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Anthropology
Description of Module
Subject Name
Anthropology
Paper Name
01 Physical/Biological Anthropological
Module Name/Title
Forensic Anthropology
Module Id
30
Anthropology
Anthropology
B. Minutiae
C. Types of fingerprint commonly found in crime scenes
i. Visible
ii. Plastic
iii. Latent
D. Latent fingerprints
i. Ninhydrin
ii. Iodine
E. Collection of fingerprint from a crime scene
F. Comparison of fingerprints for personal identification
5.
DNA as a Forensic Evidence
A. What are the sources of DNA?
B. Nuclear DNA
i. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).
a. Visualization of VNTRs
b. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
ii. Short tandem repeats (STRs)
C. Identification of Sex from DNA
a. Amelogenin
b. Y-STRs
D. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
E. Interpretation of DNA profile
Learning objectives
Anthropology
1. Introduction
Forensic science is the application of the techniques of science to legal matters, both criminal and civil
(Bell et al., 2008). Forensic science includes a number of disciplines and sub-disciplines such as
forensic anthropology, forensic engineering, forensic medicine, forensic ecology, forensic pathology,
forensic chemistry, etc.
Forensic anthropology is the application of knowledge and techniques of physical anthropology to
study questions of medicolegal importance. According to Houck and Siegel, 2010, forensic
anthropology is the application of the study of humans to situations of modern legal or public concern.
The objective of forensic anthropologists is to assist in the identification of human remains and
personal identification including age, sex, ethnicity, stature and unique features, if any.
There are different types of evidences including skeleton, body fluids like blood, fingerprints, etc., that
can be found in a crime scene and are used by forensic anthropologist for personal identification.
2. Skeleton as Forensic Evidence
It is easy to identify a skull, complete skeleton, bones as part of a complete skeleton or individual intact
bones, but becomes problematic if the bone is fragmented. Because, things such as plastic or pieces of
tree may look like bone and thus create confusion. So, unlike readily identifiable human bones,
indifferent bones, and especially for fragmented bone, the key question is, is it bone? Next a forensic
anthropologist tried to answer a number of questions like, is it human? Are the bones male or female?
What was the age at time of death? What is the race? etc. The answers to these questions are very
important, because this will lead to the personal identification of the remains and, possibly, to
determine the cause and manner of death.
A. Is it bone or not?
The presence of cortex (outer layer cortex) and cancellous (spongy interior part) tissue differentiate
bone from other materials.
B. Is it human?
Skull with rounded vault and flat face indicate that it is a human skull.
Randomly scattered osteons in cancellous tissue is indicative of human bone.
Dentition and some features of the teeth like filings or caps also indicate that they are of human.
Precipitin test is also used for identifying as to species.
C. How long since death?
It is very difficult to determine the time since death because number of factors including temperature,
soil type, whether preserved in a coffin or not, etc. affect the decomposition rate of a body.
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Mongoloid
Long
Broad
Middle
Arched
Very wide
High
Rounded
Narrow
wide, flat
Sharp
Straight
moderately wide
Broad U-shape
90%+
Caucasoid
Short
Broad
High
Arched
Wide
High
Rounded
Moderately wide
narrow, arched
Sharp
Straight
moderately wide
V-shape
<5%
Negroid
Long
Narrow
Low
Flat
Narrow
Low
Rectangular
Wide
Narrow
Troughed
Downward slant
Wide
U-shape
<5%
large, smooth
Rounded, large
Smooth, elongated
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i. The skull has many features that vary in the two sexes:Table 2. Sexual characteristics of the Skull
Trait
Male
Supraorbital ridge (ridge above the eyes)
Robust
Occipital protuberance (base of skull)
Robust
Mastoid processes (bony process behind ear canal) Long, broad
Chin
U-shaped, square
Female
Gracile
Gracile
Short
V-shaped
ii. The pelvis has many features that vary in the two sexes:Table 3. Sexual characteristics of the Pelvis
Trait
Symphysis
Sub pubic angle
Obdurate foramen
Sciatic notch
Sacroiliac articulation
Ilium
Sacrum
Pelvic inlet
Acetabulum
Male
High, narrow
V-shaped
Large, ovoid
Narrow, deep
Large, straight
High, vertical
Long, narrow, straight
Heart-shaped
Large
Female
Low, wide
U-shaped, round
Triangular
Wide, 7090 degrees
Small, oblique
Wide
Short, broad, curved
Circular, elliptical
Small
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a, female
b, male
Figure 2: Human pelvis; a, female b, male
(Source: Wikipedia website)
Anthropology
margins. During the sixth decade erosion of surface and breakdown of ventral margin begin to modify
the configuration of the symphysial face.
Teeth
Upper central incisor
Lower central incisor
Lateral incisor
Canine
First molar
Second molar
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A, Temporary
B, Permanent Teeth
Figure 4. Human teeth; a, temporary b, permanent teeth
(Source: The University of Queensland website)
b. Permanent teeth
Table 5. Estimation of age from permanent teeth
Period
7th year
8th year
11th year
9th year
10th year
6th year
12th year
17th -21st year or later
Teeth
Central incisor
Lateral incisor
Canine
First premolar
Second premolar
First molar
Second molar
Third molar
Anthropology
b. Luminol test: Luminol (3-aminophthalhydrazide) is sprayed in crime scene which reacts in the
presence of haemoglobin, when an oxidizer is applied. The reaction, however, results in a blue-white to
yellow-green luminescence (light emitted as a by-product of a chemical reaction) if blood is present.
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Figure 6. A footwear impression in blood that has been enhanced with luminol reagent
(Source: Bureau of Criminal Apprehension website)
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A. Arch
B. Loop
C. Whorl
B. Minutiae
Along with fingerprint pattern, the ridge of each fingerprints also contain unique features which allow
them for personal identifications. These ridge characteristics are collectively known as minutiae. This
includes the patterns of the pores on fingerprints, bifurcations, island, short ridge, termination,
enclosure, etc.
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Figure 11: latent prints; a, use of fine powder to reveal latent fingerprints b, paper treated with Ninhydrin reagent c, site
treated with fluorescent dye stain
(Source: forensic science simplified website)
A number of chemical methods are also available for the visualization of latent prints, for example,
i. Ninhydrin: Ninhydrin is used to develop latent prints (purple colour) on porous surfaces like
paper by reacting with amino acids in latent print residue.
ii. Iodine: Fumes from iodine crystals develop latent prints on surfaces that are impractical for
traditional dusting or have residue such as grease. The print developed are visible only for
few hours and then become fade, so it should be photographed immediately once
observable.
E. Collection of fingerprint from a crime scene
Fingerprints that are clearly visible can be photographed and the print can be used for comparison.
However, for latent fingerprint photograph can be taken only after it become visible by physical or
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chemical treatment. Sometimes it is possible to lift the latent fingerprint. This can be done by placing a
lifting tape on the fingerprint. The lifting tape is then placed on a latent lift card to preserve the print.
Now days this comparison can be done by automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS). AFIS
is a computer programming which digitized the images of a fingerprint and then encode the details of
the minutiae for searching in the database. This system does not identify a person uniquely but rather
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provide a list of potential matches for the fingerprint examiner to evaluate and make the final
determination.
5. DNA as Forensic Evidence
The development and application of human genetics has reformed forensic anthropology in the last two
decades. Now a days DNA profile makes it possible to associate a DNA sample to a specific person
with a high degree of confidence and thus providing a new, powerful identification tool that
supplements fingerprints and other methods of identification to the forensic investigation.
There are two types of DNA, namely the nuclear DNA (located in the nucleus) and mtDNA (located in
the mitochondria). However, both are used for DNA profiling in personal identification.
A. What are the sources of DNA?
DNA samples can be obtained from a number of biological materials including saliva, tissue, blood,
hair follicles, semen and bone from a scene of crime.
B. Nuclear DNA
The humans nuclear DNA contains approximately 3.2 billion base pairs and organized into 23
chromosomes. A large portion of this DNA is similar and is required for the protein synthesis.
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However, there are segments of DNA that vary from person to person and are called hyper variable
regions. These regions are commonly used as markers for personal identification. There are several
techniques that make DNA typing possible for forensic identification like restriction fragment length
polymorphism (RFLP).
i. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).
In RFLP analysis a restriction enzyme is used to cut the DNA sample into a number of pieces of
variable size. The number and the size of the DNA fragment depend on the variation in the number of
times a sequence of base pairs in DNA is repeated. From a forensic anthropological viewpoint, these
fragments are extremely polymorphic since the number of repeat sequence varies from person to
person. Because the polymorphism comes from the number of repeats, this kind of DNA typing is
categorized as VNTR (variable number of tandem repeat). These are length polymorphisms with a core
sequence are between 10 and 100 base pairs in length and in one person, this sequence may be repeated
fifty times on a given chromosome, while in another person it may repeat ten times. In forensic
science, four to six of these highly polymorphic VNTR loci are analyzed, and the results are used to
generate DNA profiles for comparison and personal identification.
a. Visualization of VNTRs
The technique by which these VNTRs can be identified is called Southern blotting electrophoresis. In
order to visualized the VNTRs, the DNA fragments are loaded into a well at the base of a slab of
electrophoresis gel. An electrical current is then applied, which separates the VNTRs based on length
and charge of DNA fragment. After that the DNA fragments are stained with radioactive single-strand
DNA sequences for visualization and identification.
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