321 321-1 RECTIFIER-BASED ac METERS Most ofthe ac-reading meters that you will encounter will be ofthe rectifier type. Rectifica- tion s the process of converting a bidirectional ac waveform into a unidirectional waveform, that can be read on a de meter. Ina rectifier-type ac meter, the indicating instrument is a de meter, but there is a rectifier between the de meter and the ac waveform being measured Rectification ‘The mechanism for achieving rectification is the ordinary solid-state diode device (Fig. 3~ 19(a)] connected in series with the ac path. One attribute ofthe diode is that it passes current only in one direction. When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the device is forward biased, and current will flow. Conversely, when the anode is negative with respect to the cathode, the device is reverse biased, and no current flows, These relationships are shown in Fig, 3-19(b) where the upper waveform is the applied sine wave and the lower ‘waveform is the rectified output waveform. It can be seen from the rectified waveform that f-waves were cut off. For this reason, the process is called half-wave rectification, and the resulting waveform is called pulsating de. In the ideal half-wave rectified waveform, where we can neglect the voltage drop across D1 due to internal resistance and junction potential, the peak voltage E, is the same as for the sine wave, or 1.414E;ms. The average voltage, however, is approximately equal to 0.45E jms, OF 0.318E,. This relationship can be seen in Fig. 3-19(c) where the average voltage is found where the shaded regions (A and B) are equal to each other, This occurs at the point equal to one-half the half-wave average voltage (0.637 p/?, or 0.318Ep). ‘The half-wave rectified waveform may be unidirectional, but itis far from pure de and thus will not be usable on many forms of de meter movement. A measure of the departure of the waveform from pure de (which would be represented by a horizontal Line) is given by the ripple factor ("). which for half-wave sine waves is 121%. Pulsating de half-wave rectified waveforms can be smoothed somewhat (i... made closer to pure de) by using aripple filter, This circuit is shown in Fig. 3-20(a). Note that the output C1. The simplified explanation of how the ripple filter works is that it stores charge as the pulsating de waveform is increasing, and then dumps the charge into the circuit as the voltage decreases. The dumped charge fills in some of the space, as shown by the shaded area in Fig. 3-20(b). Asa result, the combined waveform ofthe pulsating de and the charge dumped from the eapacitor{the heavy line in Fig, 3-20(b)] has considerably less ripple than the original waveform, even though it is not pure de. The value of the capacitor affects the ripple factor, with a high value producing less ripple than a lower value. Although not perfect, as 2 practical matter, the filtered pulsating de waveform can be used for some ac ‘meter applications. However itis also true that the use of afull-wave pulsating de waveform is even better. ‘The half-wave rectified waveform ignores one-half of the overall ac cycle, resulting in a value of T of 121%. Full-wave rectification, on the other hand, reduces ripple factor to 48%. The lower ripple factor makes full-wave rectified pulsating de easier to filter and(A) SBT OV he WA |) Ay lh 0 (Wy) UAL AU ai OGY IOI OG; (UG AG well ne,(a) Circuit for ripple filter, (b) “brute force” ripple easier o measur in practical crits, especially in analog meter eres. Figure 3-2(a) shows the ae waveform along wit the fll-nave rectified waveform. Note that te negative halves ofthe wave appear to be “fippd up” to become positive Although there are several forms of fll-wave rectifiers, the one most commonly found inelectronic instrumentation cass isthe bridge rectifier of Fig, 3-21(b). Thiscircuit uses, group of four diodes aranged ina bridge circuit across the ac generator or source. Let petiod I be the positive half-cyleof the input ac waveform, and period Il be the negative half-cyce [see again Fig. 3-21) In pase the polarity ofthe generators such that diodes D1 and Dae forward biased, bile D3 and Dd are reves biased. Curent, owrng from negative to positive, flows out the generator, though D2, through load resistor R (note the flow direction!), through D1, and then back to the top of the generator. ‘Whenthe cycle reverses, nakingthe top ofthe generatornegativeznd the bottom postive, the opposite situation occurs: diodes DI and D2 are reverse biased while D3 and Dé are forward biased. Inthis case current flows out the top ofthe generator, through D3, through Joad resistor R (again, note low direction), through D4, and then back tothe generator at fits hattorfall-wave rectified waveform in Fig. 3-21(a) Although the average over the entre ac waveform is ero (assuming positivenegative symmetry), the average ofthe ful-vaverecifed wave is nonzero, The average potential (or curtent) occurs at ihe pont where shaded zones A and B in Fig. 3+21(c) ae equal. (eal Delete Minenens in septs veered T=Postvehalicyele I= Negative half-syele ® @ FIGURE 321 (a) Full-wave rectification, (b) bridge restr circuit, (c) average Values the vokage at which area A =area B,}21-2 Fora pure sine wave, this situation is such thal Eyy = 0.637Ep = 0.9Epq. Because the half-wave symmetry of the ac waveform is not affected by full-wave rectification, the peak voltage ofthe full-wave rectified waveform remains a | 414E my. [GreMenD OF EIeCtrUNIE SUMEMaNON ANG MeaDUTEACTR Rectifier Cireuits for nc Meters ‘When a rectified sc waveform is applied to te de (d*Arsonval or tau-band) meter move- ments, the meter deflection will be proportional to either the average or the peak values of the waveform, depending onthe type of rectifier used, We will consider four diferent cir cuits: half-wave average-reading half-wave peak-reading,ful-wave average-reading, and full-vave peak-reading, The principal difference betwesn average reading and peak reading instruments the presence of ripple ite capacitor across the output ofthe rectifier. ‘Theiler endsto integrate the waveform, producing a reading much closerto the peak value than tothe average value Figure 3-22() shows an average-reading half-wave rectifier instrument. Although sev- cal variations on this circuit exis, this circuit is quite widely used because fis simplicity. ‘There is single rectifier diode in series with the signal path tothe lad, Resistor isena ipa a oO a ha ag bitde and ae Defletion Meter Movements 5 tolimit the eurrent through meter M 1,and R | effectively converts it from a current-reading instrument (o a vollage-reading instrument. ‘The circuit of Fig. 3-22(a) could be converted into a peak-reading circuit hy connecting a filter capacitor across the series combination of RI and M |, 2s shown in Fig. 3-21 (b). Another peak-reading circuit is shown in Fig. 3-22(c); this cirevit is a half-wave voltage doubler, and its output isa filtered pulsating de with an average value that is close to the peak value of the unfiltered pulsating de waveform, Full-wave rectifier circuits are shown in Figs, 3-23(a) through 3-23(c). Two different, bbutrelated, approaches are shown in these figures: the circuit of Fig. 3-21(2) uses a curent meter indicator, while Figures 3-23(b) and 3-23(c) usea voltmeter indicator. Keepin mind,FIGURE 3.23, Fullovave reser circuits using a) a curent meter indicator, (b) and (c) a voleter indicator 3-21-3 however, thatad’ Arsonval ortaut-band voltmeter ismothing but a current meter witha series resistor. ‘The circuit in Fig. 3-23(a) isan average-reading full-wave rectified instrument because the output ofthe rectifier is applied directly to the meter without regard for filtering. For peak-reading measurements, the circuit of Fig. 3-23(c) might be preferred because it has a Fipple fier capacitor across the cad and meter circuit Effects of Waveform on Meter Readings Most ac meters are designed to display the rms value ofthe curent or voltage being mes sured. Because the instrument measures either peak or average values, depending on the rectifier, acomection factor mastbe applied, and that correction factor tends tobe usable only on sine waves. Foran average-readng instrument, the form factor (A) i222 for half-wave rectification and 1.11 for full-wave rectiiation. The scale will read A Bay Unfortunately, changes with the ac waveform, so such a meter is useful ony forthe waveform for which it was ealibrted (usually a sine wave) unless a corteetion factor is mentally added to or subtracted from the displayed reading. Figures 3-24(a) and 3-24(b) show two common waveforms: a unipolar square wave and a bipolar triangle wave. The sverage and ms values of the unipolar square wave [Fig. 3-24(a)] are equal teach otherEy =F; (3-22) 2 Forthe tangle waveform (Fg. 3-24()}, the average and rms values ae nt equal 0 each ot, The average value Ey is, while the ms value is EL Eras = {@ (3-23) Other factors that affect the indicated value are symmetry of the input waveform across. the zero baseline (js there a de offset component presen?) and harmonic content of the waveform. © EyeE gg @E 0 FIGURE 3-24 (2) Unipolar square wave, (6) bipolar triangle wavedcand ac Deflection Meter Movements 1 FIGURE 3435 +, Esvsof cue for 4 standard semiconductor rectifier diode. Linear region wap------- il Nonlinear region «1 4, E, 7 t Y -, ‘meters UME SOHE SHON HH SEL 9.21.2 LES Ime alm 2-29) sUEUINED EAU 4 turnover effect; that i, they indicte a different value when the (+) and () leads are swapped. This problem is especially severe when the input ar waveform exhibits a lack of zero baseline symmetry Theeffect of waveform onthe reading depends somewhat on how thereciferis operated, Figure 3-25 shows the £-vs.-1 curvefora standard semiconductor rectifier diode, When the diode is reverse biased (— Ex region), only asm leakage current (—/;) flows, which in an ‘ideal diode wouldbe zero, Astheapplied voltage goesinto the forward-biased region, +E, the forward curent begins to riseatanonfinear ate that is approximately equal tothe square ofthe applied voltage. Rectifiers operated in this low-voltage region are considered square law deviess. Above some critical potential £ however, the device enters a more linear ‘hme region where te forward currents dretly proportional tothe applied voltage. For silicon diodes, Ey is approximately 0.6 100.7 V. considerable number of waveform anomalies affect the indicated value of an ac <= tfler meter. Table 3-2 shows some of these effects. From the table it appears that, forFullWave —Half-Wave Ettet ‘SquareLaw — SquareLav Linear Peak Readi Turnover effect No Yes No Yes Phase of harmonics affect reading No Yes Yes Yes Effect of 2nd harmonic (%) ul 6047 Ow 10 1510450 Effect of rd harmonic () nt Bs =Ww+l6 — -Bto450 TABLE 3-2 Etfeet of waveform anomalies on ac mete readings. Elements of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement FIGURE +26 RL tmsto-de convener. Bip = 100 av ‘Ml indicates £2 most applications, the full-wave square law meter is the best and most consistent when sonsinusoidal ac input waveforms are being measured. Ths situation may require a voltage divider network on higher scales to prevent the recifir diodes frombeing operated atapoint outside the square aw region of the device. It also suggests that peak-reading instruments‘measurements and RF power measurements inthe single-sideband mode are examples). 3214 ‘True rms-Reading Rectifier Instruments ‘A meter that reads the true mms value of an ac waveform (instead of merely adjusting the scale according to the form factor A to indicate Ems) will take into account most ofthe ‘anomalies discussed above. Rectifier instruments are inhereatly either average-reading or peak-reading devices, depending on the rectifier types, However, the use ofa circuit called ‘an rms-to-de converter (Fig. 3+26) will produce a dc output voltage that is equivalent to the rms value of the input waveform. These circuits were once quite expensive and ‘complex, but in modem integrated circuit form they have become quite simple from the external perspective. 3114 ‘True rms-Reading Rectifier Instruments Anmeter that reads the true rms value of an ac waveform (instead of merely adjusting the scale according to the form factor A to indicate Erms) will take into account most of the anomalies discussed above. Rectifier instruments are inherently either average-reading or peak-reading devices, depending on the rectifier types. However, the use of acircuit called an rms-to-de converter (Fig. 3-26) will produce a dc output voltage that is equivalent to the rms value of the input waveform. ‘These circuits were once quite expensive and complex, bul in modern integrated circuit form they have become quite simple from the external perspective, 322 OTHER ac-READING INSTRUMENTS Alternating current values can also be measured on the oscilloscope (see Chapter 8), on the audio voltmeter, and on electronic multimeters. The cathode ray oscilloscope is discussed in detail in Chapter 8, so we will not discuss it here except to state that is allows the user not only to determine the peak and peak-to- peak values of the applied waveform but also to evaluate the wave shape and the period of the waveform. Many oscilloscopes today are equipped with built-in digital voltmeters (see Chapter 7), so they can provide numerical readouts of the peak, peak-to-peak, rms, and average voltage values, as well as period and frequency information. Some models have separate displays forthe numerical data, while others print it right on the CRT with the wave shape. The audio voltmeter is a rectifier or IC rms module instrument that is preceded by a ‘wideband amplifier. This amplifier greatly increases the sensitivity ofthe meter, allowing signal levels as low as ~ 100 dBm to be measured. (Vote: 0 dBm is defined as 1 mW of $1000 sianal dissinated in a 600-00 resistive lady,Electronic mulimetersareinstruments that contandc volage-,crectcumert a voltage, and sitance-mesuring capability ina single case, with acommon display er meter move- ment, These instruments today ae alos entirely digtl in operation and are covered in Chapter7, Earlier fomus of electronic mulimeters include devices that are essentially volt- hm-miliammeters (VOMs) wih 2 field effect transistor (FET) ampliir in the font end anda balanced ciferetial amplifier o dive the meter ovement, Aswitshabefequency= Compensated, input voltage divider network wes used to rece higher-level input vollages Ov current tothe native bse range ofthe instrument,