What is protective relay?

Answer: Eletro-mechanical relays operate by two

Answer: It is an electrical device designed to initiate principles. Electro-magnetic attraction and electrothe isolation of a part of the electrical installation, or magnetic induction. In electromagnetic attraction
to operate an alarm signal, in the event of abnormal

relay plunger is drawn to the solenoid or an armature

condition or a fault. In simple words relay is an is attracted to the poles of the electromagnet. In case
electrical device that gives signal to isolation device of electro-magnetic induction, principle of operation
(eg: Circuit Breaker) after sensing the fault and helps is similar to induction motor. Torque is developed by
to isolate the fault system from the healthy electrical electromagnetic induction principle
system
What are the different relays that employed for Action carried out by the relay and circuit breaker
protection of apparatus and transmission lines?

during fault condition?

Answer: The relays that are usually employed for Answer: After the relay sensing the fault condition,
protection of transmission lines include

relay operates and close the trip coils. The effect of

Over current relay

this will be circuit breaker operate to open the

Directional relay

contacts.

Distance relay

What is the direction of rotation of rotor with

Under Voltage relay

Under-frequency relay

Thermal relay

the induction motor. Rotating Magentic Field rotates

Differential relay

at synchronous speed. Rotor rotates in the direction of

Phase sequence relays

the rotating magnetic field

pilot relays

How the electrical power system protection is

divided?
Answer: The overall system protection is divided into

respect to the rotating magnetic field?

Answer: Rotating Magnetic Field is set up when 3
phase ac supply is provided to the stator windings of

What is Slip In Induction Motor?

Answer: Speed of the Induction Motor will be always
less than synchronous speed and speed of the motor
further reduces when load is applied on the motor.

Generator protection

Transformer protection

Busbar protection

motor (N) is called slip of the induction motor and is

Transmission line protection and

designated by letter 's'. It is represented in RPM.

Feeder protection

However it is general tendency to represent as

How relays are connected in the power system?

The difference between the speed of the stator

(synchronous speed Ns) and the actual speed of the

fraction or percentage of synchronous speed.

Answer: The relays are connected to the power

system through the current transformer (CT) or Fractional Slip s = Ns- N
-------potential transformer (PT).
Ns
What are different types of principles of operation What is the speed of the rotor magnetic field with
respect to rotor?
of electro-mechaical relays?
Answer: Currents flowing through the rotor windings
due to induction caused by stator will have a

frequency of ( f ', which is equal to sf where f is the

used in Industries because of some features it possess.

applied frequency to stator). This current flowing They are:

through the rotor sets up a magentic field equal to s x

Low Cost

Ns with respect to the rotor.

Simple and Rugged Construction

Absence of Commutator

Good power factor

Higher efficiency

Good Speed Regulation

What is the relative speed between the fields set up

by the stator and rotor?
Answer: Stationary. The speed of the stator field with
respect to stator surface will be Ns and the speed of
rotor with respect to the stator surface will be N. The
speed of the magentic field of the rotor with respect to

What is the relation between between Induction

the rotor will be s x Ns . Therefore the speed of the motor and Transformer?
rotor field with respect to stator surface is equal to Answer: Induction motors

are

considered

as

rotor speed of the motor and rotor field with respect transformers with secondary winding rotating. This is
because both transformers and induction motor
to rotor
operates in such a manner that power is transferred to

N + s x Ns = Ns ( 1-s ) + s x Ns = Ns
Therefore the relative motion between stator field and
rotor field will be stationary or zero.
What happens when Induction motor is loaded?
Answer: During no load operation the relative speed

secondary windings (rotor) from primary windings

(stator) by mutual induction principle.
Why the efficiency of the Induction motor is less
compared to transformer?
Answer: Induction motor and Transformer operates

between stator magnetic field and rotor speed will be on the same principle that power is transferred to
less (means slip is less). Hence small emf is generated secondary by mutual induction. But in transformer,
which generates small currents and torque will be flux will be traveled from primary to secondary
generated in such a manner sufficient to overcome winding through the core of the transformer. In
the friction and windage losses.

induction motor flux travels from stator to rotor

When motor is loaded (Load applied to rotor), motor through the air gap. Therefore power factor will be
torque reduces as the load torque increases. Hence less for induction motor compared to transformer
motor slows down (slip increases). As the motor which also results in less efficiency for induction
slows down, the relative speed between rotor and motor compared to transformer.
stator magnetic field increases. This results in greater

motor currents and generates greater motor torque to Why Speed Control of Induction Motor is difficult
overcome the load torque. Thus as the load on the compared to DC shunt motor?

induction motor increases, motor slows down until Answer: Speed Control of DC shunt motor can be
sufficient torque is generated to overcome the applied possible by providing resistance in the armature and
load torque.
Why Induction motors are widely used in
Industries?

field circuits and varying the resistors speed changes

can be carried out over a wide range. On the other

hand speed control of induction motor is costlier and

Answer: In Industries 80% of the motor drives used bit tedious.

are induction motors. Induction Motors are widely Speed of Induction motors = (120x f x (1-s))/p.

and rutlessness and steel has the property of high

tensile strength). Composite conductors are employed
should change or number of poles should change and as they are flexible compared to solid conductor.
other methods can be employed. Care should be taken Composite conductors reduce proximity effect and
that in the process efficiency and power factor should also reduces skin effect up to certain extent.
Bundled Conductors:
be maintained.
Bundled conductors are employed in Extra High
Voltage (EHV) transmission as at higher voltages
corona effect is significant. In bundled conductors sub
Explain the operation of induction motor in simple
conductors are placed as certain distance throughout
words?
the transmission lines. This reduces the corona
Answer: When 3 phase ac supply is given to stator of discharge loss and interference with the
communication lines nearby.
the induction motor rotating magnetic field will be
Corona Ring on Surge Arresters and other EHV
generated. This magnetic field (flux) cuts the
equipment
stationary conductors of the rotor of induction motor.
Have you ever seen a ring around the
Therefore an emf is induced by Faraday's law of Surge Arrester or other EHV equipment? What is the
electro-magentism. As the rotor conductors are short purpose of the Ring around the Extra High Voltage
circuited, current starts flowing in the windings of the (EHV) equipment? What is the use of big rings at
EHV testing centers?
rotor this produces a magnetic field. Due to Corona Ring:
interaction of both the magnetic fields a torque will be
Therefore for speed control either supply frequency

developed. If the torque generated is sufficient to

overcome the load torque rotor starts rotating.
Difference between Solid Conductor and Stranded
Conductor
Solid Conductor:
It consists of single piece of metal wire. It is cheap for
manufacturing.Skin effect is higher in solid
conductors as at higher frequencies current flow on
the surface of the conductors results in the increase in
the effective resistance. The main disadvantage of the
solid wire is its more rigid property. It cannot be bent
easily
Stranded Conductors:
Stranded wire consists of sub conductors touch each
other. It is costlier to manufacture compared to solid
wire. For the given current carrying capacity the size
of the stranded conductor is large compared to solid
wire. Different elements of strands can be wound
together to get the transmission line of desired
property (eg: ACSR conductor contains Aluminum
and Steel stands wound together). Proximity and skin
effect is reduced using stranded conductors.

This Metal Ring what we see in the substations and

other transmission line network is "Corona Ring". At
higher voltages such as in EHV transmission
networks corona discharge effect is prominent.
Corona Ring distributes the electrical potential
gradient evenly and maintains the maximum value
below the threshold limits of the corona effect.
Corona Rings are employed at high altitude electrical
equipment where density of the air is less.

Reactive Power and Active Power flow in Power

System
Bundled Conductors and Composite Conductors
Active Power:
Difference
The power that is generated in the power system
Composite Conductors:
which is utilised in useful work (running the motor,
In Composite conductors sub conductors touch each lighting and heating energy)
other. Composite conductors are typically stranded Reactive Power:
conductors. In Composite conductors different Reactive power is the power which will not do any
elements are used (In ACSR conductors aluminum useful work in the power system but helps the active
has the properties of light weight, good conductivity

power to flow. Without Reactive Power active power

will not able to flow in the system.
Different Power Flow In Power System:
Active power in the power system depends on the
power angle, means active power will flow in power
system from bus having leading voltage power angle
to lagging voltage power angle busbar. On the other
hand, reactive power flow from the high voltage bus
to low voltage bus in the power system, under this
condition reactive power generated in the line
(normally generated by alternator or shunt
capacitance) is more compared to the reactive power
absorbed (normally sink for reactive power will be
series inductance) at the receiving end.

P (active power ) and delta (power angle) are

closely coupled
Q (Reactive Power) and V (magnitude of the
voltage) are closely coupled

Hence it is understood that for the flow of reactive

power from one point to other in power system
difference in the voltage should exist. Active power
will flow in power system from leading power angle
to lagging power angle even the voltage
at receiving end is higher compared to sending end
(still active power flows).
Voltage and Frequency operating range (tolerance) of
Grid Supply in India
Frequency variation in the power system exists due to
the mismatch between the supply of power and
demand for the power. Voltage variations exist in the
power grid is due to the mismatch in the reactive
power between demand (MVAR) and available.
In spite of all these variations there is certain limit for
the operation limits (variations allowed) for voltage
and frequency parameters dictated by the Grid Code.
Any variations in the parameters (voltage and
frequency) below operating limits considered as
power grid is unhealthy and restoration steps will be
taken to make the power grid healthy.
In India according to Electricity Grid Code, the
operation variation in the frequency and voltage
allowed is given as below.
Frequency Operating variation limits:
49Hz to 50.5 Hz
Voltage operating variation limit:
Voltage Rating
Maximum Voltage
Minimum Voltage
400 kV
420 kV
360
kV
220 kV
245 kV
200
kV

132 kV
kV

145 kV

120

Islanding operation in Electrical Grid

Frequency and Voltage are two important parameters
which decides the healthiness of the electrical grid at
a particular instant of time.
Frequency fluctuations occur in the electrical grid
when there is mismatch between the amount of power
generation and amount of power demand. Both under
frequency and over frequency operation is harmful to
the operation of power system.
In electrical grid over frequency operation is a
rare phenomenon. Most of the cases we observe
frequency drop phenomenon due to lack of power
generation supporting the demand. Hence frequency
in the power system drops below the rated.
When the frequency tends to drop governor systems
connected to the Turbo-Generators in electrical grid
will act and allow more steam to flow to turbine
and increase the speed. However there is limitation
for this band. Beyond certain limit of operation if grid
frequency is drop Islanding operation is employed in
the grid.
Islanding Operation:
When the frequeny of the overall electrical grid is
declining below the rated at pre determined frequency
Ellectrical grid is divided into number of small
islands which contains some generation units and
load centers come out of the grid and operate together
until the normal frequency is restored. This method of
spliting the electrical grid in to small Islands is to
protect the healthy part of the grid.
Methods to Improve Transient Stability
Transient Stability:
Transient Stability is the ability of the power system
to maintain the synchronism after the sudden large
disturbance. These disturbances may be because of
the application of faults, clearing of faults, switching
ON and OFF surges in EHV system
Transient Stability Improvement methods:
Transient stability of the system can be
improved by increasing the system voltage.
Increase in the voltage profile of the system
implies increase in the power transfer
ability.This helps in increasing the difference
between initial load angle and critical
clearance angle. Hence increase in power
allows the machine to allows to rotate through
large angle before reaching critical clearance
angle.
Increase in the X/R ratio in the power system
increases the power limit of the line. Thus
helps to improve the stability

High speed circuit breakers helps to clear the

fault as quick as possible. The quicker the
breaker operates, the faster the fault cleared
and better the system restores to normal
operating conditions
By Turbine fast valving: One of the main
reason for the instability in the power system
is due to the excess energy supplied by the
turbine during the fault period. Fast Valving
helps in reducing the mechanical input power
when the generator is under acceleration
during the fault and hence improves the
stability of the system
Use of Auto Re-closing: Majority of the faults
in the power system will be momentary and
can be self cleared. Hence circuit breakers
employed for fault clearance opens in sensing
the fault with time delay of 2 cycles and recloses after particular time to determine
whether the fault is cleared.
Some of the other ways to improve
the transient stability
are
by
employing lightning arresters, high neutral
grounding impedance, single pole switching,
quick Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs).

Properties of Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) gas

Sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6) gas properties:
Heavy, chemically inert, non toxic
No poisonous effect on the human body but
decomposition products are poisonous
Color less and odor less
It is gaseous at normal room temperature and
pressure
Density is about 6.6g/l at 20oC (5 times denser
than air)
Critical temperature is at 45.6oC and can
be liquefied by compression
Very good insulant with high dielectric
strength
SF6 gas is electo-negitive ( tends to attract the
free electrons and has the
arc quenching property). Because of this main
reason SF6 gas is used for arc quenching and
insulation medium in circuit breakers.
The gas is highly stable
Unlike solid insulation materials, electrical
breakdown of sf6 gas does not result in
permanent deterioration of its properties
Decomposition occurs on the exposure to the
electric arc. (Disassociation products will be
SF2 and SF4 lower order fluorides)

When does Proportional (P) Integral (I) Derivative

(D) Controllers are Used
When Proportional (P) Controller is Used:
Proportional (P) Controller is used during the
following conditions:
Load Changes are small
Offset (error exist due to difference between
steady state value and desired value) can be
tolerated
The process reaction rate is such as to permit
a narrow proportional band. Since this reduces
the amount of the offset
When Integral (I) Controller is Used:
Integral (I) controller is used during:

When the offset must be eliminated

Integral saturation due to sustained deviation
is not objectionable
When Derivative (D) Controller is used:
Large transfer or distance velocity lags are
present
It is necessary to minimize the amount of
deviation caused by the system changes
When Proportional plus Integral (PI) Controller is
used:
Proportional and Integral action is employed when

System changes is small

Offset must be eliminated
No objection on the recovery duration
When Proportional and Derivative (PD) controller
is used:
PD action is employed when:

When the system changes are small

Improve the recovery time
When system lags are high
When Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID)
Controller is used:
PID controller is used when system requires:

System changes are small

Offset must be eliminated
Fast recovery time

What are the different auxiliary systems in thermal

power plant?
Answer: Coal handling and storage, coal pulverizers,
water treatment plant, steam boiler, Draught systems,

Ash Handling systems, Steam turbine, Circulation

water system, Electrical Systems, Control and
Instrumentation, Pollution Control equipment, and
Fire Protection System
What is the purpose of Pulverizers?

Electrical Switch-yard

What are the different Generator Protections

employed in Thermal Power Plants?
Answer: Faults in the windings, Over load protection,
Over heating of windings or bearings, Over speed

Answer: Pulverizers serve two purposes, to dry the protection, Loss of Excitation protection, Motoring
coal and to grind the coal. They crush the coal to size operation protection, Inadvertent energisation, single
of 74microns
What are different types of Pulverizers?
Answer: Different types of Pulverizers are:

phase or unbalanced current protection, out of step

operation protection, sub-synchronous oscillations
protection and earth fault protection
How Generator Transformer is cooled in Thermal
Power Plant?

Ball tube mill

Answer: MVA power rating of the Generator

Ring roll mill

Transformer will be equal to the alternator. Hence lot

Hammer mill

of heat will be generated while generator transformer

Attrition type mill

is under operation. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

What are different types of Steam boilers used in

Thermal Power Plants?

type of cooling is employed for generator transformer

What are different types of circuit breakers
employed in thermal power plant?

Answer: Different type of boiler used in thermal Answer: For

low
voltage
operation
power plants are:
415/220V vacuum circuit breakers or air break circuit

Fire tube boiler

Water tube boiler

Natural Circulation boiler

Forced Circulation boiler

Once through boiler

What is the largest pump in the thermal power plant?

breakers are employed. For voltage ratings about

6.6kV and beyond SF6 circuit breakers are employed.
What type of cooling is provided for Generator in
power plant?
Answer: Hydrogen gas cooling is employed for large
size generators because of better heat carrying ability
of the hydrogen. Hydrogen cooling is provided for
rotors and core of the generator. Water cooling is

Answer: In thermal power plant Boiler Feed Pump provided for the stator of the alternator.
Induction Machine Question and Answers:
(BFP) is the largest pump, it delivers the water to the
Why Induction Motor name has come?
boiler.
Answer: In Induction motor there is no electrical
What are the major electric systems in Thermal contact to the rotor. Electrical currents are induced in
Power Plant?
to the rotor circuit. Hence the name Induction motor
Answer: Major electrical equipment in thermal power
has come.
plant are

Turbine Generator

Exciter System

Generator Protection System

Generator Transformer

HT/LT switch gear

What happen when Induction motor run at

synchronous speed?
Answer: When

the

induction

motor

runs

at

synchronous speed, there will be no induced emf in to

the rotor circuits. Therefore no rotor currents and no

torque is developed. Hence Induction motor will OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:
come to halt.

Control System in which output quantity has no

effect on the input quantity is called Open
What are different types of Induction Motors
Loop Control System. Open Loop Control
available?
System has no facility to correct
Answer: Induction motors are of two types based on
automatically the error generated in the
output. From output of the system no
their construction
feedback is given back to the input for
Squirrel cage Induction motor (As the rotor
correction. In Open loop control system the
output can be varied by varying the input.
winding will be like cage)
But due the external disturbance system
Slip Ring Induction motor or wound rotor
output may change. Any variation in the
induction motor
output from the desired once again attained
What is the advantage of Slip Ring Induction
by varying the inputs manually.
Motor?
Answer: By providing external resistance to the rotor Advantages:
circuits during starting of the motor starting torque

Open loop system is simple and economical

can be improved and starting currents can be reduced

Construction of open loop system is easier

What is the advantage of Squirrel Cage Induction

Open loop systems are generally stable

Motor?
Answer: Low cost, rugged construction and less

Disadvantages:

unreliable

maintenance are the advantages of squirrel cage

induction motors

The changes in the outputs due to external

disturbance are not corrected automatically

What is the speed variation of the induction motor

from no load to full load?

Open loop systems are inaccurate and

Closed Loop Control System:

Answer: The decrement in the speed of the small Control system in which the output has an effect on
rating Induction Motor from no load to full load will the input quantity in such a manner that the input
be around 4 to 5 percent and 2 to 2.5 percent in the quantity will adjust itself based on the output
generated is called Closed loop Control System. Open
case of large size induction motors
loop control system can be modified in to closed loop
control system by providing a feedback. This
feedback automatically corrects the changes in the
output due to external disturbance. Hence closed loop
control system is called automatic control system.
Advantages:

Closed loop control systems are more accurate

even in the presence of non-linearities

The sensitivity of the system may be made

small to make the system more stable

The closed loop systems are less affected by

noise.

Disadvantages:

Closed loop control systems are costlier and

complex

The feedback in the closed loop system may

lead to oscillatory response

The feedback reduces the overall gain of the

system

Stability is the major problem in the closed

loop system and more care is needed to design
a stable closed loop system

Bundled conductors per phase reduces the

voltage gradient in the vicinity of the line.
Thus reduces the possibility of the corona
discharge. (Corona effect will be observed
when the air medium present between the
phases charged up and start to ionize and acts
as a conducting medium. This is avoided by
employing bundled conductors)
Improvement in the transmission efficiency as
loss due to corona effect is countered.
Bundled conductor lines will have higher
capacitance to neutral in comparison with
single lines. Thus they will
have higher charging currents which helps in
improving the power factor.
Bundled conductor lines will have higher
capacitance and lower inductance than
ordinary lines they will have higher Surge
Impedance Loading (Z=(L/C)1/2). Higher
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) will have
higher maximum power transfer ability.
With increase in self GMD or GMR
inductance per phase will be reduced
compared to single conductor line. This
results in lesser reactance per phase compared
to ordinary single line. Hence lesser loss due
to reactance drop.

Advantages of Bundled Conductors in Transmission

Lines
For transmission of more power for long distances to
load centers Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission
is employed. Implementing Extra High Voltage has
advantage of reduction in the copper losses and
improves efficiency. However transmission of voltage

beyond 300kV will poses some problems such as

Corona effect which causes significant power loss
and interference with communication circuits if round
single conductor per phase is used. In order to reduce
corona effect hollow round conductors are used.
Keeping economical constraints other option is
instead of using hallow round conductor it is High voltage Transmission Advantages and
preferable to use more than one conductor per phase disadvantages
which is called Bundled Conductors. For transmission
of power beyond 400kV bundled conductors are Advantages:
With increase in the transmission voltage size
employed.
of the conductors is reduced (Cross section of
the conductors reduce as current required to
carry reduces).
As the reduction in current carrying
requirement losses reduces results in better
efficiency
Due to low current voltage drop will be less
so voltage regulation improves
Limitations:
With the increase in the voltage of
transmission, the insulation required between
the conductors and the earthed tower
increases. This increase the cost of line
support
With increase in the voltage of transmission,
more clearance is required between
conductors and ground. Hence higher towers
Advantages of Bundled Conductors:
are required.
Bundled conductors are primarily employed to reduce
With increase in the voltage transmission,
the corona loss and radio interference. However they
more distance is required between the
have several advantages:

conductors. Therefore cross arms should be

long

Establishing minimum electrical clearances

What are the different electrical clearances in

What are the different substation components

Answer: Circuit Breakers, Disconnecting switches,

Substation?
Answer:

Grounding switches, Current Transformers, Potential Ground Clearance: This is the minimum distance
Transformers or Capacitor voltage Transformers, between any live conductor and the earth or ground.
Line Traps, Lightning Arrestors, Power Transformers,
Shunt Reactors, Current limiting reactors, Station Phase Clearance: It is the clearance between the
Buses and Insulators, Grounding system, Series different phases in a circuit or same phases in
capacitors and shunt capacitors.

different circuits

What are different types of busbar arrangement

Sectional Clearance: This is the minimum clearance

Schemes in Substations?

between the live conductor and the limits of work,

Answer: Different switching schemes or busbar where spacial clearance is related to the safety of the
operating personnel. The limits of work section may
arrangement scheme employed in switchyard are

Single Bus Scheme

Double bus single breaker scheme
Main and Transfer busbar scheme
Double bus single breaker scheme
Breaker and half scheme
Ring main bus scheme

Which type of bus arrangement is costlier and

more reliable?
Answer: One and half breaker scheme is most reliable

be ground or the platform on which the person is

working.
Why EHV busbars are hallowed and cicular?
Answer: To avoid corona effect
What are different Bus bar materials used in
Substation?
Answer: Busbars are generally made of copper and
Aluminum. Aluminim has the advantage of one third

and costlier scheme. In one and half breaker scheme 3 the weight of the copper and also Aluminum requires
circuit breakers are provided for 2 busbars. Hence the less maintenance and proper use of alloys provide
name is coined as One and half breaker shceme
For distribution network which type of Switching
scheme is employed?

necessary

rigidity

required

for

bus

material.

Aluminum is used widely in EHV and HV stations

What is the first equipment of the substation

Answer: For distribution network Ring Main busbar

connected to the incoming transmission

scheme is employed. It has the provision that if power

line?

interruption occurs to one bus section due to Answer: Lightning arrestor is the first equipment of
maintenance or fault, power can be fed the bus from the substation connecting the incoming transmission
other side of the power system.
Factors on which material of station busbar depends?

lines. It protects other substation equipment from

lightning and switching surges by suppressing them
to ground. Lightning arrestors also placed in the

Answer: Some of the factors on which station busbar substation between both the ends of major equipment
such as power transformers for protection.
depends are:

Current Carrying capacity

Short Circuit Stresses

Different Levels of SCADA?

Answer: Different levels are SCADA systems are:

1. Field level devices and instruments eg: sophisticated control and troubleshooting in PLC is
Sensors

easier.

2. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

3. Communication system present between the
RTUs and Main Station
4. Main Control Station or Master Station
5. Computer systems pertained to processing the
data for displaying to operator
Why SCADA systems are Implemented?
Answer: Some of the reasons or advantages why
SCADA systems are implemented are:
1. SCADA systems improves the performance of
the operation of the plant
2. SCADA systems provides better protection to
the equipment of the plant
3. SCADA

systems

improves productivity of

the personnel
4. Information receives very fast, process the
information and display it to opertor in graphs

Squirrel cage Induction motor Advantages,

Disadvantages and Applications
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:
Advantages:
Squirrel Cage Induction motors are cheaper in
cost compared to Slip Ring Induction motors.
Requires less maintenance and rugged
construction because of
the absence of slip
rings, brushes etc.
Squirrel Cage Induction Motors requires less
conductor material than slip ring motor, hence
copper losses in squirrel cage motors are less
results in higher efficiency compared to slip
ring induction motor
Squirrel cage motors are explosion proof due
to the absence of brushes slip rings and
brushes which eliminates the risks of
sparking.
Squirrel Cage motors are better cooled
compared to slip ring induction motors
Squirrel cage motors operate at nearly
constant speed, high over load capacity, and
operates at better power factor.

and plots. Hence helps the operator to take the

Disadvantages:

decisions fast.
5. Provides better energy savings and saves

economy.
What is the capacity of CPU of Remote Terminal
Unit (RTU)?
Answer: Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) contain
generally microprocessor having 16 bit or 32 bit (eg:
68302 or 80386)
What is the Power Supply provided to the RTU?
Answer: Remote

Terminal

Units

(RTUs)

are

operated from 110V/240V + or - 10% and 50Hz or

12/24/48V + or - 10% DC Voltage
What are advantages of PLCs over RTUs?
Answer: Advantages of

Programmable

Logic

Controllers (PLCs) are they can be used for general

purpose can easily set for verity of functions. Some of
the advantages of PLCs over RTUs are: PLCs are
reliable,

cheap,

flexible

compared

to

Main disadvantage of squirrel cage induction

motor is that they have poor starting torque
and high starting currents. Starting torque will
be in the order of 1.5 to 2 times the full load
torque and starting current is as high as 5 to 9
times the full load current. In slip ring
induction motors this can be reduced by
inserting resistance during the starting of the
machine and cutting down the resistance.
Squirrel cage induction motors are more
sensitive to the supply voltage fluctuations.
When the supply voltage is reduced machine
draws more current on the other hand when
the
voltage
increases
it
saturates
the magnetic components of the machine.
Speed control is not possible
The total energy loss during starting of
squirrel cage motor is more compared to slip
ring motors. This point is significant if the
application involves frequent starting

RTUs, Applications:

Squirrel Cage Induction Motors are widely used in

Industrial applications than slip ring induction motors
due to cheaper in cost, rugged in construction, low
maintenance. Squirrel Cage Induction Motors are
suitable for applications where the drive requires
constant speed, low starting torque and no speed
control drives.

machine and the nature of the load (capacitive,

Difference between Thermal and Nuclear Power

Plants
Thermal Power Plant:

power of the machine (VA). Also iron losses in

In Thermal Power Plant Reactor follows

Turbine. When load demand changes
governor
system
of
turbine
operates accordingly depends on load demand
by opening or closing steam value. Hence
more or less inputs are taken to boiler
according to the load demand.
Thermal Power Plants basically are peak load
plants. However due to lack of power
generation sources, thermal plants are forced
to operate as base load plants.

Hence they rate the transformer depends on the

maximum current carry and the voltage to be applied.
This rating of the transformer corresponds to apparent
transformer depends on the the voltage applied and
copper losses depends on the current flowing through
the winding. These losses are independent of the
power factor at which the transformer operates.
On the other hand induction motors are rated with
real power (Watts) as the machine operating at
defined

power

factor

at

full

load

is

pre determined. Eg: Consider a transformer can carry

maximum current of 50A and max voltage applied is
200V. Then
Power rating of the at full load (Unity power factor) =

Nuclear Power Plant:

resistive and inductive) connected to the machine.

50x200 = 10kW Power rating of the at full load (0.5

In Nuclear Plants after reactor shut down still

decay heat is produced due to the fission of
the daughter nuclei and gamma radiation.
Hence in nuclear power plant decay heat is to
be removed continuously even the reactor is
shutdown. Reactor cooling system must be
continuously operated.
In Nuclear Plants safety is prime criteria than
production of electricity
Nuclear Power Plants are base load plants
In Nuclear Plants Turbine follows reactor. No
variation of the turbine speed according to
load demand. This is designed in order to
avoid tripping of reactor.

Why Transformer rating is in KVA not kW

power factor)

= 50x200x0.5 = 5kW (This means

load having 0.5 power factor can connect maximum

of 5kW to the transformer. 5kW is the full load of the
transformer)
Mobile Substations Advantages and Applications
Mobile Substations are emergency power supply
substations employed temporarily to provide power
supply in the areas affected by the natural disasters
such as storms, cyclones and during wars. These
substations will have maximum rating of about
220kV.
Mobile Substation typically contains Trailer for unit,

Rating of Electrical Transformer is in VA

Distribution

Transformer,

Cooling

system

(Volt Amperes ) because:

for

Transformers, Switchgear equipment (relays, circuit

the breakers, isolators etc..)
transformer is determined by the thickness of the Advantages of Mobile Substation:
Mobility in service
conductor and Maximum voltage supplied to the
Maximum

current

carrying

capacity

of

winding depends on the insulation strength of the

Quick access for service

conductor

Less Maintenance cost

Manufacturers of Transformers and alternators does

Minimum Clearance for utilization

not know at what power factor the consumer uses the

Increase in Reliability

Maximum KVA with minimum height.

Application of Mobile Substations:

Mobile Substations are employed to provide

emergency power supply during natural

disasters and during wars

It also used to supply power when ordinary

conventional substation is under maintenance
or fault

It also employed for providing temporary load

supply to industrial plants, remote locations.

Factors affecting Size of Machine

Temperature and Machine size:
Size of any motor, Generator or Transformer
depends on the Temperature rise in the
machine. Temperature rise in the electrical
machine beyond the designed value will
damage the insulation of the motor.
Temperature rise in the electrical machine is
due to the heat generated due to losses.
Current flowing in the windings in the
machine generates heat. This generated heat
should be dissipated else it damages the
insulation of the motor.
For smaller rating motors, generators and
transformers natural cooling is sufficient.
However for larger rating machines heat
generated will be more, hence generated heat
should be removed with the help of coolents
such as water either by natural circulation or
forced circulation. Fans and blowers were also
used to remove the generated heat.In large
alternators hydrogen cooling is employed to
remove the generated heat
Low Voltage winding near core of the
Transformer
For
explaining
the
operation
of
the transformer Low voltage winding (LV
winding) and High voltage winding (HV
winding) are wound on different limbs of the
transformer for easy explanation. However in
practical each limbs of the core will have both
LV winding and HV winding wound
together.
In Transformer design LV winding will be
wound close to the core of the transformer
because the insulation provided between the
LV winding and core of the transformer is
quite less compared to the insulation provided
between the HV winding and the core of the
transformer which results in less cost for

insulation and reduction in the size of the

transformer for same MVA rating. Hence due
to this reason LV winding is placed near to
the core of the transformer.
On the core of the transformer insulation is
placed and LV winding is wound. Once again
insulation is placed between the LV winding
and HV winding.
Series and Shunt Reactors in Power system
Shunt Reactor are used for reactive
compensation:
During normal operation of an electrical
power system, the transmission and
distribution voltages must be maintained
within a small range, typically, from 0.95 to
1.05 pu of rated value. Due to the load
variations, shunt reactors and capacitors have
been applied in
power systems to compensate excess reactive
power (inductive for heavy load conditions,
and capacitive for light load conditions).
Shunt reactors are commonly
used to compensate the capacitive reactive
power of transmission and distribution
systems and thereby to keep the operating
voltages within admissible levels.
Series Reactor for limiting the fault
current.

DC component in Asymmetrical Short Circuit

Current ?
In symmetrical current the envelops of the
peaks of the current waves are symmetrical
with respect to zero axis. In asymmetrical
currents the envelops of the peaks of the
current waves are not symmetrical about the
zero axis. If we plot short circuit waveform in
oscillogram it appears that the short circuit
currents are nearly asymmetrical for the first
few cycles after the short circuit occurs and
this asymmetrical behavior is maximum at the
instant of the short circuit and then current
waveform gradually becomes symmetrical
after the few cycles of short circuit.
These asymmetrical alternating currents when
considered as a single wave is difficult to
interpret for circuit breaker applications and
relay settings purpose. Complex formulation
is involved for calculations of the circuit
breaker applications and relay settings
purpose. Hence this asymmetrical component
is resolved in to simple components consists
of (1) symmetrical ac component and (2) dc
component. The sum of these two components

at any instant is equal to the magnitude of the

total asymmetrical component of the ac wave.
DC component present is considered as offset
and the magnitude of this component depends
on the instant at which short circuit occur. It
varies from zero to maximum value which is
equal to peak of the asymmetrical component.
DC component have decaying nature with
respect to time after the short circuit occur and
dissipate as I2R loss in the circuit. The
decrement or rate of decay of the dc
component is proportional to the X/R ratio. If
the ratio of reactance to resistance is infinite
(zero resistance), dc component will never
decay. On the other hand if the reactance of a
line is zero, the decay takes place instantly.