Angelyka J.

Cabalo

2APH 2016-2017

CHAPTER 10 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
- allow cells to communicate with
each other to regulate body
activities
- by a gland (specialize in secretion)
TYPES :
~ Autocrine
- influences the activity of the same
cell or cell type from which it is
secreted
- Eicosanoids
~ Paracrine
- secreted into extracellular fluid and
act locally on nearby cells
- Somatostatin, histamine and
eicosanoids
~ Neurotransmitters
- secreted by neurons that activate
an adjacent cell
- ACh and epinephrine
~ Endocrine
- secreted into the blood
- affect cells that are different from
their source
FUNCTIONS :
~ Metabolism
~ Control of food intake and digestion
~ Tissue development
~ Ion regulation
~ Water balance
~ Heart rate and blood pressure
regulation
~ Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients
~ Control of reproductive functions
~ Uterine contraction and milk
release
~ Immune system regulation
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- composed of endocrine glands and
specialized endocrine cells
- secrete minute amounts of
chemical messengers / HORMONES
into the bloodstream
- study : ENDOCRINOLOGY
*exocrine glands have ducts that carry
their secretions to the outside of the
body or into a hollow organ
HORMONES
- regulate almost every physiological
process in our body
- metabolism is based on its
transport in the blood, interaction
with its target and its removal from
the body

are destroyed either in the

circulation or at their target cells
- binds to receptors
- SPECIFICITY : tendency for each
type of hormone to bind to one
type of receptor
CHEMICAL NATURE :
~ Lipid-Soluble
- Nonpolar
-

Small size
Low solubility in aqueous fluids
Attached to a binding protein so
they wont quickly diffuse out of
the capillaries and wont be
degraded by enzymes of the liver
and lungs
- Lifespan : few days to as long as
several weeks
- Can be metabolized by hydrolytic
enzymes (free lipid soluble
hormones)
~ Water-Soluble
- polar
- can dissolve in blood
- many circulate as free hormones
- w/o binding protein
- they are quite large and do not
diffuse through the walls of the
capillaries
- have relatively short half-lives and
are rapidly degraded by enzymes
(proteases)
STIMULATION :
~ Humoral Stimuli
- blood-bourne chemicals can
directly stimulate the release of
some hormones
- they circulate in the blood
- are sensitive to the blood levels of
a particular substance
- when the blood level of a particular
chemical changes, the hormone is
released in response to the
chemicals concentration
~ Neural Stimuli
- neurotransmitters stimulates the
cells to increase hormone secretion
- some neurons secrete chemical
messengers directly into the blood
(neuropeptides)
- RELEASING HORMONES :
specialized neuropeptides
stimulate hormone secretion from
other endocrine cells
~ Hormonal Stimuli
- when a hormone is secreted that in
turn stimulates the secretion of
other hormones

TROPIC HORMONES : hormones

from the anterior pituitary gland
INHIBITION :
~ Humoral Stimuli
- the companion hormones effects
oppose those of the secreted
hormone and counteract the
secreted hormones action
~ Neural Stimuli
- neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the
target endocrine gland does not
secrete its hormone
~ Hormonal Stimuli
- some hormones prevent the
secretion of other hormones :
INHIBITING HORMONES
REGULATION :
~ Negative feedback
- the hormones secretion is inhibited
by the hormone itself once blood
levels reached a certain point
- self-limiting system

~ Positive feedback
- this stimulates further secretion of
the original hormone
- self-propagating system
CLASSES OF RECEPTORS : (Figure 10.7
and 10.8)
~ Nuclear receptors
- for lipid-soluble hormones
- the hormone receptor complex
interacts with DNA
- Thyroid and steroid hormones
- HORMONE RESPONSE ELEMENTS :
specific nucleotide sequences in
the DNA
- TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR :
combination of the hormone and its
receptor
~ Membrane-bound receptors (Figure
10.9 and 10.10)
- for water-soluble hormones
- these are proteins that extend
across the plasma membrane and
have peptide chains
- proteins, peptides, amino acid
derivatives, epinephrine,
norepinephrine
- SECOND MESSENGERS : chemical
produced inside a cell once a
hormone or another chemical
messenger binds to certain
membrane-bound receptors
(second messenger system)

G PROTEINS (alpha, beta, gamma) :

inactive state GDP and active state
GTP binds to alpha subunit
- ADENYLATE CYCLASE : enzyme that
converts ATP to cAMP
- PROTEIN KINASES : regulate
activity of other enzymes
- PHOSPHODIESTERASE : breaks
down cAMP to AMP
- CASCADE EFFECT
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONES (Table 10.2)
PITUITARY GLAND
- hypophysis
- rests in the depression of the
sphenoid bone
- ANTERIOR : embryonic oral cavity
- POSTERIOR : extension of the brain
and composed of nerve cells
- Was known as the bodys master
gland
ANTERIOR
~ Growth Hormone (GH)
- stimulates growth of bones &
muscles
- increasing gene expression
- resists protein breakdown
- pituitary dwarf / giantism /
acromegaly
- influenced by insulin-like growth
factors / somatomedins
~ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- causes cells to secrete thyroid
hormone
- too much or too little secretion
causes enlargement of the thyroid
gland
~ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH)
- increases the secretion of cortisol /
hydrocortisone
~
-

~
-

too much secretion causes

darkening of the skin
Luteinizing Hormones (LH)
causes the ovulation of oocytes
secretion of sex hormones
estrogen, progesterone and
testosterone (ICSH)
Follicle-Stimulating Hormones (FSH)
- development of follicles in the
ovaries and sperm cells in the
testes
Prolactin
promote development of the breast
during pregnancy and stimulates
production of milk
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
(MSH)

- to synthesize melanin
POSTERIOR
~ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- increases water reabsorption by
kidney tubules
- less water lost as urine
- can also cause blood vessels to
constrict
- VASOPRESSIN
- DIABETES INSIPIDUS : lack of ADH
secretion ; too much dilute urine
~ Oxytocin
- causes contraction of smooth
muscle cells of the uterus
- milk letdown of the breasts
HYPOTHALAMUS
- important ANS and endocrine
control center of the brain
- INFUNDIBULUM : stalk connected to
hypothalamus and pituitary gland
- HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY PORTAL
SYSTEM : capillary beds and veins
that transport the releasing and
inhibiting hormones
THYROID GLAND
- made up of 2 lobes on each side of
the trachea connected by a narrow
band called ISTHMUS
- largest endocrine glands
- highly vascular
- THYROGLOBULIN : protein in
thyroid follicles
- GOITER : thyroid enlargement
- HYPOTHYROIDISM : lack of thyroid
hormones (CRETINISM infants ;
MYXEDEMA - adults)
- HYPERTHYROIDISM : elevated rate
of thyroid hormone (GRAVES
DISEASE)
- Requires iodine
~ T4 (thyroxine / tetraiodothyronine)
and T3 (triiodothyronine)
~ Calcitonin [if calcium levels
become too high]
PARATHYROID GLANDS
~ PTH (parathyroid hormone)
- essential for the regulation of blood
calcium levels
- more important than calcitonin
- increases vit d formation
- increase osteoclast activity and
cause reabsorption of bone tissue
to release calcium

- raise blood calcium to normal

- HYPER or HYPO PARATHYROIDISM
ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL MEDULLA

~ Epinephyrine / Adrenaline &

Norepinephrine
- in response to stimulation by the
SNS
- excited or physically active
- fight or flight hormones
- increase breakdown of glycogen to
glucose, heart rate, blood pressure
and metabolic rate
- stimulate smooth muscles in the
walls of arteries
ADRENAL CORTEX (Figure 10.18
and 10.20)
- nuclear receptors
~ Mineralocorticoids / Aldosterone
- outer layer / zona glomerulosa
- regulate blood volume and blood
levels of K and Na
- major hormone
- secreted when increase in K and
decrease in Na
- RENIN : low BP causes the release
of this protein from the kidney and
causes ANGIOTENSINOGEN to
become ANGIOTENSIN I
- ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING
ENZYME (ACE) : converts
angiotensin I to II
~ Glucocorticoids / Cortisol
- middle layer / zona fasciculate
- regulate blood nutrient levels
- increases breakdown of lipids and
proteins
- CORTISONE : steroid to reduce
inflammation caused by injuries
- Secreted when blood glucose
declines
~ Androgens
- inner layer / zona reticularis
- development of male sexual
characteristics
- secreted by the testes
- influence female sex drive
PANCREAS
- ISLETS OF LANGERHANS /
PANCREATIC ISLETS (endocrine
portion) & ACINI (exocrine portion)
~ Insulin (Table 10.3)
- beta cells
- secreted in response to the
elevated blood glucose levels,
increased parasympathetic
stimulation and blood levels of
certain amino acids
- target tissue : liver, adipose tissue,
muscles and area of hypothalamus
for satiety
- DM TYPE 1 : too little insulin

DM TYPE 2 : little number or

defective insulin receptors
- HYPERGLYCEMIA : too high blood
glucose levels
~ Glucagon
- alpha cells
- secreted when blood glucose
become low
- liver

~ Somatostatin
- delta cells
- inhibits the secretion of insulin and
glucagon and gastric tract activity
TESTES AND OVARIES
- play important role in development
of sexual characteristics
~ Testosterone
- testes
- growth and development of male
reproductive structures, muscle
enlargement, growth of body hair,
voice change and male sexual
drive
~ Estrogen and Progesterone
- ovaries
- enlargement of breasts, shape of
hips, breasts and thighs and female
menstrual cycle
THYMUS
- important function in immune
system

~ Thymosin
- development of WBC (T cells)
- protect body against infection by
foreign organisms
PINEAL GLAND
- pinecone-shaped
~ Melatonin
- decrease the secretion of LH and
FSH
- decrease the release of
hypothalamic releasing hormones
- inhibits functions of the
reproductive system
- decrease of this causes changes in
sleep pattern
OTHERS
~ Prostaglandin
- intercellular signals
- autocrine or paracrine chemical
signals
- cause relaxation of smooth muscle
- medically initiate abortion
- produced by platelets, necessary
for blood clotting
~ Erythropoietin
- in response to reduced oxygen
levels in the kidney
- acts on bone marrow to increase
production of RBC
~ Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
- same to LH