CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Literature Review

2.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, as an unmanned aircraft
system (UAS), or by several other names, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. The flight
of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy: either under remote control by a human
operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously, by onboard computers.
Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions that are too "dull, dirty or
dangerous for humans. They originated mostly in military applications, although their use is
expanding in commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, and other applications, such as
policing and surveillance, aerial photography, agriculture and drone racing. Civilian drones now
vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015.
Multiple terms are used for unmanned aerial vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept.
The term drone, more widely used by the public, was coined in reference to the resemblance of
navigation and loud-and-regular motor sounds of old military unmanned aircraft to the male bee.
The term has encountered strong opposition from aviation professionals and government
regulators.
2.3 Types of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
There is no one standard when it comes to the classification of UAV. Defense agencies have their
own standard, and civilians have their ever-evolving loose categories for UAV. People classify
them by size, range and endurance, and use a tier system that is employed by the military. For
classification, according to size, one can come up with the following sub-classes:
2.3.1 Multi rotor
A multirotor is a rotorcraft with more than two rotors. An advantage of multirotor aircraft is the
simpler rotor mechanics required for flight control. Unlike single- and double-rotor helicopters
which use complex variable pitch rotors whose pitch varies as the blade rotates for flight stability
and control, multirotor often use fixed-pitch blades; control of vehicle motion is achieved by
varying the relative speed of each rotor to change the thrust and torque produced by each. Are
used in Aerial Photography and Video Aerial Inspection.
Advantage of Multi rotor

Accessibility
Ease of use
VTOL and hover flight
Good camera control
Can operate in a confined area

Disadvantage of Multi rotor

Short flight times
Small payload capacity

Figure 2.3.1 Multi rotor

2.3.2 Fixed Wing

A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft, such as an aero plane, which is capable of flight using wings
that generate lift caused by the vehicle's forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing
aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft, in which the wings form a rotor mounted on a
spinning shaft, and ornithopters, in which the wings flap in similar manner to a bird. Are used in
Aerial Mapping, Pipeline and Power line inspection.
Advantage of Fixed Wing

Long endurance
Large area coverage
Fast flight speed
Disadvantage of Fixed Wing
Launch and recovery needs a lot of space
no VTOL/hover
Harder to fly, more training needed
Expensive

Figure 2.3.2 Fixed Wing

2.3.3 Single Rotor

A single-rotor helicopter has the benefit of much greater efficiency over a multi-rotor, and also
that they can be powered by a gas motor for even longer endurance. It is a general rule of
aerodynamics that the larger the rotor blade is and the slower it spins, the more efficient it is.
This is why a quad-copter is more efficient than an octo-copter, and special long-endurance
quads have a large prop diameter. A single-rotor heli allows for very long blades which are more
like a spinning wing than a propeller, giving great efficiency. Are used in Aerial LIDAR laser
scanning.
Advantage of Single Rotor

VTOL and hover flight

Long endurance (with gas power)
Heavier payload capability
Disadvantage of Single Rotor

More dangerous
Harder to fly, more training needed
Expensive

Figure 2.3.4 Single Rotor

2.3.5 Hybrid VTOL(Vertical Take-Off and Landing)
Fixed-wing UAVs with the ability to hover is a new category of hybrids which can also take off
and land vertically. Many of these configurations were tried in the 1950s and 60s for manned
aircraft, but they proved too complex and difficult to fly, with some disastrous results. With the
arrival of modern autopilots, gyros and accelerometers, suddenly these whacky types are feasible
because the autopilot can do all the hard work of keeping them stable, leaving the human pilot
the easier task of guiding them around the sky. Are used in Drone Delivery.
Advantage of Hybrid VTOL

VTOL and long-endurance flight

Disadvantage of Hybrid VTOL

Not perfect at either hovering or forward flight

Still in development

Figure 2.3.5 Hybrid VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing)

2.4 Configuration of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

2.4.1 Quad Rotor Configuration
A quadcopter has 4 motors mounted on a symmetric frame, each arm is typically 90 degree apart
for the X4 config. Two motors rotate CW (clockwise), and the other two rotate CCW (counter
clockwise) to create opposite force to stay balance. Quadcopter is the most popular multirotor
configuration, with the simplest mechanical structure.

Figure 2.4.1 Quad Rotor Configuration

2.4.2 Hexa Rotor Configuration
The hexacopter has 6 motors mounted typically 60 degree apart on a symmetric frame, with three
sets of CW and CCW motors/propellers. Hexacopters are very similar to the quadcopters, but
they provide more lifting capacity with the extra motors. There is also improvement in
redundancy: if one motor fails, the aircraft can still remain stable enough for a safe landing. The
downside is that they tend to be larger in size and more expensive to build.

Figure 2.4.2 Hexa Rotor Configuration

2.4.3 Octo Rotor Configuration

A typical octocopter has 8 motors on the same level with four sets of CW and CCW propellers.
Octocopters are similar to quadcopters and hexacopters. Its like an upgrade version of the
hexacopter with even more lifting capacity and redundancy. However the large number of
motors means they draw more current, and you will probably need to carry multiple
battery packs. Also its going to be expensive .They are very popular as aerial photography
platforms and carrying heavy, professional filming gears.

Figure 2.4.3 Octo Rotor Configuration

2.4.4 X8 Rotor Configuration

An X8 octocopter uses 8 motors that are mounted on four arms, on an X shaped frame with
four sets of CW and CCW props.

Figure 2.4.4 X8 Rotor Configuration

2.4.5 Y8 Rotor Configuration

An Y8 octocopter uses 8 motors that are mounted on eight arms, on an Y shaped frame with
four sets of CW and CCW props.

Figure 2.4.5 Y8 Rotor Configuration

2.6 Mechanism of Flying

An advantage of quadrotor over a traditional helicopter is fixed rotor propulsion mode, which
uses rapidly spinning rotors to push air downwards thus creating a thrust force keeping the
helicopter aloft. Helicopter configurations require complicated machinery to control the
direction of the motion for which a swashplate is used to change the angle of attack on the main
rotor. The complicated design of the rotor and swashplate mechanism presents some problems,
increasing construction costs and design complexity.
In case of quadrotors the controlling is quite different and also difficult as in helicopter, but
interesting problem which has six degrees of freedom (three translational and three rotational)
shown in Figure 2.6. It has four independent inputs (rotor speeds), and in order to achieve the
six degrees of freedom, rotational and translational motions are coupled (19). To remain stable
in its position while flying it should have its own damping because it has very little friction.
Each rotor is aligned such that, to have opposite two rotors in one direction and other two in
opposite direction. This movement cause the torque from each rotor to cancel by the
corresponding motor rotating in opposite direction (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14 Flight dynamics

Let us consider the quadrotor moving in counter clockwise from the front propeller and F i be
the force of each rotors, where i= 1,2,3 and 4 respectively as shown in Figure 2.14, such that
the rotors F1 and F3 rotate in counter-clockwise and F2 and F4 rotate in clockwise. As mentioned
earlier to perform the stationary hover, all the four rotors rotate at the same rate and the total
thrust of the craft is equal to its mass, m (21). The total thrust can be represented by u=
F1+F2+F3+F4 and Fi is the force of rotor i. Yawing, moving left and right, pitching and rolling is
shown in Table 2.1,

S. No Movement

Description

Result

1.

Yaw movement F1 and F3 are sped up Net torque on the craft is

Counterclockwise inversely proportional to F2 negative and it will yaw while
and F4.
remaining in same altitude.

2.

Upwards
downwards

3.

Yaw movement Clockwise

F2 and F4 must increase Net torque on the craft is

proportionally to F1 and F3 negative and it will yaw while
decrease.
remaining in same altitude.

4.

Roll to left

Decreasing the speed of F2 Roll towards left is achieved,

and increasing the speed of
Note: Both the decreasing and
increasing should be done at the
F4
same rate, to maintain the zero
net torque.

5.

Roll to right

Increasing the speed of F2 Roll towards right is achieved.

and decreasing the speed of
F4

6.

Pitching forward

Decreasing the speed of F1 Pitch towards left is achieved.

and increasing the speed of
F3

7.

Pitching to right

Increasing the speed of F1 Pitch towards right is achieved.

and decreasing the speed of
F3

and F1 and F3 do not increase Craft will move in z-direction,

proportionally to F2 and F4 because the net thrust will be no
decreasing.
longer equal to zero.

Table 2.1 Dynamics of the quad-rotor

Figure 2.15 Quadrotor dynamics.

2.3 Parts of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are made with different parts with respect to the need of the designer
to meet the demands. The necessary parts of the UAV are as follows;
2.3.1 Frame
Every quadcopter or other multirotor aircraft needs a frame to house all the other components.
Things to consider here are weight, size, and materials. We recommend the DJI Flame Wheel
F450 or one of the many clones. These are great quadcopter frames. Check out our review of the
Flame Wheel F450 here. Theyre strong, light, and have a sensible configuration including a
built-in power distribution board (PDB) that allows for a clean and easy build. There are also a
ton of spare parts and accessories available from many different websites. There are also a ton of
clones out there, most of which include the same built-in PDB and durable construction as the
original. Parts and accessories are 100% compatible and interchangeable.

Figure 2.3.1 Frame of quadrotors

2.3.2 Motors
The motors have an obvious purpose: to spin the propellers. There are tons of motors on the
market suitable for quadcopters, and usually you dont want to get the absolute cheapest motors
available, but you also dont want to break the bank when some reasonably priced motors will
suffice. Motors are rated by kilovolts, and the higher the kV rating, the faster the motor spins at a
constant voltage. When purchasing motors, most websites will indicate how many amps the ESC
you pair it with should be and the size of propeller you should use.

Figure 2.3.2 Motor for quadrotor

2.3.3 Electronic Speed Controls
The electronic speed control, or ESC, is what tells the motors how fast to spin at any given time.
You need four ESCs for a quadcopter, one connected to each motor. The ESCs are then
connected directly to the battery through either a wiring harness or power distribution board.
Many ESCs come with a built-in battery eliminator circuit (BEC), which allows you to power
things like your flight control board and radio receiver without connecting them directly to the
battery. Because the motors on a quadcopter must all spin at precise speeds to achieve accurate
flight, the ESC is very important. These days if you are building a quadcopter or other multirotor,
it is pretty much standard to use ESCs that have the SimonK firmware on them. This firmware
changes the refresh rate of the ESC so the motors get many more instructions per second from

the ESC, thus have greater control over the quadcopters behavior. Many companies sell ESCs
that have the SimonK firmware already installed.

Figure 2.3.3 Electronic Speed Controller

2.3.4 Flight Controller
The flight control board is the brain of the quadcopter. It houses the sensors such as gyroscopes
and accelerometers that determine how fast each of the quadcopters motors spin. Flight control
boards range from simple to highly complex. A great flight control board for first time
quadcopter builders is the Hobby King KK2.0. It is affordable, easy to set up, and has strong
functionality. It can handle just about any type of multirotor aircraft so if you later want to
upgrade to a hexacopter or experiment with a tricopter, you wont need to purchase another
board. Update: There is a newer version of the KK flight control board the KK2.1.5

Figure 3.3.4 Flight Controller

2.3.5 Radio Transmitter and Receiver
The radio transmitter and receiver allow you to control the quadcopter. There are many suitable
models available, but you will need at least four channels for a basic quadcopter with the KK2.0
control board. We recommend using a radio with 8 channels, so there is more flexibility for later
projects that may require more channels. The Turnigy 9x is a great choice for a first radio. Its
inexpensive yet still has some advanced functionality. There is also a large community of 9x
users out there, so troubleshooting is easier. Chances are any problem you have has been
experienced and solved before, or someone on a forum like rcgroups will be able to help you out.
Update: there is a newer model of this radio out the Turnigy 9xR Pro

Figure 2.3.5 Radio Transmitter and Receiver

2.3.6 Propellers
A quadcopter has four propellers, two normal propellers that spin counter-clockwise, and two
pusher propellers that spin clockwise. The pusher propellers will usually be labeled with an R
after the size. For the quadcopter configuration in this post, were using 94.7 props. This is a
good size for the motors and ESCs were using. Propellers are available at a lot of websites.

Figure 2.3.6 Propellers

2.3.6 Battery
Quadcopters typically use LiPo batteries which come in a variety of sizes and configurations. We
typically use 3S1P batteries, which indicates 3 cells in parallel. Each cell is 3.7 volts, so this
battery is rated at 11.1 volts. LiPo batteries also have a C rating and a power rating in mAh
(which stands for milliamps per hour). The C rating describes the rate at which power can be
drawn from the battery, and the power rating describes how much power the battery can supply.
Larger batteries weigh more so there is always a tradeoff between flight duration and total
weight. A general rule of thumb is that doubling the battery power will get you 50% more flight
time, assuming your quadcopter can lift the additional weight. For this quadcopter.

Figure 2.3.6 Battery

2.3.7 Battery Charger

Charging LiPos is a complex process, because there are usually multiple cells within the battery
that must be charged and discharged at the same rate. Therefore, you must have a balance
charger. There are many chargers on the market that will do the job, but be careful of cheap or
off-brand chargers as many of them have faulty components and can cause explosions or fires. In
general, you should absolutely never leave LiPo batteries charging unattended. Many people
charge batteries outside on a cement area or in a fireproof LiPo bag (although the effectiveness
of these is up for debate). We recommend the IMAX B6 AC Balance Charger. It is affordable but
reliable. Be wary of knock-offs.

Figure 2.3.7 Battery Charger

2.3.8 Video system
Camera or video setup is an optional part of a quadrotor. Todays development in video
technology has brought camera, as an important part of a quadrotor. The quality of the systems
is based on the quality of the video transmitter and the image quality of the goggles or monitor
display. Quads used commercially have FPV (First Person View) camera as shown in Figure
2.12, which uses its own quad power. But military or heavy clearance area quadrotors uses
intelligent cameras which uses separate power box for operating systems.

Figure 2.3.9 FPV Camera's (Google search on Sony FPV cams)

2.4 Technical limitations of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

The first limitation of is in their flying time. You can expect between eight and 15 minutes in the
air before the battery needs changing.
Operators usually carry plenty of batteries and will probably look for ways of charging them on
location too. Drone batteries use lithium polymer technology which allows considerable energy
to be stored in a small package. But they are associated with fire risk and have been known to
spontaneously catch fire while charging or if punctured. Most airlines restrict the numbers of
batteries on board. Check with your airline for their policy on transporting batteries. It is
recommended never to leave them unattended while charging, and to transport and store them in
a fireproof box.
Most Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) have a maximum speed of 30mph, which
restricts their use to weather with wind speeds of less than 20mph. It is not recommended to fly
drones in rain, snow, or even in drizzle. Apart from any physical effects on the aircraft, there is a
danger the electronics will be damaged, and communication between the controller and the drone
can be affected when there is any kind of precipitation in the air.
Manufacturers may claim the controller can communicate with the aircraft up to 1km distance,
but your effective operating distance will be less than that - because of the requirement for line of
sight to the drone, because legal maximum distances are lower (see legal section) and, on
occasion, because communication with the drone may be compromised by the presence of
signals from mobile phone masts or towers.
Cold temperatures reduce battery life and give shorter flying times.
Altitude can be a factor: the thin air in the mountains means that special rotors are needed and
battery life is reduced.
Finally, The conditions that may be unusually hot or cold for a certain amount of time; and their
eyes will often need protection if the work consists of close watching of a UVA in the distance in
very sunny conditions.

REFFERENCE

[1] Quad Rotorcraft Control: Vision-Based Hovering and Navigation

Luis Rodolfo Garca Carrillo, Alejandro Enrique Dzul Lpez, Rogelio Lozano, Claude Pgard
Springer Science & Business Media, 12 Aug 2012 - Technology & Engineering