Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide The Institute of PlumbingFoabing eating cote Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Corrigendum Column | —_ Details Table table 6. For 100,000 litres storage read 100 m? for 2 metre height tak: P=!=300 shouldfeadP=1=_30 =0.025 T1200 T 4200 table 14 Basin = 18mm sep taps (63/1200) - Usage ratio should read 0.028 table 14, Type of applian6@islep happer cistenc only- should read tern fig 16. Pips wilh 88eion 7 end B Bhould bE Gtendaad forthe leftto connect into pipe section 6:(co!d water from: ‘Ptank) table 16. Notes, 1 mejentheathof Water should rej 9 mh? SEO.B KPa, onkNim= tight should Yeats kghs = ale oer ac OOTE Kausionstinddresic Silty, 7 exh xl Table 22 shauid read table 25, Heading should Fad “Vacuum pipe sizing’ Leif hand note'should read 1.5m maximuin for WO branch Right and note sfiould read - 2.5m maximum for other appliance connections. Category 2 should read 1.5 and Category 3 should read 4.5, Head Office The Institute of Plumbing & Heating Engineering 64 Station Lane, Homehurch, Essex, RM12 6NB, ENGLAND Tel: +44 (0)1708-472791 Fax: +44 (0)1708-448087 Email: info@iphe.ora.uk Website: www.iphe.ora.uk ISSUE 4 10/06Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide The Institute of Plumbing Compiled and pubsished by The Institute of Plumbing 64 Station Lane, Hornchurch, Essex RM12 6NB. Telephone: +44 (0)1708 472791 Fax: +44 (0)1708 448987 www plumbers.org.uk ‘www. registeredplumber.comProject Co-ordinator Sian Tidsioy Secretary & Project Manager alo Courtman teng FIOP RP oP Technical Manager Administration Support Emma Tally Lorraine Courtman Janice Grands ‘Jenni Canavan Technical Editors & Dosigners Tarot Millbury Printers - Saunders & Willams Printers Lid ISBN 1 871956 40 4 Published 2002 © The Institute of Plumbing The Institute of Plumbing cannot accept responsibility for any errors and omissions in this publication i Tastit The Institute of Plumbing ofPlumbing 64 Station Lane, Hornchurch, Essex RMI2 ENB. tute p Telephone: +44 ()1708 472791 Fax: +44 (0)1708 448987 worw.plumbers.org.uk —_wwmw.registeredplumber.comDr Alan Whitehead MP ‘ister for Building Regulations ipariment for Tanspor, wal Government ‘nthe Regions ty 2002 ste: On 29 May 2002 the Department of Transport Local ernment ard the Regions DTLR) was disbanded and ‘esponstailty or Euring ‘uations England and Wales tas tanstorred tothe Office ofthe Deputy Prime Minister It is my pleasure to provide the foreword for this edition of the Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide. For many years now, the Institute of Plumbing has supported the construction industry on the wide range of issues that are concerned with plumbing engineering services and this design guide has been key to the success of that support. As with other sectors of the construction industry, plumbing engineering services is an area that is rapidly developing with new, improved and innovative technologies and the role of the Institute of Plumbing in this is an important one. The Guide has needed to evolve with the advances in industry practice and techniques. Since the guide was first launched in 1977 it has continued to be an indispensable reference source for designers, engineers and trades-persons and this is reflected by the constant demand for it, both from home and abroad. This new edition will provide additional information and guidance ‘on cutrent technologies and practices and will, no doubt, continue to be a valuable source of information for those engaged in the design, approval, and installation of plumbing engineering services. commend it to the plumbing industry. fb, wot Dr Alan Whitehead MPAcknowledgements In today’s fast moving world, talented volunteers are hard to come by. The Institute is most fortunate in having benefitted from the expertise of a number of such people who have stepped forward to make contributions to the contents of this Design Guide. They have been ably led by Institute Past President, Stan Tildsley, an engineer of distinction in plumbing engineering services, who has acted as project co-ordinator. He has been helped by several loP head office staff members, in particular, Dale Gourtman and Emma Tolley who deserve special mention for their hard work and commitment to the project We greatly appreciate the assistance received from contributing organisations. These include Government Departments and Agencies; sister professional bodies, research establishments and commercial companies. We also thank printers, Saunders and Williams and technical editors, Tarot Milbury for their co-operation and professionalism, During the lifetime of this Guide, it will become common place for the dissemination of up-to-date technical information to take place through fast broadband connections to the Internet accessible via either static computers or wireless handheld devices. As a result, this is probably the last time the Guide will be available as a complete work in bound, hard-cover printed format, We pay tribute to all those who have contributed. They can be justifiably proud of their efforts. Andy Watts MBE EngTech MIP RP Chiof Executive and Secretary On behalf of the Board of Trustees of The Institute of Plumbing June 2002 Contributing Organisations Contributing Authors GF Baker ARUP 1 Basset eng, FIDAgE, MiP, MIEN, ACIBSE Brlish Standards Institution Mates AIP FP Brook Water Management G Ball MoM ng Teck MIP AP Building Research Establishment Lid © Bundall lr AGIOSE ‘Copper Development Association 1. Boyd Era, FOR, Doparmont or Envtonment Food 8 ce sess Cg MB MICOST tal Alas Je Griggs ror Department for Transport, Local 4 Hanson-Gavile MA FIP Government and the Regions D Harper tng Teo, WEEN, FMMSos, MF, ME, MASSE Donald Smith, Seymour & Pooley Nay’ Bse tony Energy Etciency Best Practice GHenderson Mee, CEng, MEE Programme NN Howard ae>p Hen, CEng, FOR MORSE, MWe Grundios Pumps Lid DE uct Single MSE, OR ACIBSE, 163, RP Hepworth Plumbing Products Beale Her Majesty's Fire Service een SW Love Gt. SSE, AF FN ah, Fe Marey Plumbing and Drainage Aner ielear anata are Spirax ~ Sarco Lid G Luz ter FOP Ae MASH, MEE The Councilor Registered Gas G'Shoulor Oe is, CoM Installors S Tikley Ena oes HON FOR MR AP “The Inituiion of Electical Engineers. CP Topp tg HOP FEEN, MASH MAE, RP Uponer Lid vine Yernagene JS Watay erg e0 LC. mp soe RP SS AWalsh Cero, FiWeM, ROP MCIBSE, MOSH, MAE, MEY PJ Witte eng Tec, MOF RP 1B Whoriow feng FIOR AP Pm Witlame Resource EMiclent Design: Energy Etioncy (axctuding section on Plato Heat Exchanger) this has been Contibuted by the government’ Housing Energy Effetency Best Practice Programme, and Crown Copyrights reserved.Contents Hot and cold water services Legionnaires disease Heating Resource efficient design Piped gas services Sonitary plumbing and drainage Pumps and pumping Fire protection services Steam and condensate Pipework expansion Mechanical ventilation Designing for the disabled Domestic swimming pools Electrical earthing and bonding of building services Stondards, codes and miscellaneous data + 4l 47 67 81 105 161 169 179 191 197 205 as 2 aHot and cold water asHot and cold water supplies Sources of water The source of water varies dependant on which area of the British Isles a supply is required. The types are 1, Upland catchment (reservoir) 2, Ground water (borehole/artisan) 2. River extraction ‘These sources provide water for supply purposes, each with a wide range of physical, and bacterial quality differences, Le 1. Hardness 2. Bacteria count 3. Minerals The quality of water supplied for distribution to, and for use by persons and properties 's controlled by an Act of arliamont, the Water Supply (Water (Quality) Rogulations 1989, and subsequent amendments. The fenforcement of the Act is undertaken by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI), Who regulate a wide range of Key elements to attain and maintain the water supply quality. See Table 1 The standards cover colour, alkalinity, taste, odour, undosirable and toxic substances, and micro-organisms 10 specified parameters. The standards are called Prescribed Concentrate values’ (PCV's) to either maximum, minimum, average or percentage levels. ‘These standards are imposed on all water supply companies, with relaxation ‘only considered under emergency situations, Le. extreme drought or flooding, but under no circumstances it there is @ risk to public healt. Water supply companies ‘The water supply companies operate under the requirements of the Wator Industry Act 1991, enforced by the Oifice ‘of Water Services (OFWAT), Water supply companies are responsible {or the catchment or abstraction of raw water; i's conditioning, treatment and distritution to consumers within their region. The characteristics of the water supplied varias, region to region and within regions dependant upon the actual ‘souroe, single or multipl, and the level of treatment provided in order to attain the prescribed quality at the point of ‘connection to the customer's supply. Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guidh Table 1 Drinking water standards “Temperature 250 PH 55.95 ‘Colour 20 Hazon unis [4 Formazin units ‘Quattaweeaour [A odour ives ualiabve ast Alas ivesig Dilton odour ‘len No Dilution ast Sat25 Gonduetviy ssaouslem 206 Tota hardness | Applies onty ‘aly Free cote | ‘Comparison Tal eiorne gaint average Faecal eliouns 07100 les Fo mi Fracoalstrepiooooe! | 07100 mr “al clio 100 mi (85% Colony count, day | Comparison Gridssbaty Sng 05 mg 0.1 mp 50 mpl 200 ng uorse 1500 ugh Phosphonis 2200 ug Supra 250.ngt Magnesia 50 mg ‘on 200-19 Mangas 50 ugh ‘Numiniam 200-ugt Gatun 250 mg Potassium “2 mgh Sodium 150 m9 Seppe 2000 ugh Zino 5000 Uh Lead Tso gt Siver 10ugh 40ugh Supt 1000 val 2000 upt 50.val Sg a [50 vg sae al [50 ui Selenum 10 ugh Total oroans carbon | Comparisons ihaloet 100 ugl Tatachiorometnane | 2 ugh Tichbroetone 30 gH ‘erachoroetiens | 10 up Bonzo 3.4 pyrone Ong Fluorenthene, benzo 3, | Indlvidual 4,11, 12,uoranthene, | testing a! these Denzét, 32 peryene | substances to indeno (123e¢) pyrene_| provide total ‘otal PAHS ‘O2ugh [rionic deter 200 ual! Pesticides & Compids | 5 upi total From this connection, which generally aslo incorporates @ water company meter, th consumer is responsible forall aspects the supply and distribution of water Consumers! rights Every consumer has the right to be supplied with water for domestic Purposes from the water supply charge by the wator company for tho following services 1. New or replacement supply 2, Meter installation 2. Supply network reinforcement 4, Infrastructure charge. All these charges relate to the anticipated daily demand (m?), peak fl rate (V5), and number of draw off fiting being served from the supply Type Num Water regulations ed Consumers water supaly installations a, Fequied to comply To tho Wator Supp (Water Fiting) Regulations 1998, and vol ‘The Water Supply QWator Fting) —_Biviny (Amendments) Regulations 1999 (2) (tifewiy Water Byelaws 2000 (Sestang). Thesabh regulations are enforced by the water oi) company that supplies water the wc The regulations govern the whole of th ha consumers instalation trom tho ‘et Connection tothe water company’s yyy communication pipe end meter termination, to al the dara fitings, Bis! inclusive of ay alterations. in The regulations requir that no water yy, {iting shal be installed, connected, arranged or used in suh a manner, or Mist by reason of being damaged, worn or oerise faulty tat causes, ol 1. Waste 2. Misuse 8. Undue consumption 4. Contamination 5. Erroneous measurement, ‘The water supply companies are required to be notified of certain proposed installations, which may be ‘subject to inspection and acceptance prior to receiving the water company’s ‘supply connection. ‘The regulations are a statutory Instrument, which is supported by an interpretation of the regulations. The water supply companies have the authority to apply to the Regulator foriumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Hot and cold water suppli ‘olaxation of any part of the regulation ‘considered inappropriate to a particular Water regulations guide The Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WAS) publish a guide which provides: formal guidance and recommendations "how the regulations should be applied lo the actual water installations and include the Water Byelaws 2000 (Scotland) Water demand The water demand for a building is dependant on a number of factors. Type of buliding and its function 2. Number of occupants, permanent or transitional Requirement for fre protection systems, 1. Landscape and water features. In dwelings the resident's water consumption is divided between the many appliances. A typical percentage break down provided by the Environment AAgoncy is: 1. WC suite 50%. 2 Washing machine 12%. 8. Kitehen sink 15% 4. Bath 15%. 5, Basin o% 6. Shower 5% 7. Outside supply 2% 8, Miscellaneous 9% ‘Overall consumption increases by around 10% during warmer months when out ‘door usage increases to over 25%. In ‘general, consumption per person ‘decreases with an increase in dwelling size given the shared facies. For guidance on the total water demand for typical types of bullcings cefer to Table 2 for daly water demand. The figures tated have boon assembled from a number of sources, including BS 6700, ‘Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) and Environmental ‘Agency studies and can be used as a basis for good practice. Water storage ‘The storing of water has a number of purposes, Providing for an interruption of supply ‘Accommodation peak demand 3, Providing a pressure (head) for ‘gravity supplies. Design Codes recommend that storage is provided to cover the interruption of an incoming mains supply, in order to maintain a water supply to the building. Water supply companies are empowerod. ta insist on specific terms, inclucing the ‘volume or period of storage, within the: term of thelr supply agreement with a ‘consumer. However many water supply ‘companies only recommend that storage be provided in accordance with the BS 6700, placing the responsibilty and decision firmly on the consumers. ‘Table 2 provides guidance on typical water usage within buildings over a 24 hour period, In designing storage capacities, account needs to be taken of the building and its location. 1. Period and hours of occupation 2. Pattern of water usage 3. Potential for an interruption of supply 4, Available mains pressure, and any inadequacies during the hours of building use 5. Health & Safety, prevention of bacteria, including legionelia Ia bullaing is occupied 24 hours a day, then an interruption of supply wil have a ‘greater impact than that for say an office, which may only be occupied for eight to ton hours. Where a building is occupiod by elderly or infirmed people then avoiding any disruption of the water ‘supply isan important consideration as they would be unable to easily leave the building should water become unavailable. Clients, such as the National Health ‘Service, require their buildings to be provided with storage to safeguard against an interruption of the mains ‘supply. Industrial clients may well require storage to ensure their business andior production is not interrupted. If water ceases to be available within a building then the occupiers will eventually leave as toilet faciities wil become unusable. It is likely that when an interruption of supply ozcurs then the water available ‘would be conserved as much as possible, thereby extending the time of ‘occupancy beyond that anticipated under normal usage rates. Table 2 Daily water demand Type of Building ‘ites Cite Ducting ace bedroom 210 | Bedroom 7 bedkoom Becroorn Bedroom, Bedroom [Bed space Bed space Student, communal Nurses Home hicren’s Home| 735 | Bed space sheltored | 120_| Bedroom Care Home| 195 | Bed space inmate Beaton Bedroom ais Siar Lucury room Diloes & general work places ih eantsen 45, | Porson i) without canteen | —40-[ Person (1 Sheps = wih canteen [48 without eanteen | 40. ‘without eantesn | 40 [Person Schools th Fom Gala | 20) —Boarsing Hospitals = Distic'Gonead | 600” [Bad ‘Surgical ward Medical ward = Paodiatvc ward Geritrie ward ‘Swimming £66) = Fold Sports ‘Allweather pich | 35 _[ Person Pracos of Assombiy (nck sal ‘rt Galle 6 [Person Library [6 [Peron useurs | Person ‘Theatre [Person Cinema 3. [Person Bars 4 [Person ‘Night Cub (@)__| 4 Person Restaurant 7 [Cover ‘SUPPORTING INFORMATION ifthe number of buleing occupants are not accurately known then as a gue the following entoria can be used, tices, one person per 14m? ofthe gross bulletin floor area, ‘Sports hal our porsons per badminton court area per hour open, maxima, ‘Swimming poo, one person per cubical per hhour open, witha factor of 0.6 for aivoraty Fiald sports changing, persons per teams per umber of pitches, per ayHot and cold water supplies ‘A Wsathor Feld, persons per teams per hours used, Museums, Art Galeries, Libraries, One person per 3om® of ho gross bling floor Fostauranis, One person per 1.0m? of tha dining area ‘Bars, Ona person per 0.8m ofthe publ Dbareating area. When the water supply companies, regulations, or client requirements do not specifically dictate the period to cover an Interruption of a mains supply then Table 3 provides recommendations for reasonable periods of storage, expressed as a percentage of the dally water demand, Table 3 Period of storage Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide ‘The type of water system will need to be ‘one of a combination of the following ‘a. Direct mains fed b. High level storage with gravity down feed Pumped from a break cistom or storage provision. Potentially a one or two storey bullding in 2 locality where an interruption of water supply is very infrequent and causing litte inconvenience, there is an option for the water supply to be direct from the ‘mains withoul storage being provided. It the provision of storage is possible at high level then the system could be enhanced to provide storage coupled with itlbecoming a gravity down feed system. See Figure 1 peta re shines [Gece Hospitals | 50% tank at nigh leet Nursing Hom 50%. — i = st mo, i ‘epi He or = en ee = = Se ese ae aon nee ls amen Save bein oer t Se eae Boarding Schools Water distribution The water distribution installation requires to be able to doliver the correct, flow and volume of hot and cold water When and where itis needed, The mains pressure can provide the initial means of elivering water into the building. The water supply companies are required to deliver their water to the boundary with a minimum pressure of 1.0 bar. Often their delivery pressure can be higher, however at times of high demand, the pressure Will be closer ta the minimum provision. Type of system ‘The type and style of water distribution needed for a particular building will ‘depend mainly on the building height and its use. ‘a. The building height will determine whether pumping will be required to delivr water to the highest level b. The building use will determine the amount of storage that will be required. Figure 1 Supply toa two storey busing Storage tanks building requiring a large water storage provision may not be able to ‘accommodate it at high level, in which ‘case a low level location will be needed, in conjunction with a pumped distribution system. ‘A combination of high and low storage ‘can be considered if a gravity distribution is preferred for all or part of the building. ‘This has an advantage of providing some storage in the event of an interruption of the water supply, of power supply to the Pumps. A storage ratio of 2:1 lowhigh level is atypical arrangement. Storage can comprise of two ‘compartments or cisterns/tanks in order that maintenance can be carried out without interrupting distribution, For small storage quantities one piece cistomns can be used, which generally are of a ow height construction. For storage of 2500 litres or more, sectional ppanel tanks may be considered more ‘appropriate with a centre divide, ‘Above 4000 litres storage twin cistems/tanks may be considered appropriate. Soe Figure 2. Incarang supp y (bance pipes ot te) ‘stems rena, rps Cots, tom epposts corer tin an ‘Stetytdaned in ean a contpuraton nore Yat abe provide to nate one estetankto De eta whist cher nals open. Figure 2 Storage cistemfank layout ‘Sectional tanks commonly have flanges, boing internal or external. External flanges permit tightening without needing to enter the tank, and on the base permit the tank to be self draining through a single drain point, without further draining (of any entrapped water between flanges: ‘Such a feature reduces maintenance and assists the prevention of water stagnation which can lead to harmful bacteria, ‘growth, including legionella, In calculating the storage capacity 2 free board allowance is necessary to accommodate the float valve, over flow installations and any expansion from the hot water systom. Depending on pipe sizes, commonly a 260 ~ 300 mm free board depth is required on ciserns\tanks hhaving a capacity greater than 2500 litres. Raised ball (float) valve housiags in conjunction with a weir overfiow can provide an increased depth of water Slored over the main area of the Cistern/tank(s). The location of the inlet and outlet ‘connections is important. A cross flow through the cistern/ank needs to be achieved to assist the complete regular tum over of water throughout the storage period. ‘Sub divided, twin and multiple Cisterns/tanks ideslly should be installod in parallel to each other. The inlets require to be positioned at tne same level to ensure they supply the cisternsitanks in unison, and as far as possible the same flow rate to assist a balanced throughput. The outlet connections and manifold pipe work needs to be arranged with symmetrical and equal lengths, also. to provide, as far as is possible a balanced flow from the tanks. ‘The use of a delayed action float valve may also be considered to ensure a (greater turn over of water.ERLE GETS ROEDERER BR Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Access to storage cisterns/tanks ‘Access for installation and maintenance is required. Table 4 is @ guido. For large buildings, accommodation for water storage has an significant impact. Table 5 provides an outline guide to the space that may be required, Table 6 Access to storage cisternsitanks ieeaton (wm) ‘round 750 Between, tanks 750. ‘Above allowing beame to intrude | 1000 Boiow, between supporis ‘600 For outlat pipe work, inl aoess | 1500 ‘Tank construction thickness 100. Insulation (may frm part of tan) Raised float valve housing 300. Entry o tank | 800 dia Table 5 Water storage plant room area Trae Teak (Litres) | 1.5 metre) 2metre | 3 metre som | ise? [ont [= 70,000. -stn= | — gan [= 2o.000-| som? | a? 0,000-|~7an| — con | s 0.000. =| sone | com 109000 =| tone [son Gravity supplies For gravity supplies to be effective, the storage requires to be at a sufficient height to deliver the water to the draw-off point at the required flow rate and pressure. The available head is the ‘dimension between the bottom of the storage cistern/tank(s) and the highest wincanteen [15 [6 [Porson | Hotwatereottees ne tate Seeltisn ey eas oe. | (Ue | olen vas Section saty a Hot water cls eed Figure 12 Mutiple hot water heaters Where muttiplo hot water generators become necessary for capacity/output, andlor standay/back up purposes care must be taken to ensure that the interconnecting pipework configuration provides a balanced use and flow through the two of more hot water generators. Secondary circulation and trace heating ‘Secondary circulation or race heating ‘needs to be provided when the length of hot water pipework and the volume of water the pipework contains, becomes. Such that it would take an unreasonable length of time to draw off the cool water. The Water Regulations Guide recommends that un-circulated not water distribution pipes should be kept as short as possible and If uninsulated not exceed the maximum length stated, Table 7 Water Regulations Guide Wax. lengi a insulated pipes Pipe OD | _Lengin | (Seconds) tam | seein <2 mm (25) 7<28 mm (20) > 28 mm ‘Sm 15) ‘The ‘seconds’ column illustrates the approximate length of time it would take to draw of the cool water based on the draw off rate of a wash basin tap with an 0.15 Us flow rate. The Health & Safety Legionella Gade La states a maximum draw off period for hot water to reach its ‘correct temperature shall be 60 seconds. Ingulating the pipes does not stop the hot ‘water cooling itonly slows dow the Cooling rate. Once the temperature has ‘ropped delow 50°C, then the Health & Safety's ‘60 seconds! maximum length of time criteria applies. The insulating of. pipes is desirable as it delays the cooling fate of the hot water enabling it to be “usefuf for longer, and by that means saves energy and the associated costs. ‘Onea it becomes necessary to provide secondary circulation or trace heating, then it should be extended to sorva the \whole of the hot water distribution system making un-circulated or trace heated sections of pipework as short as practicably possible, and not the maximum lengths stated in the table. Local heaters ‘These generally comprise of small seit contained electrically heated hot water Units incividually placed near to the position that hot Water is required, and Serve either a single draw off or a umber of draw off's which are adjacent to each other. Gas heaters are available, but not commonally used due to the need to make provision for tlues.The purpose of such units provide hot water ina simple manner, in particular where the draw off is remote and only low ‘volumes of hot water is required, such as for hand rinsing. Office toilet ‘accommodation and single showers are Hot and cold water supplies particularly suited for these type of units. ‘A number of different types of local heaters are available. Most commonally ‘are ‘unvented units’ supplied directly from the incoming mains or from the main cold water distribution system within the building, Usually a minimum inlet pressure Is required, often being 1.0 bar fr above, subject to the manufactures instructions. ‘The Water Regulations govern the requirements for unvented water heaters. Heaters with a capacity of less than 15, litres are classed as being instantaneous ‘and need no temperature or pressure Tolief valves, or expansion valves or vessels. Units above 15 litres capacity require such devices. Control of legionella ‘The means of controling legionella. bacteria is determined by the Health & Safely Approved Code of Guidance L8. Figure 13 Dosign tomperature and associated risks (CIBSE TM13) No vibe gona egrets ‘not fully an | ik | Lagorala ‘a muy Ljonala ‘nonin ‘armen Inejasng utipeation of egonala Stat tuition CHW teatng Hot water stone Hol watt top ates oi wate rae, spikes Spray human trees stra alr enon cal condanateHot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide The Code identities specific practical guidance on how this is to be achieved in ‘water supply systems. The key aims being: 1. Maintain cold water below 25°C 2. Maintain stored hot water between 60-65°C. 8. Maintain hot water distribution above 50°C, and preferably at 55°C 4, Insulate all cold and hot water slorage vessels and distribution pipework 5. Minimise the length of un-circulated and none trace heated hot water pipes 8. Avoid supplies to litle or unused ‘draw-oft fitings 7. Maintain balanced use and flows through multiple cold water cisternsrtanks and hot water vessels. See Figure 13. Nore: For further deta please sse Tegionella ‘ection, contained wihin tis gue. Safe water temperatures Sale water temperatures need to be ‘considered for hot water supplies to ‘appliances used by the elderly infrmed land young. The Legoinalle requirements, {for 60-65°G stored hot water and a minimum 55-55°C distributed hot water ‘means that consideration is needed to provide temperature control at the draw= of fitings use by persons at risk of being scalded. The Medical Research Council, Industrial Injuries and Burns Unit produced data ‘which illustrates the time and temperature relationship which resutt in Partial and ful thickness burns. See Graph 1 Table 8 NHS estates health guidance for Safe hot water tomporatures Aonlanee “option Max Temp Beet [an 33°C Shower | an are. Wash | Hand rings only basin | under running water, tolets Wash | For an integral basin part of ablution, ‘Where aii t alan an adequate Bathing temperature Graph 1 Temperature and duration of exposure, sufficient to cause burns in thin areas of skin 1) pain ful ‘tigress | tikes bares tums i 0 Design Codes for Health buildings require that all draw-off points that can be used by patients have the ‘temperature of the hot water limited to a sala temperature, ‘The Health Codes also extends to ekierly care homes and sheltered dwelings, which are under the responsibilty or licence of the Local Authority. Othar buildings that require consideration are nurseries, schools, and anywhere where there is a ‘duty of care’ by the building ‘owner's landlord, and/or management. The temperature control is achieved by the deployment of single control mixer taps of valves. The type of valves can vary dependant on their application ‘Tho types of mixing valve, as defined by the Health Guidance Note, are: ‘Type 1 ~ a mechanical mixing valve, or tap including those complying with BS 1415 part 1, o BS5779 incorporating a ‘maximum temperature control step device. Table 9 Recommended application for ‘mixing valves ‘anlication ‘Wash basin, hand nee, for persons net being at risk ‘ash basins for persons atisk, Le eldery inirmed, young, ete Bath Time inseconss jo tom 10000 ‘Type 2a thermostatic mixing valve, complying with BS 1418 part 2. ‘Type 3 — a thermostatic mixing valve with enhanced thermal performance ‘compiling with the NHS Estatos Mods! Engingsring Specification DOB. Water conservation ‘The efficient management of water usage and supplies is necessary to ‘comply with National and International environmental conservation ‘best practice’ aims and is covered in detail uithin the Resource Efficient Design section. The Water Regulations incorporate this requirements under their prevention of ‘waste, misuse, and undue ‘consumption, and aiso the specication for reduced capacity of WC flushing cisterns and limit to automatic urinal flushing cistems. The key water conservation areas within ‘water suppiy instalation are 4, Low volume flush W's 2. Urinal Controls 8, Draw-off tap controls 4. Clothes and dish washing machines 5. Leak detection 6 Limited need for garden and landscape wateringPlumbing Engineering Services Design Guide 7, Rainwater reuse 8, Grey wator recycling ‘The DTER (now DEFRA) Water Conservation in Business document (2000) provides proposals and examples for water savings. An example the document proposes is the potential water savings that could possibly be made in an office building Table 10 Office water consumption fatty Sewater | Anicpated wed | Sesaving WC tushing | 49% | 30% -60% Washing 50% = 60% inal nushing 50% 80% Miscellaneous 20% “Significant acitonal water reduone can bo ‘made by incorporating leak detection systems, (oy water rocyeting, tain water collection and water efit garden and landscape ‘The Building Research Establishment provide an assessment method called “BREEM’ which provides a range of performance criteria to assess walor fecanomy in buildings. For an fice building the BREEM design anc procurement performance scoring gives a ‘pass’ for 200 points, and an ‘excellent for 490 points. Table 11 shows the importance of water conservation design and management, which overall represents 62 points out ofthe total BREEM score. Table 11 BREEM 98 for offices wator assessment prediction check list item Sea ‘Where predicied water consumarion 's 10-20m per person per year ‘Where presicied water consumption is 5-9 par person per year 2 ‘Where predicted water consurapion is finan | em | | ‘a 12iiew)_|_400__ [00 | [oa [002s] <5 | 0005 [002 T a Loos) 25 Se aoe eo ee elec oo aor oes So fe So eee frp eco eagle [oe = Ee eee eee Ss a Sis apa eco rmleetnse eS fs 6-4 (return) | 200 | 05 | 15 | 7] 92 | <5 0185) 15 oe a ee pease aHot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Not atorieecn ‘The total heat loss from each section of which permit an accurate ‘ow flow’ Lath ndary pipe is converted to a flow rate setting to be achieved and retained when circulation acessary to replace the lost heat. the valve may be shut off and re-opened In order to maintain the correct Watts ase sctsoanice ol the) eyeler as) use of ordinary isolation valves can achiovo a crude form of restricting the The pipework heat loss is that which ig ‘low for balancing purposes, but these temperature of hot water within the hot "OS = 7787 (ehe of water) x 1000 ater distribution system, provision of a ‘return’ pipe to enable the water to be ‘ott fe the water ne prep oa eee Peete feria: ocean iamien cra packiene tapes Iulton rata Seo Tabs andl ing ater bee onto formipes wih and witout Insualon. The cveredng purpoee of he balancin Hot water circulation can bo achieved by 182 for nin ale Riaicrs sting rareree of fear gravity or pump circulation means, A ‘Rule of Thumb’ method of sizing ee ee although in nearly all instances a pumped HWS secondary circuits is to ‘emperature within the pipework stnough in oat al eta Pay ee eae oe ceo aan een minnie a leer amt cyan iene ete cee reer ere nae smaler sizes over largor pipe sizes, and _leionela, Tha Health & Safely Approved maintain a check on the HWS return pipe of Pract es —_ Secondary circulation ree pipe coed (cen eartr) pepe eg) Pipe circuit balancing valves will be “The formal method of iin ha fiseded where the WS tour hes secondary sheuaton ppeworkis 0 umber ef branche en bop Sve Calculate the heat oss tom at ofthe tho various aro tho Sodaon Sfow and tetum’ pipe creuts twoughout system: These aoe oat Tow to thay douCacusiee etealleiiae | sccieanenearea nena arte fons a comparable few alg lobs, thee greater pump preseoe, eng tstablished, and thereafot the head oss the HWS return wo eeeate tothe throughout ine systom a catomined, furthest chet Corson ie ore and the dy of he ccuaing pump.” valos are s double roguting pation Table 19 Loss of head through pipe fitings (expressed in millimetres, ie 1mm = 0.001 m unless otherwise stated) any hous = tow atom ivesesond : sum. 10 [0.62 | a.04 [0.08 | 018 as [07s] v0 [15 | 20 | 30] «0 80] 60 | 70 a0 [100 io 2 150 z [4 45 5 fea : 20 “i045 |_ 45 | 120 | 270 zl = a 25 5 | 10] 15] 45] 100| 100] 290 2 [3] 5|1s| 90 60] 190_| 290 | 620 = 40. [ore sis} as 0 100 | 250 | 420 = i} 2| 5 | 10] 20| a5] as] 150 250 |aa0 | a0 65 x 1/2] 3] 5] 10] 20] 40} 60] e5| 116 | 160| 190 | 240 | 200 75 z tT) 3|-s{ wf 20/35] so] 70) 20] 110] 140] 170 Pipe see “Toes flow an esecond applicable Yo change odie onh) [os Tos [o7s| 1.0 | 15 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 6.0 | 60 | 70) 00 | 90 | wo] 10/120 om. 10 [0.02 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.15, 7 | | | io [a 2 7 a5 [2 60 60 | a 20 15 20| es 1604001 | —] 5 a 20/65 | 150 | 270 | 600 z 2 peal 5 | 20] 45 | 95 [oro | a70 670 40 oe 2| 5] 20 | 40] 100 | 760 | 400 | 700 50 +} 2] 515 { 30) 50} 195] 240 | 350 |a20 | 720 5 2] | s| 10] 0] #0} ao] 120 | 170 | 200 | 300 | 300 | 280 | 580 75 : 2] 5] 10} 20] 40] 70 | 100 | 140 | 180 | 220 | 230 | 340 | 400 Pipe size ‘Globe vaveStap tap — Flow rte Ia Iies/second rom. 10 0a [os] 02 | 02 | os 15 [20] s0| 40] s0 [60] 70] a0] 90|wolnolmo | 70-30 [195 [280 ra00| — =e 1s | 20 | as | 190 | 570 [200] 200 1 1 | 20 10-| 20 | a0.| 125) 200) 670 7800 sl T 2s 2550] 110) 515 | 690] 1940| 2660 } 45] 45| 125 | 200) 530] 1150 [2010 | 4720 aa 20|_ 40 | 90] 160) 360] so | 15703760 |a0a0 30] 60) 150) 200/590) <0 1400 2000 | 2050 = [_[-s0| 90220] 400 570) 70] 1170] 1570) 1900 [2530] 2900 rae | ‘[ 30 [oo] 120/280 420} 560) 730) 920) 1120) 1400 1710Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Hot and cold water supplies ‘ble 19 Lass of head through pipe ftings ~ continued (expressed in millmetres, fe 1mm = 0.001 m unless otherwise stated) a cone Gate vaivesServce valves — Flow rate In ivesisecond = nom. 10 | 0,02 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.15 [ 02 05 [o7s| 10/15 | 20|30| a0 | 50 | 60| 70 | 80 | s0|10.0| 10/20 w | 2_[s [as | 75 [eens Bere 1s [1 [45 | 20 | 50 | 100 i s a 1s [10 | 20 | 60 | 935 1 28 ie i | aes 2 200 SH 90 | 165 | 250. eat 20/35 55 | 60 | 110 | 160) I to) 15] 25 [a5 | 45) 60] 76 | 95 [15 2] s] 7[ | 15] 18) 20] 25] 35 | 40 Tives/socond 0.08 | 0.15 30 | 40 | 60 | 60] 70 | a0 | 90 | 100) 11.0] 120 70 | 300 ee [30 [95 | 200. li [as | 200 | a0 | a4 'a5|_a0_| 150 | sao | 670 | 1360] 4535 | 701150 | 260_| 630] t700 [1720 [ 25 {so | 90 210] azo] eta] @10 | 140] 1600) — [a0 ]20 | 160] 250| 350 | aca} 620) 20 | 7010/1770, 1 50] 90] 140[ 210 | 20) 360) 460 | 580) 700] 660 ie cae Dove ebak vale ‘nom. 10 [0,02 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.15 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 08 [0.75] 1.0 | 15 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 5.0 7.0 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 10.0) 11.0 | 12.0 0 5 750 | 850 [1400 | 5000 20 2 40 so0-|50 | 900] 7600 | 3000] =alpests a ‘300 | 450 [500 | 600] 800] 1100/2400 = = i 1 ai 0 oa | Rea 50 feaaileatd = os nbs | 5 [ | Pipe sine, TPE valves oduaedprosura tone vate) oxliiog er oxprested in am. 10 [0.02 [0.08 [0.06 ]03s| oz | os | os [o75| 10/15 | 20 | 30 [40 | sa | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 0] 11.0] 120 10 i 1 15 az [ae | eo | 92 [oo [ne [eal a 2» ai [es[e7|es| os! 07 hoz [18 [eo | 1 25 a3 [as [es| eo | 92] es ho2|i0 lise 1 2 82 [054/66 56 93 | 97 [108 [20 [350 | ls oer ai |e2|as| os] 66 91) 92| 97 foo [11a |i [130 50 30/81] 62|64|e5]e7 | se| eo | o1|os | 07 [100/103 s 20 61 | e19) 03 | 635| 65 | a7] 89 | 92 75 L 80 [ 815} 629) eas] 85] a6 | a0 | a0 | aa ge sie all oat valves — Flow ao i iresioeond aan an 10 a5] 02 [03 [os [o7s| 10 | 15 | 20| 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 60 | 00 fa [sve re [oe 6 [0-60 | 550 | 700 | | 20 _| 40 | 80 | 145 | 420 =z se 25 10 155 | 340 | 670 | 1470 1 sasha 85 | 140 | 250 | 540 | 950 | 2320] Erie! ae 40 “| 20 | 60 | 115 | 250 | 430 | 1030/1810 [2840 | [ 40 | 85 | 150) 350) 620] ro10 1300 | 7880 t 19Hot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide ————————— ————OOOOO OO OEE Table 19 Loss of head through pive fitings - continued Fes |__ Tossa ny Wess ent fam. iD 03 [05 [o7s| 10 | 20 | 40| 60 | 60 [wal oz [0a] 05 [ors] 10 | 20/40] 0 | a0] ma 20 20 | 40 | 120 | 270 | { a 4o | 15 | so | 100 | mas | 25. 20_|_ 40 100 | 10 401-15 | 40 701 | || Ps} 2040] 20] aso] I a] 5/15 [<0] a0) | 40. 30 | 20] 35] 130 | 550 ee 5 | to] 16) 50 | 220 Ea is 40 50/190 | 400 770| 200 : 520-70 160 | 600 | 480 ol oer aed 20] 80/475] s15|_ 500] 10 | a0| 70[ 190.| 200 75 L [ eal I T Pipe size. sel nll ~ tank (ol ball valve) = om. 10 | 0.02 | 0.04] 0.08 [0.15 | 0.2 [03 | os jars] 1.0 | 15 | 20] 30 | 40 | 5.0 | 60| 70] 80] 90) 100/110 70 zi i EI 15 20 L I 25 I T t Reducers, indiidual or combination wih ee o5| 02 | 03 | os |o75| 10 | 15 | 20] 30) 40 | 5.0] 60] 70] a0 | 90 | 10] 110/120 0.02 0.08 ‘Additinal ekample tabiés required a I is iE L L Pie sie Pilar ap draw iting =a Sib drawl ig rom.10 [oia2 0.08] 0.08 | 01s | 02 | 03 | as [07] 10 [45 | 20 | 90 [o0s)015| 02 | 03 08 [ors| 10 | is] 20 0 45. 240 | 520 | 700 x z 485 | 520 | 750 | 1800 20 Al 240 | 900 | 500 I [ [210 | s30 | 750| 1600 1 25 jena i 450| 1000 | J a Mansa iva (ny) [metres Thermosttc mize valve (only) (neires) Sn ooe]ets] 02 [0a [os [ors 40[ 45 | 20] a0 [em[oas[oa|oa| uso 1 Tat [a0 sagas 08 | 15 | 30 | 100| s00 a 07 [12120 | 40 [100 20 pes nase 45 | 4a] 700] 460 25 I | 1 I I enjeal enon laaPlumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Hot and cold water supplies ‘ble 20 Water supply system — pie sizing table Pipe Toading [Flow Assumed] Lenath Wei) Fis oad Taal Talal fr ants | rate | pipe da "fos Sere ee ae head head ET] SV |W [BV | 00 | Other | loss valle us) (x) _fewmty| vs) | co) | oy ()Hot and cold water supplies Graph 3 Pipe sizing chart — copper and stainless steel. 200) 16] Flow rato ~ lites per second | axa] 08 05 5 Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide ‘000 1500 +000 00 Loading uni 200 00 40 30 20 10 Ve ‘001 0002 oor on 003 OO Head loss in metres per metre run 010 020 030 080Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Hot and cold water supplies aph 4 Pipe sizing chart ~ plastic ves per second 0.08 0.05, 0.001 0002 0005 = 01002 003 005 010 020 030 050 Head loss in metres per metre runHot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Hard water treatment Hard water occurs with the presence of calcium and magnesium salts in solution inthe water. This occurs naturally in the water but its extent varies considerably throughout the British Isles. ‘The definition or a ‘hard wator is generally measured in either parts per millon (mg/ as calcium carbonate) or ‘Clarks’ scale. When the water temperature is raised within a water supply system the salts change to solids and they are deposited a a hard rockclike scale in vossols and pipes. Hard water can lead to widespread damage incurring expensive replacement, increased maintenance and ‘operating costs. All water containing salts will, when heated deposit scale to a varying amount ‘dependant on the level of hardness and heat applied. Ifthe protection of the ator supply installation apparatus is the Table 21 Classification of hardness Category Cans Sen under 35 Moderately sof 35-7 Sighty nara 7105 Moderately nara 105-14 Hava 1421 Vary hard ver 23 Table 22 Typical water hardiness lovels ‘ocation Hardness ppm Brains “100, Bristol _ 250-350, Carat z 100 Edinburgh 80 <0 [aan 80 250-400. i 320-220. 250.320. London 250-520 Manchester 60 Migsiesbroug 345-165 [50-65 NNotinghaim Reading Shetils me ‘Soutthampion [280 Southport 220-800 Sunderland [00-420 ‘Waeringion [70-250 York 200-200 m4 prime concern, then waters having a hardness level of below 150ppm, and ‘generally not being heated above 65°C, ‘generally will not require treatment. However, 1 assist in extending the lite of the hot water generating plant a Water Conditioner fited to the cold water supply would be beneficial where the hardiness level is above 10pm, For water above 150pom treatment will bbe needed to protect the condition and maintain the expected ife of the water supply system, in particular hot water plant and thermostatic valves. Either a ‘water softener or a ‘water conditioner can be used for protecting the system. It softor water is desired by the user for washing, or manufacturing production purposes then a base exchange ‘salt Fegeneration' water softener will bo necessary. It wil be required to be installed on the cold water supply to the hot water generator, orto all the water Craw off paints except the draw offs used specifically for drinking water. Water conditioners are effective for the protection of the hot water system because they alter tho minoral crystals, reducing their ability to adhere to the internal surfaces of the system, enabling them to pass through the water system, ‘The effectiveness ofthis process is limited by time, therefore the shorter the Period water is retained in the system after conditioning the botter. Therefore vithin large water distribution systems the placing of a water conditioner immesiately prior to the hot water (generator, and other plant, wil provide the best results possible. Water supply installations The installation of the water supply sysiom components requires planning and co-ordination prior to ‘commencement of work to achiove the best possible integration within the building and the areas to be served, Materials The correct selection of the component materials is of paramount importance. The available range of water supply installation materals is extensive, and Includes numerous types of components ‘made ftom metals and plastics, or a combination of both, often for similar purposes, ‘Some materials are more sulted 10 parlicular applications than others. Far tho selection of components and materials the main considorations are: Suitability Availabilty Appearance (if to be seen) Cost Durability Compatibility with existing User choice hh. Spares. The rango of materials and components available from merchants held or readily available stocks are an oxcollent guide as to the most used and suitable in any particular regional area, and more often than not represent the best discounted ‘cost components). Plumbosolvent (dissimilar materials) Plumbosolvency covers the compatibility of the materials within the water systom. Where thore is a mix of metal materials, such as copper, siainless steel, and galvanised steel then thare is the potential for corrosion to occur. This ‘potential can increase toa ‘lkelinood’ where: ‘a. The metals are widely apart on the ‘galvanic’ scale b. the water has a greater acidity or alkalinity above or below the neutral pH value of 7.5 the water in contact with the two metals is warm or hot ‘To prevent, oF minimise the effect of corrosion through ‘Galvanic’ action then the selection of compatible materials for the type of water is required. Where dissimilar metals are in direct contact, and they do not have a close Galvanic relationship, then the installation of an intermediate metal link Is appropriate to reduce the likelinood of ‘corrosion occuring, The ‘Galvanic’ relationship of metals is as shown in Table 30, Nore: Fora greater appreciation of corrosion refer to the laor part of tis section Pseudomonas bacteria Pseudomonas bacteria is a potential risk to water supply systems. More common in the closed water circuits of heating ‘and chilled water systems, but known to ‘occur in water supply systems, Thore are many different types of thePlumbing Engineering Services Design Guide ‘ble 23 Commonly used materials Hot and cold water supplies Component ‘Gptions Underground mains | Soft copper Polyethylene = ‘Duet Won, tinea Storage tanks Polypropytan Glas roinforood plas od Prpawork [capper Stainloss stool | Poiybutyiene Hot wator vssele ‘Copper ‘Sigel, copper or glass lined Stainless steel mes Dra of fitings (Chromed brass. [[Brass, brass aloy —_—Prastie zi pen E Valves (Chromed brass: Brass, brass alloy Plastic Pseudomonas bacteria that once in a ‘water system can be cificult to eradicate. Int completely destroyed the bacteria ‘ean reappear and grow at a fast rate to form a biofilm within the system. Probloms occur due to a greasy brawn siime or bloflim that coats strainers, pipework, tanks etc. creating corrosive ‘conditions which can discolour the water and can exude @ noxious smell Pseudomonas Bacteria can grow more when it has access to a higher level of ‘oxygen and temperatures between 20°C ‘and 40°C, although it ean grow autside this range Ifthe water has a pH value of 785. Pseudomonas has greater chance of ‘occuring under the folowing circumstances. a. Water used for temporary works and {ilingtesting of pipework coming from dirty cisternsvtanks or temporary mains with dead legs and areas of low use. b. Non-disinfected hoses used for filing systems Systems that are filed and then left {or long periods with stagnent Untreates water, or are partially or fully drained down and then left for Jong periods with wetted surfaces. Pipework installed on site where there is substantial amounts of debris, If ambient temperatures are high. Table 24 Minimum thickness of insulating material to delay freezing ‘Nominal euiige ameter oT pipe | ‘Avoiding the above circumstances wil ‘greatly reduce the likelinood of Pseudomonas bacteria becoming pravelent within the water supply installation, Infected systems must be disinfected and flushed. Any excessive grawth may require repeated disinfecting and flushing to effect a reduction. Utra-violet water treatment is an effective method at killing the widest range of micro-organisms. However both ultra-violet and disinfection vill only provide a temporary respite Unless the causes are identified and removed. Frost protection Precautions are required to be taken to provent the water contained within the ‘water supply distibution sysiom freezing, a this wil ikely cause components to fal, oF burst due tothe increase in the internal pressure by the expanding Volume as the water turns fo ic. ‘To minimise the risk of ‘bursts pipework and associated components should always be located within areas where the ambient temperature wil main abovo froozing, In practical terms this would be 3°C and above. Locations to avoid are: ‘a, All external locations, unless a ‘minimum of 750mm below ground 'b. Roof spaces, unless part of the Thermal ondutty (Wim) building's accommodation ©. Underfloor voids, unless parrt of the building's accommodation 4, Outhouses, enclosures, sheds, and garages etc 8. Adjacent to ventilators, air bricks, oF anywhere subject to external draits of alr, It the above, and similar locations cannot be avoided then protection will need to be provided by insulating the pipework ‘and components, and possibly providing heating to the spaces that contain wator supply installations, Insulation alone will not ultimately prevent freezing, but only slow down the Towering of the temperature of the water. However if a suitable type and thickness Of insulation is used, and its protected from damage or moisture, then itis a Warthwhile method of protection. Reference should also be made to the guidance provided within the Water Regulation Guide. ‘An enhanced and very effective method of frost protection is the provision of trace Table 25 Thermal conductivity of insulating materials Watered Thickness, ram, WK) Fig phenol tam 0020 Polsooyanurat foam Figid polyurethane foam PVC team as] 0.04 [o.0ss]o.07 [ons] 0.04] 0055] way Expanded paver. Tadoor installations (min) | Outdoor installations (mim) Seca eee toe pte and reding 1 22 | 3a |_e2 | 100 Expanded nie ter — Improved potyetiviene foam, | 0.08, (ver 15, upto and inching 22 | 22 | se aa | 63 | 100 ees ase ee (OverP2, upto and incising «222 | 32 sa [ea | oo 1035 (Over d2, up endinekising Si 18 | 25 32 | 50 | 75 Standard pobetivene fear | wor 4, up to and induaing 76 —[ aa [ea Expanded synthetic rubber ver, upto andincusing 78 | 1a | 25 osu ra so) es ‘Over 76, and at suraces 73 | 19 25 | 32 | 50 a This tabla ls reproduced from BS 6700, ad Tet ho tarmal conduc valuo wih an ar 040 {omperature of O°C, and the mmimum thickness of sulting material tat wil aod wortale | 00485 protection against reezing rng the normal occupation of bugs 0.055 Storage stom and pipework 100! spaces are consiGored as indoor installatons In this j Conte, posi he ar space beneath a suspended ground Noor ora detached garage (cous | cos io Should be protected as outdoor mstalaions. Al insulation requires 10 be vanour seated 10 remain etfoctve. 007 5Hot and cold water supplies Plumt bing Engineering Services Design Guide Table 26 General pipe insulation ‘can enter in to the building in its desired location Pipes laid below ground require to be of ‘a Suitable material. The most commonally Used is polyethylene, certainly for sizes ‘up to 50mm ID (65mm MDPE OD}. The depth of pipes required to comply with the Water Regulations is a minimum Cf 750mm from ground level to the top of the pipe barrel, and a maximum of 1350mm, unless in a duct. Where pipes are located below a road the depth should increase to 900mm and be Fipe sie (mm) of lass fibre Nii rab 8.05004) .ovawimk .03simk 5 25 15 73 2 25. 15 19 25.0 enero eS aig) Sane 2 32 20, 32 20. E 22 20 eee: 50. a equried 20 2. 5 2 20 32 75. 2 20 32. 109) 38 20 32 ducted. Where water pipes are laid in a Where the insulation material is focated In areas requiring fre protection in accordance with the Building Regulations thon it shal have a ‘Class 0° heating. This comprises of self regulating electrical heating elements in a tape form, capable of being wrapped around pipework and componants. By the selection of the appropriate type and rating of heating tape the water within pipework and componants can be kept above the freezing temperature. Trace heating is used in conjunction with insulation and weathering protection. General insulation Pipework and plant componants ‘throughout the distribution system should be provide to keep hot water hot and ‘cold water cold. Without insulation a hot ‘ator distribution system would loose heat wasting energy, requiring a larger ‘generating plant, and increasing the ‘opportunity for bacteria growth and potentially failing to comply with the Legionella Codes. The impact on the cold water system would be to unneccessarly ‘heat from the warmer ambiant temperature and any adjacent heat sources making the water ess palatable for drinking, and again increasing the ‘opportunity for bacteria growth and a failure to comply to the Legionella Codes. ‘The insulation for cold water components ‘requires them to be vapour sealed to prevent condensation forming an the Cooler surfaces within the higher ambient areas. Recommended types and thicknesses of insulation are scheduled in Table 26, Pipework and plant supports Water supply pipework, plant and components require to be adaquately supported to be functional and prevent noise, vibration and general movement. which would become a nuisanos and/or lead to damage to itself and other elements of the building, For the support of plant and components, % ‘cassiheavon the respective manufactures requirements and recommendations should be fully adhered to. Pipework requires supporting throughout its length at regular and specific positions to maintain its stability, avoid movement ‘which could result in noise or vibration, whilst enabling sufficient movernent for pipework expansion and contraction. Soe Table 27. Underground pipework ‘The Water Supply Company mains aro located below ground, and therefore the incoming mains connection to the ‘building wil also be below ground until it service sirip close to other services, the National Joint Utilities guidance documents recommends that the depth of the wator service is at 900mm troughout to coordinate with the depth of the other services, and enable Services to cross each other. The minimum distance between the water pipework and other sevices is recommended as being 350mm. ‘The pipe trenches should be kept to the minimum width that is practicable and retain the trench wall to minimise ground loadings transfering onto the pipe. The trench bottom requires to be firm, level ‘and to the correct depth. A bedding of ‘sand is appropraite having a minimum depth of 50mm, to provide a suitable ‘means of bedding the barral and joints of the pipe. The trench back filing should bo of a suitable material such as. selected excavated or imported material, consolidated to resist subsequent Table 27 Pipe supports ~ maximum spacing Pipe sie Pipe material - spacing of supports in metres nominal id (mm) ‘Stainless steel | Polyputylene cPve. | Horizontal | Verict | Horcontal|Veriet | Herons] Vrial | Woraontal| Vertical B 1s | 24 | 18 | 26 | 03 | 05 | 05 | 10 amr 30 | 24 | s0| os | os | os | 10 _ 25 30 | 24 | 30 | 05 | 08 | 05 | 10 a 30 | 27 | 30 | o9 | 12] os | 14 “0 3630 | 36 | 09 | 12 | 08 | 20 50 sem) esonespmboa2 (ors | v2naieer prea 36_| 30 | a6 | 15 | 20 | 15 | 22 %5 45 [35 | 45 | 18 | 22] 18 | 22 Intermecate supports wil be required at changes of direction, branches, and connections 10 plant. Polyoutylene and CPVC pipe supports can benallt om being provided wi a continuous tray, rigid bar oral spanning between support brackos at centres similar fo copper, with straps fo secure the pipe tothe bar. Table 28 Thrust per bar internal pressure (kN) Homie! inert tnd adil thrust on bends a angle diameter of ine thrust [a0 dep | 48den | 228 dep | 11280 =e o36_|_os3 [ozo | ox5 [oar ae 72 | 102 | 055028 | 015 109 417 | 408 | 09 | 048 | 024 125 SS Se I TT 150 2ar_|aso_| 160 | 0.96 | 040 ‘The kN trast figuros slated are th force exerted ty the pipe on fs end or radial areaPlumbing Engineering Services Design =. ‘ x Guide “ Figure 17 Direction of thrusts developed in a pipeline ce to internal pressure movement of the pipes. No large stones or sharp objects shall be allowed to be in contact or near the pipe material Below ground pipework requires to be restrained throughout it's length, To combat the thrust of the Internal pressure and flows. For the greater part of the pipework this should be achieves by the Weight of the backfill material but at bonds, too's, blank ends, and valves the provision of thrust blocks will be required ‘and must be placed in a position that is inthe line of the thrust developed in the pipeline due to internal pressures. For standard fitings, the thrust can be calculated by multiplying the values given in the Table 28 for thrust in kN for a one bar internal pressure, The internal pressure can be deemed to be the ‘maximum working pressure af the below ‘ground pipe system. ‘Thrust blocks for the restraint of below ground pipework will require an adaquate bearing area to resist the thrust. Refer to ‘Table 29 for the bearing capacity of soils for horizontal thrust Entry to buildings Pipe entries to buildings may be mace by a number of methods. If entry can bo ‘made into a basement or under floor area then the pipe can pass through a pipe sleeve constructed into the section ‘f wall below ground, into the bulking, Table 29 Bearing capacity of sols KN ‘Seine Sale bearing ‘oad Sai em 24 Snr a 4 Sandsiona & Gravel 72 Sand & Gravel Bondes with Clay al Shab 240 For a building having no basement or Lnder floor void then a pipe duct incorporating & 90° bend. Ifthe incoming pipe size is larger than can be passed through a pipe sleove bend, then a pit, or reduced section of floor willbe required to pass the pipe into the building in a manner similar to a basement arrangement, but then rising vertically 10 the Bullding ground floor level. Once the pipework is installed then the openings between the external and internal parts ofthe building require to be sealed. The pit can be filed with sand and topped off with a floor sere. Disinfection ‘The process of disinfection is sometimes misunderstood and described as ‘sterilisation’ or ‘chlorination’. tis important that the terminology is Understood and used correctly. Disinfection describes the process of kiling rectucing or inactivating microorganisms, especially by chemical Sterilsation is to render stele, defined fas completely fee of ving ‘ieroorganisms, Chiorination eters to the use of chiorine, in particular sodium hypochlorite, as a disinfectant, Disinfection and control methods Disinfection is carried out whilst the system is notin use, oF ‘ffsine Control methods are used to kill bactoria ‘and prevent their growth while the system is in use, or‘r-line Hot and cold water supplies Chemical disinfection - off line “The use of oxidising disinfectants is sill the most commonly used method of disinfecting bath new and existing ‘domestic hat and cold water sysiams ‘and is highly effective when carried out correctly. The most common oxicising disinfectant used is sodium hypochlorite (otien referred to as ‘chlorination’) but stabilised chiorine dioxide is rapidly gaining in popularity as an alternative ‘Without the problems associated with hypochiorite's use. Other oxidising disinfectants like bromine and azone, and rnon-oxidising disinfectants are commonly used for disinfecting industrial process and cooling water systems. Water containing disinfectant at concentrations (greater than that approved for drinking water is classed as fuid category 3 under the Water Reguiations so suitable backllow prevention is required. Itis also a hazardous waste ¢0 suitablo dieposal procedures for used disinfectant solution ‘must be followed and if necessary consent to discharge must be obtained ‘om the Enviconment Agency. Thermal disinfection - off line This mothod, often referred to as ppasteurisation, involves raising the water temperature in the calorifier and circulating through the entire system for at least an hour, running each tap and ulet for 5 minutes, with a temperature between 60-70°C being maintained at all times in all parts of tho system. Good insulation is vital, as It may be difficult to ‘maintain a high tomporaturo in all parts Cf the system for the time required Scalding may be a significant risk, due to the high temperatures and risk control methods need to be in place. Thermal isinfoction does not address the need to disinfect the cold-wator storage and food system fo the calorifiers. Chemical dosing - on line Tho most commonly used methods are the continuous dosing of chlorine or chlorine dioxide, or tne release of copper ‘and silver ions from electrodes. All can be equally ettective it delivered and managed correctly and i the water conditions required for them to operate effectively are maintained. Temperature, hardnessialkalinty, pH, dissolved solids ~ those may all have an effect on the efficacy of some of these systems, It is ‘therefore essontial that the systom is properly assessed, designed and maintained as part of an overall risk control strategy. Chemicals continuously dosed ta damestic water systems will require approval for uso in drinking water.Hot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Temperature control - on line This requires the storage of hot water at 60°C and distribution so that a temperature of at least 50°C is attainable at all outlets within 0-60 seconds of running. Cold water storage and distribution is recommended to be at 20°C or below. For hot water systems these temperatures present a risk from scalding. Where a significant scalding risk has been identified the use of thermostatic mixing valves at the point of Use to appliances should be considered. ‘The NHS Estates Health Guidance note ‘on sate hot water temperatures, recommends maximum outlet temperatures for different appliances. Other methods ther disinfection methods for domestic systoms are available, for example ultra- violet light (UV) or ozone, but these are considered to be non-dispersive, ie. thelr effect is close to the point of application, not to the system as a whole and as a ‘consequence are not always as effective. Please Note Schedule 2 paragraph 13 of the Water Supply (Water Fitings) Regulations 1999 requires that ‘Every water systom shall be tested, flushed and whore necessary disinfected before its first used. However, there are a number of factors to be considered before altempting the disinfection of any water system and approved training Is required before undertaking either risk assessment or the disinfection of water systems within buildings. Its also essential to remember that disinfection and control methods are not a substitute for maintaining a high dogree of water system cleanliness and ceartying out good plumbing and engineering practices. Water quality “The quality of water is defined by chemical and bacteria analysis and vwhere the end usage is directly or indirectly for human consumption. It should comply with recognised standards to ensure freedom from harmful bacteria, acute and long term toxic substances and in addition, the water should be clear, odourless, tasteless and wholesome. ‘The International Standards for Drinking Water produced by the World Health (Organisation define the toxic limits for substances frequently found in water, supplies. Waters that satisfy the quality standards for human consumption are not always suitable for certain medical, industrial ‘and commercial uses. They may contain levels of trace elements, high total dissolved solids contents, non- pathogenie bacteria, gases and Suspended matter which necessitate some form of treatment before water can be used in actvilies such as food and [pharmaceutical preparation, brewing, research, medicine and in many areas where heat generation and transfer take place. Pure water exists of an equilibrium ‘between the acid species, the hydrogen ion (H") and the hydroxyl ion (OH). In ‘neutral water the acid concentration ‘equals the hydroxyl concentration, and at room temperature they are both present ‘at 10 gram equivalents (or moles) per litre, The purest water contains no tons at all Water that has 107 gram equivalents per litre of hydrogen ions is said to have a pH of 7. pH is a numerical indication of the Intonsity of acicity or alkalinity of a solution. Itis defined as — log 10 (H'), where (H") is the hydrogen ion concentration. The scale is logarithmic and runs from 0-14. Low numbers are acidic and high numbers are alkaline. A ‘neutral solution exhibits pH of 7. The logarithmic nature of pH can be confusing, e.g. as the acid concentration increases, the pH value decreases. A solution of pHS is 10 times more acidic than one of pH6 and 100 times more acidic than one of pH7. Deionised water Where water is required to a higher biological and chemical purity than that supplied by the local water company, single or mixed bed deionisers are ‘capable of producing pure and ultra pure ‘water approaching theoretical HO. Purity is usually measured by a conductivity ‘monitor that measures the conductviy in microsiemens. Totally deionised water hhas zero conductivity (as there are no jons present to carry current). The operation of deionisation is based on using twin bed or mixed bed columns of positive and negative charge ionised resins so that the incoming water isassociates into positively charged fons ‘such as magnesium and caleium which ‘exchange with the hydrogen ions of the acidic resins, Likewise the negative ions of sulphate ‘and bicarbonates are exchanged with the hydroxyl ions of the alkaline resins, the resultant hydrogen and hydroxy ions. ‘combining to form theoretical H,0. The exhausted resins are periodically replaced or regenerated with acid and alkaline regenerates. ‘As the name of the process implies, only ionisable dissolved solids and gases can be removed and the treated water is not necessarily pure or sterile. Centralised recirculating systems, local units, and both in combination where terminal polishing is required, can produce water Up to the megohms at 25°C which is close to theoretical maximum. Figure 18 shows a two bed recirculation system suitable for providing 3mifhr of deionised wator up to 1 microsiemen centimetre quality Softened water Water softening in large quantities for ‘commercial use and distribution is usually cartied out using one or more of the lime or lima/soda processes. For domestic application however, the base ‘exchange system of softening is more ‘commonly used and only this method is. described. Baso exchange softening ‘operates on a similar principle to the ion ‘exchange described in the ionised water ‘and functions by the process of exchanging sodium salts for those of calcium, The action of softening can be expressed chemically as follows: SODIUM CALCIUM CALCIUM + exhanesto + ZEOLITE CARBONATE ZEOLITE CARBONATE ‘And that of re-generation: sooium CALGIUM — SODIUM SODIUM CALCIUM + exchangesto + ZEOLITE CHLORIDE ZEOLITE CHLORIDE Because the base exchange system produces water of zero hardness, itis ‘often only necessary to soften part of the {otal water requirement and blend the raw and softened water together.Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide | ing main turn 1, Hangsalaion ve 5 Ho-un vane 11, Soenos ae 16: Gansueryconatr 2 Beek tnk fra water 7 Pressure elevate 12 Break unk to eciculaion wat 17, Canductey maar 5 Lom eel fon such 3 nara wet meter 1, Reson pure 18 Water eatin alr 5 Pump maar sa 9. Fate of flow mete" 1 Dewonsereyinder 1 0 Patt er | 10 Too bod atoraiceonser 1. Linea 20. Pressure regusingreletvave | Figure 18 Rectrulaton deionisation sysiom Operation of a buse exchange water softener ‘The rawhard water supply is connected into the top of the softener tank and flows downwards under pressure through the bed of softening material (zeolite) where the hardness is removed by tho process of on exchange’. At the same time, sediment in the water is filtered aut ‘and retained by the mineral bed. Cloar soft water leaves the bottom of the tank into the water cistrioution system, ‘The soltening mineral eventually becomes saiurated with hardness and no longer softens the water. Regeneration of the softening material is then necessary and the three stage process is as followe: Backwash averse the water flow through the ‘mineral bed to remove accumulated sediment and wash to drain. A backwash Controller is necessary to limit the wator flow and thus prevent washing out the mineral bed, 20 Oran Ordinary salt (sodium chlorine) has the abiliy to fully restore the softening Capacily of the mineral. A measured ‘amount of salt brine Is drawn from the brine tank through the brine injector ang rinsed slowly down through the mineral bed to remove the hardness, which is rinsed to drain Flushing “The water flow is again reversed to re- pack the mineral bed and any trace of ‘sediment not removed by the backwash is flushed to drain. The softener can now be relumed to normal service. Hot and cold water supplies Pant by pass Corrosion Corrosion is one of the major causes of premature failures in plumbing services, Not only is it responsible for increased maintenance cost but losses in efficiency, particularly in heating systems, can increase running cosis. Corrosion may be defined as the reaction of 2 metal with its environment resulting in damage that impairs the function of a ‘component or system. Whilst the ‘mechanism’s of corrosion are common to iflerent plumbing applications, methods ‘of control and/or prevention have to be tailored to suit that particular envionment. Causes of corrosion — basic theory Bolore discussing the causes ol Corrosion in detail itis useful to define and clay in simple torms some of the homonclature used in the text A salt (not to be contused with commen Sal, NaCi Is formed by the replacement of acicie hydrogen in an acid by a metal or basic group, 2Na + H,S0, > Na,SO, + Hal metal acid a salt. hydragonHot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide When most selts are dissolved in water they form ions which are atoms or ‘groups of atoms carrying positive or Negative charges. The resulting solution is called an electrolyte because ofits abilty to conduct an electrical current. Na,SO, = 2NaX + SO, asalt positive ion negative ion ‘Some salts are much more soluble than others and their solubilty in water often depends to a large extent on solution ‘temperature. In practical toms, pH is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Values range from 0-14, those less than 7 being acid and those greater are alkaline. Corrosion is electrochemical in nature and can occur by oxidation (dry corrosion) or wet corrosion. Most ‘corrosion problems in plumbing ‘applications are caused by wet corrosion which requires the presence of an electrolyte to allow the passage of an electric current and some agency to ‘maintain a difference in potential. Many ‘corrosion processes also require the presence of oxygen, Natural and supply Waters contain dissolved salts that make them into electrolyies and therefore: capable of carrying an electric current. The factors which may cause and will affect the rate of corrasion are as follows: Solution potential Ia metal is placed in an electrolyte, corrosion in the form of a chemical reaction may occur accompanied by the passage of an electric current. That part ofa metal system where current, i. postive charges in the form of metal rons, leaves and enters the solution is, called the anode while the resulting electrons (negative charges) migrate to an area of higher potential, the cathode, ‘where they react with other ions or oxygen. In the corrosion process its always the anode that is dissolved. The difference in potential belwoon the anode and the cathode al equilibrium is termod the solution potential. This potential has differont values for different metals and conditions, e.g. temperature, electroiyio ‘concentration and the surface or metallurgical condition of the metal, has ‘profound effect on corrosion. Temperature In general, rates of chemical reaction and therefore corrasian, increase with a rise in temperature. However, some ‘porrosion reactions, for example the corrosion of steel in aerated solution, may be controlled by the solubility and diffusion rate of dissolved gases that vary appreciably with temperature, ‘As tho rato of corrosion of steel is partly determined by the availabilty of oxygen at the surface, itis found that this rate has a maximum in the range 75-85°O, hich is approximately 4 times that at ‘ambient temperatures. With other metals, for example zino, the variation of corrosion rate with temperature is related to the nature of ‘he corrosion product. At temperatures. that produce a continuousiadherent Corrasion product, the corrosion rate is low. However, when a granular, non= adherent product is formed, the corrosion rate increases considerably Differences in surface temperatura on the Same metal component can create areas cifiering in potential, resulting in increased corrosion: Differential aeration If part of a metal surface is shielded from air, the natural oxide fim can break down, Where the oxygen availabilty fs low, these areas become anodic to those areas to which there is greater supply. ‘This results in localised corrosion, which ‘can occur particularly in crevices and also underneath surface deposits, for ‘example mill scale. This type of corrosion is called diferentiai aeration. Dissolved salts The influence on corrasion af salts dissolved in natural or supply waters is determined both by their concentration and more importantly, by the type of jon produced in solution. In general, a high dissolved solids content would bo expected to exacerbate corrasion, due to the increase in conductivity, if cancitions favour it Some ions, however, for ‘example carbonates, can be protective ‘due 10 their scale forming ability on metal ‘surfaces. Other ions, in particular chloride and sulphate, are aggressive as they interlere with the development of protective films and also allow passive films to be broken dawn more readily. Both ions ocour naturally in source ‘waters, with additional sources of ‘chloride being fluxes, washing up liquids (sometimes misguidedly used to quioten noisy boilers), and malfunctioning water ‘softeners. Sulphate ions also support the ‘growth of anaerobic bacteria, ‘Although in centain conditions the overall rate of corrosion may not be increased, the attack may be more localised and therefore corrosion pits tend to be deeper. In the absance of aggressive Tons, the corrosion rate of sizel at ilforent oxygen concentrations reaches ‘a maximum, however, where appreciable levels of chlorides are present (200mgiire), the corrosion rate Continues to increase with increasing ‘oxygen availabilty Two indices have been devoloped to predict whether a carbonate scale will be ‘deposited from a supply water of given ‘composition. These are called the Langolier and Ryznar indices respectively; a positive Langelier index or {a Ryznar index of less than 6 indicating that the water is scale forming. Since the deposition of a carbonate soale Caan stifle corrosion, it often follows that these waters are less corrosive than those that tend to dissolve calcium carbonate, Their behaviour however, ‘depends greatly on the form in which the scale is laid down, a discontinuous layer Providing relatively litle protective value. When natural water runs over a metal surface, it can take up traces of that ‘metal, which are lator deposited on another metal. This may form a bimetallic ‘couple and ifthe deposited metal is cathodic to the substrate, rapid corrosion will ensue. Typical examples are copper pipework upstream from galvanized ‘istomns and run-off from copper roofs into aluminium gutters. The high acidity Of rainfall in certain areas, due to the dissolved sulphur and nitrogen oxide pollutants has generally resulted in reduced service life of exposed metal surfaces. Surface effects Certain surface films are cathodic to stool and under wet coneitions where there are breaks in the film, the Underlying steel surface becomes the anode and will corrode preferentially. lon concentration ‘As discussed above, the solution potential Is affected by the concentration Of ions in the electrolyte. The higher the Concentration, the more cathodic the: ‘metal becomes. If therefore, a metal surface isin contact with an electrolyte that varies in concentration, thase areas (of metal in contact with dilute solution wit become anodic to those areas in contact with the more concentrated solution and Corrosion will be accelerated,Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Graph § The effect of pH on mild steel corrosion rate in an open rectreulating cooling system Waters with a pH below 7 will dissolve most metals to an appreciable extent. This will not necessarily cause serious deterioration of the metal structure ‘concerned, but it can produce undosrable amounts of cisslved metal in the water. Graph 5 shows the eftect of pH on the ‘corrosion of iron, Within the acid range (pHe4), the iron oxide film is continually dissolved, The increased potential for ‘aalclum carbonate depostion with higher pH causes the corrosion rate to decrease Slightly fram 4-10. Above pH 10, iron becomes increasingly passive, Dissolved guses ‘The significant gases are oxygen and. carbon dioxide. Oxygen is the main driving foree for corrosion of steel in water. The Increase in corrosion with temperature for a given oxygen concentration is due to more rapid ‘oxygen difusion occurring at higher temperatures. Carbon dioxide is present in some supply waters, particularly those derived from deep walls and has the effect of lowering the pH. This will cause any protective scales to dissolve, It must be borne in mind that plastic ‘materials, unlike metals, are permeable to gases. This can exacerbate oxidative cortosion of iron/steel components in closed systems where plastic pipework is Used for distribution or under floor heating, Hot and cold water supplies Table 80 Galvanic sories of metals and alloys in natural waters ear Normal electrode potential (vs standard hydrogen electrode, mV) Noble’ or cathode, le protected end Graphite (carbon) Tenia siver Nowe 7200 eel Graph 6 Erfect of oxygen concentration (on corrosion at different temperatures: Metals If diferent metals are immersed in an electrolyte, after a period of time each will atain a characteristic potential In this way itis possible to arrange metals in what is termed a galvanic series, however the precise order may differ slightly depending on the particular metalalloy composition and the nature of the electroiyte. Table 90 gives the galvanic series for metals and alloys when in contact with natural waters. Corrosion occurring when two differing metalsfaloys are in electrical contact is termed bimetallic corrosion. There are three other factors that can influence: corrosion at a bimetallic junction. The fist is the relative areas of the two ‘metals in contact. Ifthe area of the cathodic metal is large compared with that of the anadic (corroding) metal, corrosion would be concentrated resulting in rapid attack. Conversely with a large anode connected to a small area of cathodic motal, although some corfosion will be localised adjacent to tha contact area, most corrosion wall be distributed over the remaining area and the relative thickness loss will be less. The second is the conductivity of the electrolyte. In an electrolyte of low conductivity, attack will be confined adjacent tothe joint area and may be relatively intense. Where the electrolyte conductivity is high, the attack will spread ‘out more and the level of general corrosion will be greater. ‘The third factor concerns electrical contact between the dissimilar metals. Some metals, in particular aluminium and stainless steel, form coherent oxide Mone! ‘Austenitic stainless stoel (types 204/316) Copper Font stainless steo! (ype 416) 187138 Nickel copper Martonsiic stainless ste! (ype 431) Aluminium bronze 70/30 Brass Gunmetals, phosphor bronzes ane tin bronzes 60/40 brass Chroma Tin Tinoad solaer 100 200 200 400 ‘Aluminium and aluminiom alloys 700 Galvanised iron 00 Zine ‘Magnesium and magnesiun ‘Base’ or anodio, ie coroded ond 1900 {llms in air which ere non-conductive. It they prevent a current flow between the ‘metals then bimetalic corrosion ill be prevented. In the absence of dissolved ‘oxygen, bimetallic contact will not cause iron and steel surfaces to corrode. Other materials Many non-metallic materials found in or around buildings can be responsible for Corrosive attack on metals. Some woods are acidic and under damp conditions can cause altack on steel, cadmium, zine ‘and lead, If the wood has been treated With a copperfchrome arsenate preservative, corrosion can be ‘accelerated and in particular aluminium alloys and zine are altackod. Fresh concrete is very alkaline (pH112.6- 18.5) and while this is responsible for protecting steel reinforcement against Corrosion, other metals, for example zine, aluminium and lead will be attacked. Some concrete also contains chlorides, which will Increase the risk of corrosion. Bleach and some soldering fluxes contain high level of chiorie ians, which vill cause rapid attack on many metals including copper and stainiess steel, Furthermore, some plastics on heating or degradation also give off acids and/or 3Hot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide chlorides, which in the presence of moisture will cause corrosive attack. ‘Soils are complex in nature and therefore are extremely variable in corrosive activity. The most widespread form of ‘corrosion is dus to sulphate reducing bacteria. Other problems are caused by acidic conditions due to natural ‘constituents or contamination by industrial waste, for example ashes and clinker. ‘Although not strictly corrosion, itis worth mentioning that other industrial wastes, {or example, ta, oils, can cause failures in buried plastic pipework due to ‘environmental stress cracking. They may also attack protection on metal pipework, thus exposing the underlying surfaces to corrosive attack. Bacteria In the absence of oxygen, corrosion may Continue by the cathodic reduction of sulphate, which is present in most soils ‘and natural waters. This is facilitated by ‘anagrobic bacteria (called sulphato- reducing bacteria, disulpho-vibrio disulphoricans) that are able to uso cathodic hydrogen in their living process {and convert suiphate to sulphide. This type of corrosion is responsible for the ‘smell of ‘bad egas' (hydrogen sulphide) sometimes observed when venting radiators. Flow, erosion, impingement and cavitation Corrosion can be aggravated by the nature of water flow across a metal ‘surface. The overall rate willbe controlled both by the rato of reaction and how uickly reactants and products can ‘approach and leave the metal surface. These are termed chemical and difusion control respectively. Flow may bo stagnant, laminar or turbulent which wil affect the rates of diffusion, ‘Where the flow is turbulent, the impingement of gas, liquid or solids or a combination of any three can cause mechanical damage, which removes or prevents formation of a protective film. If the metal or alloy is corrodible in that environment, localised attack of the surface will occur. Cavitation is a particular type of attack that occurs when a metal surface is exposed to a high velocity, low-pressure liquid In areas where the pressure is sufficiently low, pockets of vapour form, which may suddenly collapse when they pass to an area of higher pressure. The shock generated is sufficient to cause 2 ‘mechanical damage to the metal surface at that point and exacerbate corrosive attack. This mechanism is responsible for water hammer. Stray current corrosion Stray earth currents, in particular DC, can produce cathodic and anodic areas where they enter and leave buried pipelines or other metallic structures causing severe corrosion. Organic matter Organic matter, derived from their natural Or industrial sources, may lower the pH. and inorease corrosion rates as well as preventing scale deposition. Bacteria are also often present in organic matter and these may be responsible for fouling and increased corrosive attack under both, aerobic and anaerobic conditions. It can be seen trom the forgoing that corrosion phenomena are very complex. in nature and are affected by many factors, Most of these factors can have a profound effect on corrosion rates and highlight the difficulties in predicting corrosion behaviour and time to frst maintenance or failure. However, many techniques are now available for identifying, monitoring and controling corrosion to acceptable limits. Effects of corrosive environments Corrosion can manifest itself in ‘numerous ways, depending on the metal Cr alloy and particular environment in which itis in contact. I is convenient to look back at the various metals likely to ‘be encountered in plumbing applications and the environments that can be detrimental to their service ite ‘Some of these metals are also used as protective coatings and their performance together with that of the substrate is also considered. Aluminium and aluminium alloys ‘Although aluminium is a very reactive metal, it has a high resistance to corrosion because of the tenacious, inert ‘oxide film that forms on the surface. Pure aluminium is generally stable in the pH range 4.5-8.7 but outside this range, attack can be rapid. Aluminium alloys, particularly those containing copper in significant quantities (Duralumin), are less resistant to corrosion. ‘The most commonly encountered form of aluminium corrosion is piting but the rate ‘of propagation is very dependent on the alloy composition and nature of the ‘solution with which itis in contact. While many neutral or weakly alkaline solutions allow self-passivation, others particularly those containing chlorides or copper ions, cause rapid propagation of corrosion pits in some alloys. Aluminium alloys may also sutfer a preferential attack at the boundaries between the grain structure that is termed intercrystaline corrosion. ‘Aluminium and its alloys have very good resistance to atmospheric corrosion providing the surfaces are regularly washed by rain etc. Where deposits of, for example acidic sulphates are allowed to build up on sheltered surfaces, moisture from condensation is sufficient to give an increased rate of attack Inall environments, aluminium is very sensitive to bimetalic corrosion, Contacts with copper and copper alloys, and to a lesser extent, iron and iron alloys, should bbe avoided. Cadmium The main application of cadmium is as a protective coating on steel. It is particularly useful as a plated finish on high strength steels where zinc finishes. ‘can heighten the risk of cracking due to hydrogen embrittlement. Its corrosion behaviour is similar to zinc and although itis loss protective to steel, unlike zinc, it is stable in alkali solution. Cast iron Cast irons are ferrous alloys containing {generally 2-4% carbon and frequently have high silicon contents. A wide variety ‘of compositions are available and additions of silicon, chromium and nickat ‘can be used to improve corrosion resistance. Typical applications include boiler sections, pump housings and pipe fitings (malleable iron). Although corrosion rates are similar to those of steel, above ground corrosion is not ‘normally a problem due to the thick ‘sections used for cast iron components. When in contact with some natural waters, particularly those that are slightly ‘acidic or contain chlorides (salt), cast iron may sutra form of attack called ‘graphitisation. The iron corrodes leaving ‘weak, porous structure composed of {graphite and iron oxides. This can result in catastrophic failures in underground pipes where soil or ground movement causes large sections wherePlumbing Engineering Services Design Guide graphitisation has occurred to crust Wwithout warning Although not directly associated with Corrosion, itis worthwhile mentioning a common cause of premature failure in {gas-fired sectional bollers. If hard-water Seale is allowed to bulld up inside the cast iron sections, and flame impingement occurs on the outside, overheating can cause a change in the coast iron structure to a weaker “Underoaoled! form. Subsequent thermal stress can result in fracture and ‘consequent leakage from the boiler. Copper and copper alloys Copper and its alloys comprise a ‘versatile range of materials, which aro used in a wide variety of plumbing applications. Copper is used extensively for pipework and heat exchanges due to its excellent ductility and thermal conductivity. A wide rango of copper alloys are available and in addition to the aforementioned applications, they are used for valve and pump components, pipe fitting, etc ‘Most problems occur when these ‘materials are in contact with water or steam containing dissolved oxygen or carbon dioxide andlor acids or chlorides, although corrosion can also result from contact with aggressive atmosphere e.g. flue gases or certain bacteria, These environments cause a breakdown in the protective oxide fim formed on the surface by contact with oxygen and water, thus allowing corrosion to proceed. Not only will this eventually result in failure of the component, but also dissolved copper can cause accelerated corrosion if its deposited on ‘other metas that are more anodic. Copper ‘Copper is used extensively in the form of tube for pipework and the manufacture of hot water cylinders. When in contact with natural waters corrosion can occur by 2 variety of mechanisms. ‘A major factor in the corrosion of copper is dissolved exygen. The higher the ‘temperature of the water the less ‘dissolved oxygen it can contain, ‘consequently cold water is more corrosive to copper than hot water ‘Typically when copper is first exposed to ‘8 water, a significant increase in the copper concentration will occur, however, within a short period of time the Corrosion rate will fall to an acceptable level due to the formation of protective ‘iims or scales on a metal suriace. ‘Waters given rise to the highest rates of corrosion are those drawn from wells and ‘springs (usually privately owned) which are olten soft and contain dissolved carbon dioxide. Such waters are called Ccuprosolvent. Here the role of dissolved ‘oxygen is less significant and corrosion is ‘mast marked when the water has been heated, Piting corrosion of copper is divided into three categories: Type ‘Type 4 pitting is characterised by broadishallow pits. Temperature is a significant factor with corrosion more likely to occur in cold and lukewarm ‘water than in hot water. tis most usually ‘associated with borehole waters or ‘waters that have been treated by flocculation. Often the total hardness of the water is greater than 100mg/ and is usually greater than 150ma/ but ‘corrosion can occur in soft waters. It is thought that in surlace derived waters, the presence of extremely low levels of organics such as polyphenols acts to inhibit this form of attack. Type 1 pitting needs initiation and used to be caused by carbon film in copper tube remaining atter the drawing process, The modern Use of abrasive cleaning of the tube minimises the problem, Type 2 Type 2 piling is characterisod by narow/deep pits, It occurs in soft waters a temperatures above 60°C. The bicarbonate/suiphate ratio is often less than 1 with the pH lass that 7.6. In the United Kingdom it is thought that the presence of manganese is contributory Type 3 ‘Type 3 piling is characterised by pepper potholes under a crust. Ths form of Corrosion remains @ major area of research. [tis virtually unknown in England butis prevalent in Scotland where it is associated with moorland waters, The cause is uncertain however; itappears that the standard of tubing is ‘ot important. Research is concentrating on finding methods of analysis for the detection of microscopic quaniies of organic acid, which itis thought, might be contributory Copper eylinders can be prone to pitting attack, particularly in the base sections ‘where near stagnant conditions exists in crevices or underneath debris. In an attomat to contrel the problem, the incorporation of aluminium anodes, ‘hich corrode preferentially whilst a uniformly thick protective fim builds up fon the surface of the capper, was Included in a Britsh Standard and soon ‘became commonplace. In most cases it was necessary only for the anode to Hot and cold water supplies omain intact for approximately @ months to fulfil ts purpose. Problems, which have been generally confined to cylinders not fully complying ‘with BS1586 (for indirect) or BS699 (for direcis), were found to arise in two ways: from one cause. Poor insulation of the ‘connection point resulted in early detachment of the anade, whereupon it fello the base of the cylinder, causing a massive build up of oxide sludge. Normally such oxide debris would form ‘round the extremities of the anode and bo carried away by the water flowing through the vessel, however, where sludge built up, under-deposit corrosion of the base of the cylinder was intiated due to differential oxygenation. Rapid {allure could occur. I failure eicn't ocour in this way, the absence of the anode fom its proper position allowed corrosion by the mechanisms it was originally Installed to prevent Rosette corrosion is another form of copper corrosion. The phenomenon is so named because the corroded copper has the characteristic appearance of petal shapes elched on to its surface. There are no reported instances of copper other than that associated with eylindors being atfected, Research into the causes Continues, but factors known to Contribute to its occurrence include nitrate and the presence of an aluminium ‘anode. There is also evidence that rosette corrosion is favoured when a copper vessel fitted with an aluminium ‘anode has been allowed to stand {ull of Water for an extended period In some parts of the country, the ‘concentration of nitrate has risen significantly over the last fow years, probably due to the permeation of nitrate based fertilisers down to the aquifers providing all or part of the mains supply water. However, it remains unproved that this is the main tactar responsible for the ‘apparent increase in rosette corrosion. ‘Changes to the design of cylinders to inhibit the formation of stable areas of ‘colder water (less than 30°C) will prevent many early falures, whether they are due to Type 1 piting, or by elimination of the aluminium anode, rasette corrosion Standards include a test to ensure that water in the base of the cylinder is heated appropriately. Specifiors and installers can also take ‘sensible staps to help themselves, by installing only units correctly sized for the jb, 50 eliminating large volumes of lunused water from residing in the vessel In regions of the country where pitting failure is known to be a problem, end usors should be encouraged to priodically drain their cylinder ‘complately. This might wall be applied to cylinders filed and left in non-use 38Hot and cold water supplies Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide situations, e.g., new unoccupied properties. Compared with its alloys, copper generally has a lower resistance to impingement attack in waters containing ‘oxygen andlor carbon dioxide. Where dissolved gases are absent, for example in closed heating systems, this type of attack is not a problem, Table 31 gives recommended maximum water volocties ‘or copper pipework carrying fresh ‘erated water of pH not lass than 7. Table 31 Maximum recommended water velocities for copper tube at diferent temperatures (metres/second) ‘Tempore -c__[ 40 [50] 70] oo Pipes that oan be replaced ESM ESR eae eo Fipes that cannot ris tee 20 |15 |13 | 10 Forshert ‘connections hich are used | interment, | inert 160 |120 |100 | 20 Impingement attack has a distinctive appearance, the pits formed having a water swept appearance, sometimes in the shape of horseshoes and being free {rom corrosion products. n closed heating systems where the oxygen Content is low, this type of attack does Copper can fal by stress corrosion cracking (the combination of constant stress together with a specific corrodent, (see brasses) and corrosion fatigue results from the conjoint action of fluctuating stresses, which may be caused by expansion and contraction in restrained pipework, vibration of ‘equipment, poorly supported tutes, or pressure variations and @ corrosive ‘environment, Occasionally, corrosion can result in copper caloniiors where large temperature diferences exist, This may bbe between a coll carrying steam, high temperature water under pressure or immersion heater sheath and the caloniier shell The large differences in temperature are sulficiont fo generata a Potential diference and cause preferential altack on the hotter surface. This may be prevented by electrically insulating the shell and heater, Brasses The common brassos consist of a range of copper alloys containing from 10-50% ine and other minor alloying elements, Alloys containing up to 38% zine from a single-phase alloy with copper is termed brass and in the range 47-50% zine is ‘another single-phase alloy tormed [) brass. Alloys containing 39-47% zino Content, both phases are termed a + o duplex brasses, The latter alloys are more suitable for hot pressing or cie- casting small components An alloy has been developed having a Controlled composition so that it is suitable for processing as a duplex brass ‘but heat treated to attain the ddezinerfcation resistance of inhibited brass (see below). This material is termed DZR (dazincilication resistant) brass and finings are marked by the Water Research Centre recognised symbol CR. It should be noted that brazing alloys containing zine can suffor from similar forms or atiack to brasses, Brasses can sutfer a form of selective ‘corrosion called dezinctfcation. Zino is preferentially removed form the alloy Jeaving a porous mass of copper having litle strength. Where the zine corrosion products are not wasiied away, they may ‘orm bulky hollow shells which ready block waterways, This is termed ‘meringue’ dezinciication. In the single- phase brasses the whole of the metal is corroded either uniformly over the surface or more commonly on the form of a ‘plug’. With duplex brasses the phase which contains a higher proportion of Zinc is preferentially attacked, In general the risk andlor rate of dezincification is increased by higher proportions of zinc in the alloy high temperature, high chloride contont of the ‘water, low pH, low tomporary hardness, ‘ow Water speed and the presence of surface deposits or crevices. Where leakage or breakage ofa fitting has occurred, dezincification may be suspected ifthe defective areas have a ull, coppery appearance. Brassos may be inhibited against

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