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the seating arrangement will be determined by the kind of classroom activity that is taking
place and the teaching strategy the teacher wants to employ.
The major patterns of the classroom seating arrangement include:
1. Making students sit in rows facing the teacher and the blackboard
In this arrangement, students are made to sit according to height. The tallest student sits at
the back and the shortest at the front benches. Other factors such as short sightedness or
hard of hearing make students to sit in one of the front seats with little regard for height. It
has advantages and disadvantages.
What are its advantages?
The advantages of these arrangements are that:
a) it appears to be very convent for formal teaching of a lot of students in one class;
b) it makes the blackboard in front of all students and becomes easy and accessible
to the teacher and the writing can be seen easily by all students;
c) it makes easy to move between rows and orderly distribution and collection of
instructional materials;
d) it makes the management of students discipline easy through row monitors
The disadvantages include that:
a) the student at the back side cannot see the work or practice of student in the front
side;
b) it is difficult to the teacher to evaluate each students work in the classroom;
c) it is not convenient to practice different methods of teaching such as small group
discussions, demonstrations, etc.
2. The clusters pattern Arrangement
This pattern seating arrangement is characterized by the formation of little clusters of
students in different positions in the classroom. It is very much convenient for buzz-group
discussions.
This pattern provides the following advantages:
a) It makes students to communicate easily with each other;
b) It is easier for students to work as a team and to help each other as peers;
c) Movement from one cluster to another is not too restricted;
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d) Leadership and co-operation are two important elements of classroom relationship which
result from this kind of seating arrangement;
e) It makes the management of the classroom discipline easy when there is the need for
students to work on group projects or solve problems together.
In cluster grouping, the size of each group should not be more than six members there is no a
fixed rule as to how the teacher should each group member. How ever, it can be done
randomly or by considering the abilities or compatibility of group members. At all times,
there must be some one who acts as a leader. The leadership should rotate.
The arrangement is not convenient to teach large class students and it is time consuming.
3. The Horse Shoe Pattern Arrangement
An arrangement where the teacher sits in the center, half way along the diameter this
arrangement provides the following advantages:
a) It can be used when the lesson entails a lot of discussion;
b) It enables the teacher to check every member easily and help;
c) It enables students to consult with each other;
d) It is easy to rearrange the group without wasting time and vice-versa.
4. The Round table pattern Arrangement
It is a good arrangement for discussion lessons. It can be round or square. Unlike the horse
shoe arrangement, the authority of the teacher is completely decentralized and formal
leadership roles are played down considerably. There is usually no group leader in this
arrangement.
Its advantages include that:
a) it is an arrangement convenient when there is anything to be recorded or to be listened on
tape;
b) it is useful when there is just one object to be used as display for a lesson. It can be
placed at the center for all to see and comment upon;
c) it enables the teacher to see what is going on at different locations where his/her students
are;
This pattern: a) is not convenient to use different teaching aids simultaneously;
a) Creates students misbehavior in class.
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Teacher
It requires careful planning and providing students with pleasant and supportive climate for
learning; creating interests and desires to learn and achieve; establishing control; avoiding
disciplinary disturbances and promoting effective students learning.
Of course, effective classroom management depends on the nature of the task at hand. For
instance, laboratory classes allow students for a great amount of conversation and movement
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and lecture sessions require quiet attention and purposeful conversation. Thus, effective
classroom management requires:
1. good planning;
Preparation of ones lesson by identifying the instructional objectives, lesson contents,
methods of teaching, materials, organizing a learning environment, setting rules, etc.
3. Monitoring
It is a process of maintaining classroom order or discipline by using different approaches and
techniques. Thus, one can conclude that in its wider sense.
Classroom management can be taken distinctive pattern of activities by which teachers
establish and maintain conditions whereby individuals in the classroom can apply all
their rational and creative talents to the challenges of educational tasks. The essence
of classroom management is establishing an effective co-operative classroom system
and successful handling of the human behavior problems, which arise in any
organized face-to-face work group.
Why should teachers manage their classes? What are the areas to be managed?
2.1. Purposes and Areas of Classroom Management
Obviously, effective classroom management helps in the advancement to the fulfillment of
the objective of teaching and facilitates learning classroom management aims at:
1. promoting an environment (physical and emotional) to be conducive to effective
learning;
2. guaranteeing class time to be used for learning effectively;
3. securing the support and co-operation of students in classroom activities; and
4. ensuring the active and meaningful engagement of students to the learning task at hand.
2.2 Areas of Classroom Management
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The
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Any act of a student that violates the established or implied classroom rules or any act
of a student that disrupts the normal teaching and learning process is misbehavior
1.1.
Poor teaching one of the teacher related causes which can be a result of
a) poor mastery of the subject taught. A teacher who doesnt have a thorough knowledge of
the subject that he/she teaches definitely cant teach properly;
b) lack of planning and preparation; A teacher who doesnt have good plans for what he/she
does for a year, semesters a week, and a daily lesson with appropriate preparation will face
problems;
c) ineffective style of presentation; If a teacher fails to apply the appropriate method of
teaching and styles (voice, gesture manner of classroom walking, signals, etc) he/she will
definitely get into problems;
d) failure to use appropriate teaching aids (suitable audio-visuals)
Learning becomes lively and clear of a teacher uses suitable teaching aids of visual and
verbal nature. If he/she doesnt use teaching aids, at least some of the students may not
form the right image about what they are attending. Thus, they usually involve in
misbehaviors. It is a sign of poor teaching.
e) failure to involve students in the instructional activities and failure to apply the major
principles of teaching;
Students active involvement in the instruction is a sign of a teachers strength. He/she is
expected to consider the major principles of teaching that regulate the teachers planning,
organizing, directing and controlling activities. Thus, the teachers failures to involve
students and apply the principles of teaching result in problems.
f) failure to structure ones lessons and present them in steps;
A good teacher arranges his/her lessons by considering the logical structures of the
subject and the level of students maturity.
arrangements of contents and learning activities, he/she fail to be successful. If that is so,
students tend to misbehave for they may not understand what is under treatment.
1.2.
Students involve activity when the tasks are interesting, relevant meaningful, challenging,
rewarding etc. However, if the teacher fails to put them in the above mentioned way, and
if the tasks are too difficult or too easy, the students will be discouraged / frustrated or
they will be bored respectively.
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between the tasks given and the lessons taught, etc make students to be indifferent and
misbehave. These are found to be the most potent causes of disorders.
1.3.
Teachers manage classes by setting rules appropriate to the tasks at hand. Usually rules
are to be set at the beginning of the year when the teacher and students meet first.
However, the teachers failure or inconsistency to enforce / implement the rules set at any
time lead to students misbehavior. For instance, if the rule set was to answer a question
when they are allowed to answer. However, if the teacher starts to accept answers when
students respond in groups without raising their hands and getting permission, students
tend to misbehave for the teacher has failed to enforce the rule set.
2. Student related causes
As the students are the other elements acting in the instructional process, they can be one
of the causes for classroom misbehaviors. There can be a lot of factors make students to
misbehave the common ones include:
2.1.
A student who might have come to classes being forced by others without his or her
interest will not be attentive in a class. He/she rather involves in some destructive
activities.
2.2.
Students usually develop lack of interest in particular subjects when the teachers are not
good in teaching that/those subjects at their lower grades or when they are biased on the
subject, etc.
2.3.
Sometimes, students dislike a subject because of the negative attitudes they have
developed to their teachers. Even they can develop hostility towards a teacher and they
totally dislike a subject that is taught by that particular teacher.
Do you have any such experience? Write them here.
2.4.
attention seeking;
Students who are denied of attention actually will be encouraged to misbehave further to
attract more attention.
2.5.
Sometimes students involve in misbehavior when they dont know the dos and the
donts. They may realize them after they are involved in such inappropriate activities or
behaviors.
3. Home Environment Related Causes
These are related to factors such as:
3.1.
Students who came from families where there is no peaceful relation among family members
may think about it while he/she is attending any class. These are factors that are most
reflected on students of broken families, where the father or the mother has problems, etc.
3.2.
Students who have problems with their friends or students who had problems with gangsters
on the way to school might be involved in thinking how to solve or escape the problem
after the class. Such students are usually absent minded in a class.
3.3.
emotional upset
Sometimes, students might have got some physical barriers problems from their home. Thus,
because of the inconveniences he/she has encountered, the student may involve in some
kinds of classroom misbehaviors.
4. School Environment Related Causes
It is common that the school environments in our schools are some of the factors for
classroom misbehaviors.
4.1.
The absence of sufficient materials for the classes, laboratories the workshops
and fields: these make students to strive to get them or become withdrawn which
ultimately lead to misbehavior.
misbehave.
4.2.
This is related to the kinds of rules that may be set in schools and the accustomed traditions
or value systems of the learners home. For instance, a student might be brought up in a
family whose culture encourages kicking others and becoming ready to pay whatever
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they are asked for the kicked / the victim will be involved in kicking others for minor
disagreements;
4.3.
Students who have the tendency to misbehave will be engaged in misbehavior when the
students per section increase in number. This is usually done to get fame or to be
identified by the group easily.
Can you suggest any school-environment-related causes of misbehaviors?
1.3. Classification of Classroom Misbehaviors
Are all classroom misbehaviors the same?
No, they are not the same. They differ in their nature and level of complexity. Some are
minor while others are serious. The classroom misbehaviors can be classified into three
forms by considering their nature. They are listed as follows
1. Minor misbehaviors of a passing kind
These are problems limited to mostly a single student and are likely to pass soon. For
instance, inattentiveness, distractions, unfriendly feelings, etc belong to this category.
2. Repeated minor misbehavior
These are problems, which dont spread to and dont distract other students in the class. Day
dreaming, attention seeking, not meeting work requirements, failure to show interests,
becoming uncommunicative and withdrawn, persistent inattentiveness and restlessness
belong to this category of misbehaviors.
3. Persistent and serious problems
These are major offences and are likely to harm the teaching and learning activities as well as
the social relationships existing in the class.
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running in a class;
flicking some one with a ruler or a pencil;
using bad languages, whispering and over-noisy talk;
giggling, physical aggression to other students, etc belong to this category.
that describe acceptable and unacceptable students behaviors. Their purpose is to guide
and limit student conduct.
The advocates of the authoritarian approach insist on that the teacher should establish and
enforce rules that are realistic, reasonable, well defined, limited in number and clearly
understood. He/she should do it at the beginning or the first day of the school year.
There are various positions concerning students involvement in rule making and why it
should be at the beginning of the year. The reasons include that:
b) Students should participate for they are more likely to follow the rules they have
had a hand in developing;
c) The teacher should make the rules because the teacher has the responsibility to
determine students behavior.
d) The teacher should first specify a limited non-negotiable rules and let students add
other rules;
e) First impressions have longer effects on later lives
Issuing commands, directives and orders; A command is a statement that the teacher
uses tell the student that he/she is supposed to do something the teacher wants
him/her to do. E.g. asking students to open their books to page x is issuing a
command.
It is a form of punishment where the teacher reproves the student for behaving in an
unacceptable way for violating rules. They are verbal and non-verbal teacher behaviors
intended to inform but not to indict.
This is moving closer to a student whom the teacher sees misbehaving or whom the teacher
believes is on the verge of misbehaving.
misbehaving.
Isolation, exclusion, in school suspension, in school detention, suspension and other forms of
exile are strategies that teachers are encouraged to consider as a response to serious
students misbehavior.
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Thus, both
teacher student and student student relationships can be easily achieved if the teacher
creates a favorable and friendly classroom atmosphere. Obviously, this is an approach
that conceives the classroom as a social system in which group processes are of major
importance. It strongly assumes that instruction takes place within a group context.
Therefore, the nature and behavior of the classroom group are viewed as having
significant effects on learning, even though learning is seen as an individual process. At
this point the role of the teacher is to foster the development and operation of an effective
classroom group.
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The four factors are related to positive reinforcement, punishment, extinction and negative
reinforcements. Thus, the teacher is required to master and apply the factors identified
above.
These different approaches can further be classified into specific classroom management
techniques.
Classification of Classroom Management Techniques
The specific classroom management techniques that teachers employ to maintain classroom
misbehaviors can be classified as:
1) Preventive techniques
2) Curative / remedial techniques
The curative / remedial effect is that the teacher can easily spot out any sort of deviation
and quickly take the appropriate measure.
1. The Preventive Techniques
These are measures to be taken before students misbehave. They are precautions not to
give way for misbehaviors. They are usually used to avoid or reduce the causes of
misbehaviors in a classroom and to save time by removing the conditions of in
disciplinary acts. They all are applied on the basis of the principle, prevention is better
than cure.
The different preventive techniques include:
Disciplining:
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It is a degree of order or behavior, which one expects from a group or a class. It is a Latin
word to mean, "to learn". Thus, discipline can be taken as a development from within
individuals as a necessary personal control. It can be external or internal.
a) External discipline is the influence that comes upon some one from others
(teachers, friends, directors, unit leaders, etc) to be punctual, quiet, obedient,
clean, do, etc.
b) Internal discipline is the self control that one exercises over him/her self. It
comes out from the aims and desires within the individual. The ultimate aim of
external discipline is the development of self-control. Thus, the teachers role is
to inform first and make students observes it as their personal control.
intentionally.
It can be seen as physical freedom (seating arrangement) and spiritual freedom (making
students feel free from frustration, and express their ideas). What is expected of every
teacher is to create an environment where students sit or stand comfortably and allowing
them feel free to ask and answer easily and freely.
Sharing Responsibilities
It is a means to create a deep-seated feeling to control. When the class has a large
number of responsible persons, it is guaranteed to be a good class. Thus, assigning and
giving responsibilities to individuals such as monitoring the whole class acting as a study
mentor a cleaning officer, a flag ceremony leader, sports, etc makes a class to be
disciplined.
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Similarly, if one gives activities that make students to engage in while they are in a cross
or field, they will be in activities. Thus, it becomes a means to contra students.
This refers to the relationship that exists between the teacher and students and among
students themselves.
a) keep on mentioning the need for concern and respect to one another, the need
for thought of others, etc;
b) treat students with respect and kindness and provide opportunities for success
in classroom;
c) show positive feelings which will create a pleasant, supportive and cooperative atmosphere in the classroom;
d) introduce the tasks at every period; etc.
The teachers ability and skills to handle the class / the lesson systematically is one of the
preventive techniques. It has a powerful effect on students. Thus, making students active
participant in the instructional process and arrangement of tasks, sometimes in
collaboration with the students are effective mechanisms.
provide students with an engaging, exciting, supportive and useful learning experiences
and environment.
It is true that rules specify acceptable forms of classroom conduct. Rules must be clear,
consistent and should be communicated to students. Allowing students to participate in
amendments or suggesting new rules of their own makes students anxious to enforce their
own rules rather than violating them.
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Explaining Procedures
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Eye Contact: - is giving a knowing glance and a cold store (long and fixed look) to
a student who is repeatedly misbehaving in the class. It sends a message for him/her
to stop misbehaving.
If the misbehaving student is near by the teacher, touching his/her head or shoulder
slightly or signals and gestures could be shown in the following forms:
a) shaking the head negatively;
b) raising the eye brows;
c) frowning; a finger on the lips;
d) wagging a finger; waving the hand, etc.
But never use heavy signals such as hand clopping, book slamming, knocking a table with
a feast, or knocking a chalkboard with a duster, etc.
It jokingly and indirectly addresses the message to their misconduct creatively and
quickly. For instance a teacher may say, I didnt know that the foot ball team was
having a meeting over there.
This makes students to know that they are involved in activities, which are not allowed. .
Definitely, students who are engaged in misbehaviors knowingly or unknowingly stop
misbehaving as they are commented.
Allowing misbehaving students to sit together with others gives them more opportunities
to make tricks and cause more trouble to the class. It is better to separate them. Give a
seat to a well behaving student or bring the noisy child to one of the front seats just to
have him/her under your eyes.
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When a student shows disruptive behavior that is really out of his/her control, the teacher
may allow the student to leave the room for a while until he/she cools off or regains self
control. It can be used when a student becomes so tickled that he/she bursts out in
uncontrolled laughter, look dizzy and sleepy in the class and restless (urine). These are
quite natural and demand tolerance on the part of the teacher.
N.B. In making the learner to stay out, be sure that you made a painless removal.
Restructuring
When the whole class seems tired or restless and unable to get settled to work, the teacher
might change the whole situation / the lesson or the activity at hand. Then, students may
begin learning once again by stopping restlessness or inattentiveness. The teacher must
attempt one or more of the following:
a) changing the teaching method; (give individual work)
b) giving them the energizer or activator allow them to sing their favorite song, physical
exercise, tell them jokes or short stories
c) giving the class five minutes rest, etc.
Appeal
When misbehavior gets more serious, the teacher should directly intervene and command an
end to it. The intervention should be short, direct and to the point. The teacher should name
the child, identify his/her misbehavior and finally indicate what he/she should do instead or
remind the student of the predetermined class rules.
Example: Please, be quiet!
N.B. Use it occasionally not to make students take it as usual.
Teachers Analysis:
When students come being disturbed or excited by an incident that just happened to them,
for instance with certain result of football match (excited, furious), surprise test, etc every
school teacher has to persuade the class to come to their sense. To this effect, the teacher
has to share their feelings, express concern for their welfare or sympathy to them. He/she
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may talk to the students saying, I know what is bothering you and I know that you all are
excited; but there is nothing you can do now and here, so please lets not waste our
time any more.
The teacher here appeals to the students power of reasoning and persuades them to settle
down and follow the lesson at hand.
Open discussion
It can be used it when one or more students present lasting behavior problems for you /
the teacher. It is a process of organizing a discussion situation between the teacher and
the trouble maker(s) or the whole class.
a) frankness to freely describe the incident and explain why it happened;
b) exclude anyone not involved in the problem or never allow students to implicate
students who have noting to do with the incidents;
c) act as a counselor; and
d) take further appropriate action
If it is necessary, the teacher may involve peer group members and parents in some of
these sessions.
The open discussion technique can be applied for incidents such as frequent absenteeism
or late coming, sleeping in a class while the teacher is teaching, coming to class drinking
alcoholic drinks, becoming indifferent in a class while others are doing, etc.
What other conditions can be suggested that make open discussion important?
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Methods of Assessment
Source: Center for Teaching and Learning,
http://ctl.utexas.edu/teaching/assessment/planning, Retrieved on December 18, 2014
Many of us hear the word assessment and think test. However, good assessment
involves a variety of techniques.
Formative assessment techniques monitor student learning during the learning process.
The feedback gathered is used to identify areas where students are struggling so that
instructors can adjust their teaching and students can adjust their studying. These are lowstakes assessments (i.e., they have low point values) that happen early and often in the
semester.
Summative assessment techniques evaluate student learning. These are high-stakes
assessments (i.e., they have high point values) that occur at the end of an instructional
unit or course and measure the extent to which students have achieved the desired
learning outcomes.
Formative (Low-Stakes) Assessments
Informal Techniques
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Formal Techniques
Exams. This includes mid-term exams, final exams, and tests at the end of course
units. The best tests include several types of questions short answer, multiplechoice, true-false, and short essay to allow students to fully demonstrate what
they know. Visit the Quick-Start Guide: Creating Tests.
Papers, projects, and presentations. These give students the chance to go
deeper with the material to put the knowledge theyve acquired to use or create
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something new from it. This level of application is an extremely important and
often overlooked part of the learning process. These types of projects also give
students who do not test well a chance to shine. Visit the Quick-Start Guide:
Designing Assignments.
Portfolios. Submitting a portfolio at the end of a course can be a powerful way
for students to see the progress theyve made. More than just a collection of
students' work from the semester, good portfolios also include reflections on their
learning. Asking students to spell out the concepts or techniques used with each
piece, the themes addressed, and hurdles faced also brings a sense of completion
to the learning process.
Planning Assessments
Course learning outcomes describe what students should learn from a course. Varied
assessments that are tightly aligned with instruction and course learning outcomes can
most effectively support student learning.
For information about creating course learning outcomes that can be used to align your
assessments with instruction, visit our Course Design section designing student
learning outcomes.
What should you consider in planning assessments for your course?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Methods of Assessment
Many of us hear the word assessment and think test. However, good assessment
involves a variety of techniques.
Formative assessment techniques monitor student learning during the learning process.
The feedback gathered is used to identify areas where students are struggling so that
instructors can adjust their teaching and students can adjust their studying. These are lowstakes assessments (i.e., they have low point values) that happen early and often in the
semester.
Summative assessment techniques evaluate student learning. These are high-stakes
assessments (i.e., they have high point values) that occur at the end of an instructional
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unit or course and measure the extent to which students have acheived the desired
learning outcomes.
Formative (Low-Stakes) Assessments
Informal Techniques
Formal Techniques
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great tools that don't have to count heavily toward students' grades. Using quizzes
to begin units is also a fun way to assess what your students already know, clear
up misconceptions, and drive home the point of how much they will learn.
Online assessment. Many online learning modules have built-in assessments
where students solve problems or answer questions along the way. This can
provide you with analytics on student responses and class performance so you can
tailor your instruction to their particular learning needs.
Class Deliverables. In-class activities are designed so students, usually in groups,
are required to submit a product of their work for a grade. Among the variety of
techniques that can be used, the most effective will balance individual and group
accountability and require students to think about authentic complex issues.
Team-Based Learning uses four criteria in the design of collaborative application
exercises.
Exams. This includes mid-term exams, final exams, and tests at the end of
course units. The best tests include several types of questions short answer,
multiple-choice, true-false, and short essay to allow students to fully
demonstrate what they know. Visit the Quick-Start Guide: Creating Tests.
Papers, projects, and presentations. These give students the chance to go
deeper with the material to put the knowledge theyve acquired to use or create
something new from it. This level of application is an extremely important and
often overlooked part of the learning process. These types of projects also give
students who do not test well a chance to shine. Visit the Quick-Start Guide:
Designing Assignments.
Portfolios. Submitting a portfolio at the end of a course can be a powerful way
for students to see the progress theyve made. More than just a collection of
students' work from the semester, good portfolios also include reflections on their
learning. Asking students to spell out the concepts or techniques used with each
piece, the themes addressed, and hurdles faced also brings a sense of completion
to the learning process.
monitor student learning and the effectiveness of instruction during the learning
process, which is considered formative assessment; and
evaluate student learning against a specific standard at the end of the learning
process, which is considered summative assessment.
These assessments should provide evidence based on the course learning outcomes and can be
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Using a variety of assessments throughout a course is considered a best practice so that students
have many different ways to best demonstrate their learning.
Important Considerations When Planning Assessments for a Course
1. Learning context contributes to the design of assessments in the following ways:
Certain subject areas and types of thinking skills lend themselves to specific
types of test items (questions). For example, multiple choice items are more
efficient for assessing large numbers of facts quickly.
Environmental constraints such as class size and classroom structure may limit
the space available to formally assess group activities or individual projects.
Student characteristics such background, age, and prior learning experiences
need to be considered when selecting the type and complexity of questions.
3. Nature of the learning outcomes, such as complexity, the level of thinking (factual recall
versus critical thinking for example), and types of skills, is important to consider in assessment
planning because:
Different types of activities and tests lend themselves more efficiently to certain
types of learning outcomes. For example, assessments requiring students to
choose from a menu of options requires different types of thinking than requiring
students to create a product.
Different assessment formats are more efficient for certain learning outcome
requirements than other formats. For example,
o
multiple choice formats are excellent for surveying a vast amount of
factual knowledge to determine whether a student knows the background
needed for more c
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Prior Learning
Why is it helpful to know about students background knowledge?
Misconceptions and gaps in student knowledge can greatly impact student learning.
Understanding these can help you guide students to greater success in your class by enabling you
to:
What to consider when planning to find out about students background knowledge
Many methods exist to find out about student background knowledge, but considering the
following can help you select the one that is best for your situation.
What do you think students should already know and how can you best find out
whether they do?
What are some common misconceptions related to your subject?
How do you intend to respond to the answers that you find out about student
background knowledge?
What are some effective ways to find out about students background knowledge?
QUICK INVENTORY
This method can be as simple as listing a series of about 10 to 15 statements and having students
identify whether the statements are true or false.
Advantages and Disadvantages
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Response data are easy to analyze and graph, providing a picture that is useful for
both students and instructors
Most useful for recall and comprehension
Less useful for higher level thinking and skills
A variation of the true-false inventory is a survey with questions in the following format:
How familiar are you with x?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Provides data about what the students know and if a short answer format is used,
can provide data about how well the students can communicate what they know
Helpful to include questions that most students can answer correctly along with
more difficult questions so that the easier questions can provide a starting point
for instruction
Can stimulate students to recall information that will be relevant to the new
instruction
Results can be frustrating for underprepared students
Can create first impressions that are difficult to change, even though it is a single
snapshot of student knowledge
FOCUSED LISTING
This method, also described in Angelo and Cross (1993), requires students to focus on an
important term, name, or concept and list several ideas that are most closely related to this focus
point. Instructors can then identify the richness of student understanding.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Quick and easy technique that can be done with large classes
Helps draw student attention to major ideas
If limited time is given for student responses, it can provide an idea of what the
students believe are the most important ideas. However, this limited time will also
drive student responses to the recall level rather than higher level cognitive skills
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The technique focuses on one idea at a time, but can be repeated throughout the
course
Work through your own focused list before giving the assignment to students so
that you know the topic is neither too narrow nor broad, and is clearly stated.
References
Angelo, T.A. and Cross, K.P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for
College Teachers. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco. ISBN-1-55542-500-3.
Ethical Considerations
What are the ethical considerations for assessment?
Two major ethical considerations arise when designing assessments.
1. Are our assessments fair?
As we construct assessments it is important to make sure that they are based on relevant
material that students have had the opportunity to learn during the course. Assignments
also should be free of any bias that would give some students a more difficult time than
others in successfully completing the assignment.
2. Are our grading systems fair and consistently applied to all students?
An instructor has an ethical responsibility to ensure that the grades assigned are the best
estimate of the students performance. The grading system developed or selected will
generally reflect your philosophy of teaching, learning, and assessing. Apply your system
consistently to support equity.
Two types of grading systems are most often used:
Norm-Referenced Systems
Students are evaluated based on certain norms established in your discipline or course.
This type of grading is based on the normal distribution and is called norm-referenced
testing, Norm-referenced tests (or NRTs) compare an examinees performance to that of
other examinees.
Criterion-Referenced Systems
Criterion-referenced tests (or CRTs) differ in that each examinees performance is
compared to a pre-defined set of criteria or a standard. The goal with these tests is to
determine whether or not the student has the demonstrated mastery of a certain concepts
or skills/set of skills.
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preparing for class or after class, so that the material is fresh in your mind. The items will
then most likely reflect what you emphasized in class, which is fairer for the students. If
you construct the items so that they can be easily shuffled, like on index cards or software
with easy cut and paste, you can simply shuffle items around to build quizzes and tests
later.
An important consideration in constructing multiple choice items is to make them
measure learning rather than test-taking skills of test wise students. The suggestions
here are designed to help you with this, but first some vocabulary needs to be introduced.
ITEM VOCABULARY
The following vocabulary will be used in the rest of this discussion.
The prompt or first part is the stem. For example:
Frequent use of sprays, oils, and antiseptics in the nose during a bad cold may result
in:
Students select from among the options, which include the correct response and the
incorrect responses or distracters. In our example, a is the correct response and b,c, and
d are the distracters.
A. the spreading of the infection to the sinuses.
B. damage to the olfactory nerve.
C. destruction of white blood cells.
D. congestion of the mucous membrane in the nose.
ADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
Additional benefits of multiple choice items include:
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o
o
o
o
Difficult and time-consuming to write good items that address thinking skills
above the factual level
The items are difficult to phrase so that all students interpret them in the same
way
When students study for multiple choice tests, they focus on recognition, not
recall. Recent learning theories indicate that students need to process information
to really learn it, so time spent studying for recognition is not as effective as time
spent working with information.
By guessing, students who dont know the answer have a 25% chance of correctly
selecting the correct response in a multiple choice item with 4 options. This
decreases to 20% for items with 5 options, etc.
Write the stem first, then the correct answer, then the distracters to match the
correct answer in terms of length, complexity, phrasing, and style
Base each item on a learning outcome for the course
Ask a peer to review items if possible
Allow time for editing and revising
Minimize the amount of reading required for each item
Be sensitive to cultural and gender issues
Keep vocabulary consistent with student level of understanding
Avoid convoluted stems and options
Avoid language in the options and stems that clues the correct answer
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A. Stoicism
B. Agnosticism
C. Platonism
D. Empiricism (correct)
A blood pressure reading is 120/82. What information does this reading provide?
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Examples
The following multiple choice questions are examples with formats that you can adapt to
fit most disciplines.
EXAMPLE 1: This item addresses higher level thinking skills because students must
evaluate multiple pieces of evidence, then apply that evidence to solve a problem.
Evidence is presented, then the student must select the best action to take with the
evidence.
Tims second grade teacher is concerned because of the following observations about
Tims behavior in class:
The teacher has arranged a meeting with Tims mother to discuss these concerns.
Which of the following statements is best for the teacher to say to Tims mother?
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A. Tim needs extra practice reading and writing problematic letters and words at home at
least 30 minutes per day.
B. Please discuss the importance of schoolwork to Tim so that he will increase his efforts
in classwork.
C. These are possible symptoms of dyslexia so I would like to refer him to a specialist for
diagnosis.
D. Please adjust Tims diet because he is most likely showing symptoms of ADHD due to
food allergies.
Explanation: C is the best answer because the behaviors could be symptoms of dyslexia.
The other options are plausible, but not the best. Tim is already showing signs of social
anxiety, so extra practice, or increasing effort could worsen the anxiety. The collection of
symptoms does not indicate ADHD as much as a learning disability.
EXAMPLE 2: This item was released from an AP biology test and was written to
address an understanding of a hypothesis about the natural origin of life on Earth with
supporting scientific evidence as well as evaluate scientific questions and hypotheses.
By discharging electric sparks into a laboratory chamber atmosphere that consisted
of water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and ammonia, Stanley Miller obtained data
that showed that a number of organic molecules, including many amino acids, could
be synthesized. Miller was attempting to model early Earth conditions as
understood in the 1950s. The results of Millers experiments best support which of
the following hypotheses?
A. The molecules essential to life today did not exist at the time Earth was first formed.
B. The molecules essential to life today could not have been carried to the primordial
Earth by a comet or meteorite.
C. The molecules essential to life today could have formed under early Earth conditions.
D. The molecules essential to life today were initially self-replicating proteins that were
synthesized approximately four billion years ago.
Explanation: Notice that C is the correct options because the other options require the
students to infer information that has not been provided.
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Source: AP Central
EXAMPLE 3: This item was released from an AP history test and was written to address
an understanding of the development and interaction of cultures during state-building,
expansion, and conflict. It also addresses the skills of argumentation, contextualization,
interpretation, and synthesis. It requires students to compare two passages, one from a
modern historian and one from a person living during the historical time frame.
Passage 1
Whenever I visited Jerusalem, I always entered the al-Aqsa Mosque, beside which stood
a small mosque which the Franks had converted into a church.... [T]he Templars, ... who
were my friends, would evacuate the little adjoining mosque so that I could pray in it.
Usamah ibn Munqidh, Muslim historian, Jerusalem, circa 1138
Passage 2
The Crusader states were able to cling to survival only through frequent delivery of
supplies and manpower from Europe.
[They] were defended primarily by three semi-monastic military orders: the Templars,
the Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights. Combining monasticism and militarism, these
orders served to protect pilgrims and to wage perpetual war against the Muslims.
Palmira Brummett, world historian, 2007
The second passage does not support the first passage because the second passage
A. shows that an influx of manpower from Europe was not critical for the survival of the
Crusader states
B. shows that Muslims vastly outnumbered Europeans in the Crusader states
C. minimizes the importance of Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in the administration
of the Crusader states
D. presents an incident in which a military order supported a Muslim traveler
Explanation: D is the best response.
Source: AP Central
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
More examples of multiple choice items that address higher order thinking skills can be
found at AP Central Biology Fall 2012 or AP Central World History Fall 2011
Writing Good Multiple-Choice Exams by Dawn M. Zimmaro, Ph.D is an excellent
resource about item writing along with test construction. It contains many examples that
will help you understand the features of a good multiple-choice item.
References
Brookhart, S.M. How to Assess Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom.
ASCD. ISBN-13: 978-1-4166-1048-9
Haldyna, T. M. and Rodriguez, M.C. (2013). Developing and Validating Test Items.
Routledge, New York. ISBN-10: 0415876052.
Haldyna, T. M. (1996). Writing Test Items to Evaluate Higher Order Thinking.
Routledge, New York. ISBN-13: 978-0205178759
Writing multiple-choice questions that demand critical thinking. University of Oregon
Teaching Effectiveness Program
Writing good multiple-choice test questions. Vanderbilt University. Center for Teaching.
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You should select item types based on your specific context, however, in general, when
assessing recall and comprehension, multiple choice items can more efficiently cover a
large amount of material quickly, and can be scored objectively and quickly. Constructed
response items should be reserved for the more complex competencies that are difficult to
assess with multiple choice items. Consider the information below in your selection of
open response items:
ADVANTAGES OF OPEN RESPONSE ITEMS
Advantages include:
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7. Use either analytic scoring rubrics (point systems) or holistic scoring rubrics (overall
score based on certain criteria) to ensure consistent scoring. See the RUBRICS document
for more information about rubrics.
Scoring Open Response Items
Scores derived from open response items sometimes fail to provide a clear picture of
student achievement because of many factors such as variations in
Provide the same set of questions to all of the students. When you allow students
to select from among choices of essay questions (ex. answer 2 of the 5 questions),
the items are most likely not equivalent and students are not being evaluated on
the same scale. One students score does not mean the same thing as another
students score. While allowing students a choice gives them the perception that
they have the opportunity to do their best work, choice introduces difficulty in
drawing consistent and valid conclusions about student answers and performance.
Consider using several narrowly focused items rather than one broad one so that
students can narrow-in on the response and scoring will be more consistent.
You can isolate various aspects of students skills and knowledge more
consistently.
Analytic scoring rubrics yield more consistent scores than holistic scoring rubrics
because features of the response for which test takers should receive points can be
evaluated separately.
Stem
Comparing
Justifying
Summarizing
Generalizing
Inferring
In the light of the information presetned, what is most likely to happen when...
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Classifying
Creating
Applying
Using the principles of... as a guide, describe how you would solve the following
problem.
Analyzing
Synthesizing
Evaluating
Source: Piontek,2008, table 2, adapted from Figure 7.11 of McMillan, 2001, p.186.
References
Bridgeman,B., Trapani, C, Bivens- Tatum, J. 2011. Comparability of essay question
variants. Assessing Writing 16 (2011) 237255.
McMillan, J. H. (2001). Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for effective
instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Piontek, M.E. 2008. Best Practices for Designing and Scoring Exams. CRLT Occasional
Papers, No. 24, University of Michigan, http://www.crlt.umich.edu/P8_0. Using the
given criteria, write an evaluation of
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