Daodejing on desire as a soteriological problem

by Van Laerhoven Eddy and Zhang Lijun

1. The soteriological problem of desire

As a general philosophical or existential problem, desire has many faces. One is justified in
wondering, What is wrong with desire? A range of possible answers could be the following:
desires are impossible to satisfy, a satisfied desire is immediately replaced by another; desires
seem infinite; desires multiply (and more so after attempts to satisfy them); the satisfaction of
desires does not really satisfy or is not considered to be real satisfaction; desire leads to
competition among men and creates social conflicts; desire implies suffering and enhances
suffering.
Once we have accepted that desires block the way to a happy life, we can agree that it is good
to diminish desires or try to get rid of them alltogether. What was up to then an existential
burden becomes a soteriological problem and can take more complex forms. One of these is
in the form of a pragmatic paradox (see 5): the sage desires not to desire, but this implies he
continues to desire and this reaffirms his desiring (and thus his suffering).
The problem we want to address in this article is the following: what is Laozis position on
the problem of desire as outlined above? In formulating an answer we will concentrate on
looking at the attitude of the daoist sage and we will avoid hermeneutical issues concerning
interpretations of doctrines, theories and concepts which are supposed to form the heart of
daoism.

2. On the concept of daoism

Daoism is an umbrella term which can cover:
- daojia (), school of the Way; in the past often narrowed down to
philosophical daoism, often used in a non-academic sense; concentrates on two of
the earliest and most influential texts, the Daodejing of Laozi and the Zhuangzi; Laozi
deals primarily with wisdom, meditation and statecraft; bibliographical classification
of proto-Daoism (antiquity to the 2nd cent. CE); its living continuation is the LaoZhuang tradition;
- daojiao (), traditions of the Way; religious daoism, mostly refers to teachings
within an institutionalized setting; lineages of transmission and ordination claimed by
daoist priests (daoshi, ); the Daozang (, Treasury of Dao) developed from
medieval collections and is sometimes referred to as the daoist canon. The version
surviving today was published during the Ming dynasty (1445) and includes almost
1500 texts;
- daoshu (), arts of the Way; daoist practices: dietetics, fasting, use of
(hallucinogenic) drugs, health and longevity practices, (breathing) meditation,
exercices in energy manipulation, and other yogic techniques;
- and then there is still folk daoism, neo-daoism, new-age-daoism (often advancing a
consumerist view; re-packaging and de-Chinesing ideas and practices to suit (mostly
western) consumers);

.... or any combination of these.

A practicing daoist can rely on and use any of the above in a complex, diverse and
bewildering combination of beliefs, convictions, rituals and techniques.
Daoism has been associated with political anarchism, with egalitarianism, with the ecological
movement, with feminism, with family therapy, with financial markets (D(a)ow Jones), ... On
a more philosophical level, daoism has been linked and likened to relativism, pluralism,
dualism, polycentrism, skepticism, naturalism, intuitionism, irrationalism, nihilism ... and of
course, mysticism or qualified forms of mysticism (nature mysticism, Maspero; mystical
skepticism, Creel).
Any categorization of daoist sects and movements is controversial and many scholars believe
that there are no relevant distinctions to be made between philosophical and religious daoism.
Others, like Creel, maintain that these distinctions are crucial.
The academic research field of daoist studies goes back to 1968 and a lot of progress has
been made. But only one thing seems certain: there is no consensus among scholars about the
meaning of daoism or about the interpretation of fundamental daoist texts and there is no
agreement between those who call themselves daoists about the meaning and value of the
daoist practices they claim to follow or to live by. The North American Center for Daoist
Studies lists on its website a number of common misconceptions about daoism, the most
interesting one being that Daoism exists.

3. Daodejing early daoism in a nutshell

The central tenets of daoism have given rise to numerous interpretations. Unfortunately, as
with most foundational religious or spiritual texts, almost anything can be claimed and/or
denied by referring to the Daodejing (= DDJ1; , Scripture of the Way and its Power).
A small book of about five thousand characters, written in a terse style, more than once
deliberately (?) obscure, it is sometimes almost impossible to believe that the different
translations are based upon the same text2. And it is a fact that some translators have
concealed from their readers: that neither they nor anyone else can be sure what Lao Tzu was
talking about.3
An easy and often used way to get a handle on Laozi is to introduce some of the fundamental
concepts4 which make up his world view, and the most fundamental concept and central to
DDJ is dao (), which can have the following semantical dimensions:
- way, path or road; guide
- way(s) of acting, of doing something, of living, of ordering society (performance dao);
1

Unless stated otherwise, all translations and references are to Lau 1963, only indicating chapter/verse.
Creel 1960, 84; also Welz, 8.
3
Welch 1966, v.
4
The story can be made more complete and complex by introducing other fundamental concepts e.g. de (,
virtue, character, influence, (moral) force), or wuwei (), literally "non-action"; actionless-action; nonassertive action; action as though non-action, to do without doing, to act without action, the sage is to be still,
quiet, passive so that the Way may act through him. See On the Origin of Wu-wei, in Creel 1977, 48-78.
2

a linguistic account of a way of doing something (discourse dao);

a metaphysical something wich could stand for or refer to:
o the absolute;
o the whole, the totality of all that is or of all things;
o nature; the natural order;
o a matrix or a pattern or series of (cyclical) patterns in nature;
o the process of change, of growth and decay
o a kind of proto-matter, the basic stuff out of which all things were made;
o an entity (substance?): e.g. the single, mysterious thing that created the
cosmos (the First Cause?);
o the primary, essential energy of the universe
o a force, mysterious, omnipresent;
o the unity (of opposites)
o an ineffable mystical (transcendent-immanent) reality; the One; some authors
go as far as giving this entity a status resembling God in western religions;
others prefer an impersonal spiritual reality;
truth;
a method;
a technique of control and of acquiring power.

Skeptics could argue that combinations of words like the great ultimate, the source of all
things, the subtle origin, the mother of heaven and earth, ... sound impressive and you
can make them even more impressive by using capitals but what do they really mean? What
could they mean from a human perspective, allowing that the perspective of an absolute dao is
not available to us for the moment?
Master Ni Hua-ching (1900)5 would reply:
This something cannot be put into words. There is no way to describe it, though one who knows it
may try. It has no name, no origin, no age; no year in which it was brought forth. It has no top, no
bottom, and no sides. Its top is revealed at the same time as its bottom; its sides at the same time as its
center. Its beginning is its ending, and its ending is its beginning. It cannot be sullied, and does not
need to be purified. It is not something, but neither is it nothing. It is most powerful. It can destroy all
troubles and bring all blessings. It does not need prayer or praise or gratitude. It does everything for
you without your knowing. [Ni I, 236]

The first nature, Reality and the Way are absolutes; however, the concept of the Absolute
lies in the relative sphere of ideas, thus it has an opposite, the concept of Relatives6.
We will not participate further in the debate7 as to whether dao (and which dao) should be
understood as a metaphysical absolute and which meaning should be given to the terms
metaphysical and absolute. Following the direction of running water we can look down at
the life of a daoist sage (zhenren, ), a perfected person.

Daoist master, went to the United States (Los Angeles) in 1976. He and his sons are practicioners and teachers
of daoism, Traditional Chinese Medicine and the daoist arts.
6
Ni II, 77-78, 52-53, same reasoning applies to the absolute nothingness.
7
Find the main actors in a 1996-debate and their arguments introduced on URL = <
http://sangle.web.wesleyan.edu/dao/index.htm >

The sage is trying to live in harmony with dao. He does this by not choosing between one
thing and its opposite (being/non-being, good/evil, high/low, naming/not-naming) but by
letting the dao choose in his place. The pairs of opposites all imply and support each other and
belong to a common whole. DDJ points to the binary structure of our thinking about the world
and stresses at the same time the complementarity of the opposites, the unity from which they
proceed, their relativity and their correlation.
He knows that thought is by nature dualistic and cannot grasp the dao, which lies before and
beyond any differentiation. The dao can only be approached by leaving intellect and reason
behind. One has to become as nameless as the dao itself, free of conscious choices, free of
evaluations, free from desires. The sage (or saint or holy man) is serene and tends to withdraw
from the affairs of the world.
The sage rejects established values because they are unnatural. These values money,
possessions, status, power, ambition - are the foundation of particular ways of life (ordinary
daos) which are artificial, created by education and socialisation. He does not care for the
possession of external things but tries to achieve self-knowledge and contentment.
The sage prefers a spontaneous way of life with no virtuous effort toward improvement. He
does not compete because this might introduce disturbances in the natural order of things. He
lets the dao and nature operate freely in him, doing nothing against ones nature. Often but not
always this will mean not doing anything at all (hence the accusation of escapism and
quietism); often it will mean acting but without violating the natural harmonious order, doing
nothing that is not natural or spontaneous, not to strain in any way.
An excellent metaphor to describe this life in balance with dao is to look at the behaviour of
water (DDJ 8/20): soft but always victorious in the end, it takes on any form it needs to take.
Always willing to take the lower position, the sage exemplies a humble and modest life-style.
In daoist writings we often find recluses, farmers, fishermen, living apart, in communion with
nature. The daoist sage delights in contemplating the operations of the universe and the
workings of nature and in identifying himself with the vast cosmic process, he enjoys
undergoing myriad transformations and being part of the universal processes of change.
In a more mystical formulation, one could say the daoist seeks to become one with dao
(nature). The dao is simple, formless, desireless, without striving, supremely content,
impartial, it existed before heaven and earth. In the course of the generation of things and
institutions, the farther man gets away from this primal state, the less good, and the less
happy, he is.
The daoist ideal is simplicity and the goal is to return to the dao (returning to the root),
viewing nature with the eyes of a child. In general, their orientation is towards non-being,
towards nothingness, towards emptiness (whatever has existence cannot be real, for whatever
exists also suffers from the limitations of the specific.8)
Let us now take a closer look at the sage and his desires.

Lau, 22.

4. Desire in Daodejing
4.1 Translating Daodejing 1/3
Much can and has been said on the philosophical value of (classical) Chinese9 and of the
many difficulties involved in bringing DDJ home to a western-language audience. Classical
Chinese does not have singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense. And then there is the
absence of punctuation, the use of ambiguity (to save words?), and a very different
relationship between written and spoken language. Of course an academical and scientific
approach would require a thorough knowledge of (classical) Chinese; but as a wisdomtradition daoism has already transcended the Chinese linguistic universe (e.g. daoist priests
from African and European descent).
No translation can be satisfactory because no translation can be as ambiguous as the Chinese
original10. Translating means creating clarity but losing meaning. One website11 lists more
than 140 English translations of the first chapter of DDJ. A crucial passage to interpret the
position of Laozi on desire is DDJ 1/3:

gu chang wu yu, yi guan qi miao ;

chang you yu, yi guan qi jiao12.

Which Lau [57] renders as:

Hence always rid yourself of desires in order to observe its secrets;
But always allow yourself to have desires in order to observe its manifestations.

When looking at the range of possible words a translator can choose from to translate these
ten Chinese characters, it becomes clear translation by necessity becomes creation13:
(1-25; gu) therefore, thus, hence, for, indeed, now, (reason) [let there]
(1-26 and 1-33; chang) always, ever, constant(ly), permanent(ly), unchanging
the Eternal; the Absolute
[context-meaning 1-26: a permanent state; established in; identified with]
(1-27; wu) without, free of, not having, rid
but also : non-being, non-existence
(1-28 and 1-35; yu) deep-seated desire, mental patterns, desire(s), longing
[context-meaning: attachment, identification, fixed way of thinking], thought constructs,
paradigm
[wu + yu = thought-free state]
(1-29 and 1-36; yi) then, what follows, so we may, in order to
[1-36: then (one)]
(1-30 and 1-37; guan) perceive(s), see(s), truly see, recognize, observe, witness, behold
display, reveal, manifest, make evident
(1-31 and 1-38; qi) its, his, s, [context-meaning: Daos, the worlds, the minds]
9

Watts, 2-17; Martelaere, 15-20; Waley, 59-68; Welch 1966, 9-12; Welz, 9-13.
Welch 1966, v.
11
URL = <http://www.bopsecrets.org/gateway/passages/tao-te-ching.htm>
12
Wade-Giles: ku chang wu y, yi kuan chi miao; chang yu y yi kuan chi chiao.
13
Slightly modified and shortened after Star 2003, 100-101.
10

 (1-32; miao) essence, mystery, subtlety, secret(s), true nature, wonderfulness, excellence
spirituality, marvels
the Essence, the nature of the Absolute, ones true nature
(1-34; you) hav(ing), possess, (identifying yourself with), regard life with, manifest,
allow yourself to have
but also : being
[you + yu = seeing the world through the lens of your mind (normal consciousness)]
(1-39; jiao) outer forms, manifestations, outcome, outer shell, end, limit, external, world
appearance, outer fringe, outer aspects, the apparent, bounds, borders
[context-meaning: body]
Translators who are interested in existential and soteriological issues tend to use translations
which employ the concept of desire14:
Therefore, those constantly without desires, by this means will perceive its subtlety.
Those constantly with desires, by this means will see only that which they yearn for and seek.
[Henricks 1990, 53]
Truly,Only he that rids himself forever of desire can see the Secret Essences;
He that has never rid himself of desire can see only the Outcomes. [Waley, 141]
Always remain free from desires
And you can see its wonder.
Always cherish desires
And you can only observe its outcome. [Kohn 1993, 13]

There is of course a difference between being constantly with desires, not getting rid of
desires, allowing yourself to have desires and cherishing desires the choice of words
give the text quite a different emotional colouring. But one and the same meaning seems to
shine through: desire stands somehow in the way of experiencing pure (or constant) dao (its
secrets, its subtlety, the Secret Essences, its wonder). At the same time, having desires does
not prevent us from knowing the not so pure (not constant) dao (its manifestations, the
Outcomes, its outcome).
There is a possibility of reading these lines as both positive things the daoist should do: only
by both having and not having desires can we see things completely. But this is difficult to
combine with the entire philosophy of DDJ which seems to go in the direction of advocating a
maximum reduction of desires15.
Wing-tsit Chan16 says Ho-shang Kung (fl. 179-159 BC) and Wang Pi (226-249) punctuated
the sentences to mean have desires and have no desires and claims that this punctuation
interrupts the thought of the chapter. Duyvendak agrees. Both prefer the reading which goes
back to as early as Wang An-shih (1021-1086), punctuating the two sentences after wu (no)
and you (to be), making them to mean There is always non-being and There is always
being. Their translations17 seem to give a more metaphysical colour:
14

Also: Blakney, 53; Feng 1972; Legge, 47; Lin, 31; Strauss, 57; Wang Pi, 1-2; Watts, 44; Welch 1966, 56;
Welz, 56, 86-87; Wieger, 1.
15
Henricks suggest this (188) and then states I find that position untenable given all that Lao-tzu says about
desires and the need to lessen them or eliminate them in the rest of the book.
16
Chan, 139, footnote 11.
17
Also Liou Kia-hway, 3: Ainsi cest par le nant permanent que nous voulons contempler son secret,
cest par ltre permanent que nous voulons contempler son accs.

Therefore let there always be non-being so we may see their subtlety,

And let there always be being so we may see their outcome. [Chan, 139]
For, indeed, it is through the constant alteration between Non-being and Being that the
wonder of the one and the limitation of the other will be seen. [Duyvendak 18]

Other translators try to bridge the gap between desire and being, take a look at the
following phenomenological rendering of Chang:
Therefore, oftentimes without intention I see the wonder of Tao.
Oftentimes with intention I see its manifestations. [Chang 1977, 1]

In his Heideggerian reading (2-4) the approach to the identity of its wonder (its reality) and its
manifestations (its appearance) is through non-intention or non-willing. Through nonwilling one is freed from conceptualisation and released to the total identity of the seer and
the seen. This comes close to a possible understanding of meditation as seeing without
desire, as opposed to seeing with desire (everyday experience)19.
Chad Hansen makes it a lot more complex:
Thus, to treat not-exist as constant is desiring to use it to view its mysteries.
To treat exists as constant is desiring to use it to view its manifestations. 20

This seems to imply that in both cases someone (something) is desiring to use it (dao?).
Will dao let itself be used?
Comparing these translations is an intellectually challenging game for scholars, but as such it
does not touch upon the deeper issues. Each translation creates a different reading of DDJ, but
whether we are Chinese, African or European: the basic problems of existence, among which
the problem of desire, remain the same because we all have similar bodies. Let us now try to
develop a wider view on the problem of desire in DDJ.
4.2 The sage between ascetical reduction of desires and hedonistic satisfaction of needs
Monastics of most religious traditions are well-known for their ascetical exploits. But daoists
do not figure prominently in studies of asceticism. But there is Wang Chongyang (11121170), who engaged in a period of extreme asceticism and intense cultivation. He even lived
several years in a pit in the ground that he named the Tomb of the Living Dead21; his seven
successors established the Way of Complete Perfection, a monastic form of Daoism which
survived and today is one of the two major forms of Daoism.
According to Wang the aspirant should be as free from emotional anxieties as possible. He
stressed a dual cultivation of ones inner psychological constitution and of the physiology of
the body. This system aims at overcoming the dualism between mind and body, recognizing
18

Dutch original: Immers, het is door de bestendige wisseling tussen Niet-zijn en Zijn dat men van het n het
wonder en van het ander de grenzen zal zien. [Duyvendak, 1980, 28; commentary on 32-33].
19
See Nagatomo, Shigenori : An Epistemic Turn in the Tao Te Ching: A Phenomenological Reflection.
International Philosophical Quarterly Vol. 23, No. 2 (June 1983), 173-189.
20
URL = <http://www.hku.hk/philodep/courses/EWEthics/ttc.htm#1>
21
Miller, 114-118.

the interaction of both. By this inner alchemical cultivation of purity and simplicity, these
daoists aim to reverse time itself and emerge from the living graves of their bodies as
transfigured beings who transcend spatial and temporal boundaries.
This becomes clear in the attempt to minimize the effect of desires, for desires are what bridge
our mental and physical natures. Here we find a justification for an ascetic lifestyle: monks
and nuns must practice celibacy and should avoid wine and meat. Vegetarianism seems to be
the rule, at least within the monasteries (Master Ni: the most basic principle of a daoist diet is
to eat simply; not many items should be consumed during one meal in order not to stir up
your desire, either psychologically or physically). But there is no absolute rule prohibiting sex
or alcohol: an adept can only achieve transcendence for oneself and must be given a flexible
working-environment. But the same individual also needs the master as an expert guide and
thus in general tends to obey the (his) rules.
In the lifestyle of the Ch'an-chen monk22 (12th 13th century) we find evidence of an ascetic
training aimed at the attainment of Perfected Man status. This process involved a complete
rejection of everyday comforts: getting by with the barest of necessities. By begging for food
the monk was to intentionally humiliate himself. This would help him to get rid of all feelings
and longings which could hinder his enlightenment and perfection. While the ideal of "pure
poverty" and begging pervaded the entire life of these monks, their life also included a period
of several years in which they had to undergo severe physical and psychological ordeals. The
goal was to maintain complete control of physical and emotional urges and to become
completely free of anger or fear. The Ch'an-chen masters saw in these ascetic practices both
elimination of karma and accumulation of merit points with the heavenly bureaucracy.
Without accumulating merit in this way, one was unqualified to be taught esoteric lifenurturing methods, one could not experience a mystical encounter with an Immortal, one
could not acquire the power to perform miracles, and one was unworthy of performing
important daoist rituals.
To cut off all family connections, maintaining an extremely simple lifestyle, not dislike being
poor: these can be linked with Laozi. But the Ch'an-chen monks also had to toil and suffer in
ways that exceeded the normal human capacity. Some of them seem to have felt that ascetic
extremes (e.g. enduring extreme heat/cold, living in caves, only one - coarse and tasteless meal a day, to go day and night without sleeping or sleeping lying in the snow) were
unavoidable. And these extreme practices do not find any justification in DDJ.
The Heshang Gong, an early (2nd century CE) commentary on DDJ, already stated that the
best way to protect the essential energy (jingqi) which is held in the human body is by
diminishing ones desires. Reduced desires lead to less stress on the body because fewer
external demands are placed upon it23.
The Chinese hermits who live in the mountains of the Xian (Sian) area and the Zhangnan
(Chungnan) mountains24 seem to prefer a simple lifestyle, but it is not always clear whether
they prefer poverty by choice or by necessity.
What does Laozi25 have to say on how to handle needs, desires, lusts?
22

See for an elaborate discussion: Steve Eskildsen, Asceticism in Chan-chen Taoism, URL = <
http://www.cic.sfu.ca/nacrp/articles/ascetic/ascetic.html>, or. publ. B.C. Asian Review vol. III-IV(1990).
23
Miller, 134-135.
24
See Bill Porter, Road to Heaven. Encounters with Chinese Hermits.
25
The following is a selective synthesis of DDJ 1, 3, 19, 34, 37, 44, 46, 50, 57, 64. See also Welch 1966, 38-41,

Not to display what is desirable will keep the people from being unsettled of mind (DDJ 3/8).
The sage ruler keeps the people free from desire (DDJ 3/9). The way is for ever free of desire
(DDJ 34/76a) and is but freedom from desire (DDJ 37/81). The sage desires not to desire and
does not value goods hard to come by (DDJ 64/156). If the sage(-ruler) is also free from
desire, the people of themselves will become simple like dao (DDJ 57/133).
The general rule is: have little thought of self and as few desires as possible (DDJ 19/43a).
Absence or a relative absence26 of desire is accepted as essential. Know contentment and
know when to stop, then you will meet with no danger and you will suffer no disgrace (DDJ
44/100). Because there is no crime greater than having too many desires, no disaster greater
than not being content, no misfortune greater than being covetous. In being content, one will
always have enough (DDJ 46/105-105a). He who knows contentment is rich (DDJ 33/75).
To return to dao could mean to live a simple(r) life, with fewer possessions; the more one has,
the more one has to worry about (DDJ 22). It could also mean: know when you have enough,
be content with little. It could advocate fewness of desires, meaning it would be wise to
reduce the desires fostered in you by human society: the desires for money, power,
importance. These artificial, unnatural desires bring their own downfall, they lead to
aggression and turn us away from self-cultiviation, they distract us from the search for our
original nature; competition is the seed and the fruit of the greatest social evils.
Natural desires as such, e.g. the needs of the body, do not lead to aggression. But it is unwise
to satisfy bodily desires beyond the bodys natural capacity for satisfaction: if we do so,
satisfaction will defeats itself. The rule seems to be: moderate sensuality (DDJ 12 and
52/118), annihilate ambition. A maximum reduction of (artificial) desires is brought in
harmony with a minimum satisfaction of (natural) needs. He who holds fast to the way desires
not to be full (DDJ 15/36).
4.3 Sexual lust
Unlike Buddhism, Taoism does not advocate asceticism. It pursues longevity and holds an
open view toward sex.27 True or false? Of course both.
For most religions, sexual lust is somewhat of a problem. DDJ (55/125) is quite short in
stating: It does not know of the union of male and female yet its male member will stir.
Master Ni28 in general favours reducing sexual activity and advocates celibacy for single
individuals. And for those who are married, sexual intercourse is only done for energy
adjustment. Daoists would never say wordly desires are sinful and will cause your downfall.
But there is a natural order to take into consideration: first discipline before sexual maturity,
then moderation of sexual expansion, finally, prolonging sexual capability. Celibacy is not put
forward as an ideal to be followed: it is irrelevant in spiritual practice except at certain stages
or for certain purposes. Above all, natural sex is valued29.
71, 73.
26
DDJ uses the two expressions desirelessness (wu-y) and reduction of desires (kua-y) interchangeably
(Waley, 91).
27
URL = < http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/religion/taoism/>
28
The following paragraphs rephrase Ni II, 25, 37-38, 175, 187 and on love and emotions, Ni I, 6, 26-27.
29
Masturbation is worse than actual sex as far as harming the bodys root because there is no nourishment from

Sexual energy is a vital and primary force in our lives and should never be neglected. It is a
store-house of useful energy which can be directed and refined towards your spiritual goal. By
the sublimation of sexual energy, you build a foundation for the growth of the natural spiritual
essence. Daoists do not set up external (moral) standards (like the ideal of celibacy) but the
sage can use continence as an aid in concentrating his energies and thereby acquiring greater
power (de). The use and manipulation of (sexual) energy is prominent in daoist yoga30.
Many people are victimized and enslaved by their emotions; emotion is only a small
component of their lives but they tend to completely identify with their emotions (expressed
in statements as I am happy, I am sad, ..). They are attached to their emotions and they
often consider them to be the most real part of their lives. Emotions are a luxury. You violate
your true nature through identification with or denial of your emotions. An open and loving
heart does not restrict the enjoyment of love; but particularized love cannot exist without its
opposite. Harmony is the basis of universal existence; we put the word harmony above the
word love; love could just be your personal energy projection
Daoist practice will wash away all your emotions and your psychological experiences.
Objectively watch your life, all experiences and all events; no thought or emotional
experience bothers you; one who abides with the long-living truth leaves all types of
extremes. Emotions are self-destructive
The universe forms an energy net for its own connection: all individual beings and things are
under the influence of the energy net in the vast arena of the universe. If we indulge in our
strong passions, emotions, desires and ambitions, the influence of the energy net will be
strong; if you live in harmony with the universe you will have no sign of the existence of this
net at all.
People become simple because the mind has few desires. Keep your energy centered, then
you are not easily tempted by desires. The mind can be kept unoccupied; daoists value the
non-occupied mind most highly. Artificial desires are those created by learned distinctions, by
using language (naming) and by accepting the standards of society (through socialisation and
education).
But what about the desires specific to the daoist sage, like the desire to become an
accomplished master? Or the desire to be one with dao?

5. The paradox of desire: desiring not to desire

In DDJ 64/156, the paradox of desire31 is expressed as sheng ren yu bu yu (
):
the opposite sex.
30
For an exposition of daoist yoga, see Lu, Kuan Y (Charles Luk) : Taoist Yoga. Alchemy and Immortality.
31
In a buddhist context, this paradox has been discussed by A.L. Herman, A solution to the paradox of desire in
Buddhism, Philosophy East and West 29/1(Jan. 1979), 91-94; Wayne Alt, There is no paradox of desire in
Buddhism, and Hermans reply Ah, but there is a paradox of desire in Buddhism A reply to Wayne Alt,
supported by John Visvader, Reply to Wayne Alts There is no paradox of desire in Buddhism, Philosophy
East and West 30/4(Oct. 1980), 521-528, 529-532 and 533-534; George Teschner trying to give a linguistic
solution in It is more difficult to crush a flower, Philosophy East and West 36/4 (Oct. 1986), 409-418.

the sage seeks freedom from desire32, wishes to be free from desires33, desires nothing34,
desires not to desire35, desires to have no desire(s)36 or only has the desire for desirelessness37.
Or: the wise man wants the unwanted38, the sage desires what (other men) do not desire39,
and for the wise, willing is non-willing40. Again a more complex formulation by Hansen,
Sages treat not-desiring as a desire and don't value goods difficult to obtain.41
We already agree that the constant Way is disclosed only to those who can be rid of personal
wishes or prejudices about it, by disregarding their own point of view42; and we agree that a
general reduction of needs, wants, desires, can be highly beneficial.
But the possible interpretations of DDJ 1/3 need to be confronted and combined with the
image of the sage but also with daoists who are on the way to become a sage.
The desire for salvation or enlightenment is clearly not a first-order desire: we do not want
enlightenment the same way as we want a new car. By distinguishing between four levels or
types of desires, we can clarify the position of the accomplished daoist sage in comparison to
a daoist adept and to a beginner on the path.
level 1: I desire X (X being one particular object)
Examples: I want a new car; I desire having the experience of watching this sunset; I would
like to eat a strawberry ice-cream at 8.00 PM today.
level 2: I desire Y (Y being a class of objects)
Examples: I want to lose weight and I desire not to eat sweet food any more and I desire to
prepare my lunches and dinners according to Weight Watcher rules; I want others to see me
as a wise philosopher so I try to play the part (buying the right type of books, dressing like
Wittgenstein and having a haircut like Marx); I want to become a sage so I desire a simple life
and because I believe sages do not have sexual experiences I desire not to have sexual desires.
level 3: I desire not to desire (meaning: I desire not to have any desires of level 1 or level 2 at
all). This desire is unique because it pertains to all possible classes of desires. It is the kind of
desire a daoist adept could develop or a beginner on the daoist path could have the intention
of developing.
level 4: non-desiring
This would be the life of an accomplished daoist sage: there is no longer a need to distinguish
between levels 1, 2 or 3 because the dao acts and lives through the sage; non-desiring would
be the attitude which transcends the difference between desiring and not desiring. To do
is to be and to be is to do: the desires the sage does or does not act out in his life are no longer
32

Feng, DDJ 64.

Kohn 1993, 289.
34
Wieger, 34.
35
Lau, 125; Henricks, 33; Der heilige Mensch begehrt, nicht zu begehren (Strauss, 145), but das Einzige, was
er begehrt, ist das Nichtbegehren (374). Duyvendak (186): [] begeert de heilige het niet-begeren.
36
Chan, 170; Lin, 64; Wang Pi, 181.
37
Welz, 79.
38
Blakney, 117. Similar, Waley (221): the Sage wants only things that are unwanted.
39
Legge, 108.
40
Chang 1977, 158.
41
Chad Hansen, URL = <http://www.hku.hk/philodep/courses/EWEthics/ttc.htm#63>.
42
Blakney, 53.
33

his desires, they belong to dao and as such are a necessary part of the natural order of
things.
Only on level 3 there can be a problem. Somebody who has the desire not to desire can be
faced with a pragmatical paradox. Because the desire at level 3 is and remains a desire and
thus reaffirs the daoist with sagely ambitions in his desiring. Whether this desire is seen as a
desire operating on level 1 or on level 2 depends on the position of the daoist his way to
enlightenment.
On level 3 the daoist can (will) claim I desire not to desire but there would be no possibility
for a daoist to claim I desire non-desiring, because there is no longer an I on level 4.
This distinction between the first three levels roughly corresponds to the three ways one can
deal with desire: satisfying desires (extreme: hedonism), to refrain from satisfying desires or
repressing desires (extreme: asceticism) and sublimating desires with a certain end in view
(extreme: the daoist techniques of longevity ...). None of these three strategies to deal with the
problem of desire will bring you closer to dao.

6. The daoist non-problem of desire

A daoist could make the transition from a contemplative dao to a more purposive dao43.
Such a purposive daoist would try to be without desire in order to gain the things that he
desired (DDJ 7 and 66). As an example: the search and thus the desire for personal
immortality contradicts contemplative daoism.
If a daoist was made aware of the distinction between contemplative dao and purposive dao,
he could form the intention only to follow the former and not the latter. This would prove to
be auto-destructive and he would find himself again being caught in the same type of
pragmatical paradoxes we discussed in 5.
But the same line of reasoning could apply to soteriological theories about enlightenment and
how to get it. Daoist monk Chen Shih-chieh44, living on Lishan mountain, 35 km east of
Xian, demolishes any concept of a daoist soteriology:
Nowadays, many people have become interested in practicing Taoist meditation and yoga. There are
many books that teach this. But what they dont teach is that this isnt the true Tao. In meditation and
yoga you go through stages. But the Tao doesnt have any stages. Many people are misled by books,
by names, by powers. After theyve practiced for a while, they think theyve realized the Tao. But they
havent. The Tao has no name. To follow the Tao is to return to nothingness.
People lose the Tao when they try to find it. They confuse existence with nonexistence. All we can do
is cultivate Te [virtue, spiritual power]. Te includes our spirit, our mind, our thoughts. True Te leads to
true Tao. But what most people cultivate isnt true Te. They cultivate powers and thoughts, and they
think theyve realized the Tao. But theyre wrong. To cultivate true Te is to get rid of all powers and
thoughts, to be like a baby, to see without seeing, to hear without hearing, to know without knowing.
First you have to cultivate Te. The Tao comes naturally.
But the Tao is empty. It cant be explained. [Porter 1993, 184]
43

Creel 1960, 94-97 and 1977, 5-7, 43-46. Creel sees in DDJ 1,3 a possible confirmation of his distinction
between contemplative and purposive daoism (47). See also Watts, 87-93, 96-98.
44
Abbot of Laomutien, a daoist temple honoring Nu-wa (Lao-mu), the Mother of Mankind, representing ultimate
emptiness; everything is from the womb of her emptiness. See Porter 1993, 183-186.

Of course, being a true daoist, he did use the daoist books his brother left behind ...
Anyway, for the accomplished or mature daoist sage, there can be no problem of desire. There
are only the desires which show themselves (desiring X and not desiring not-X) and the nonshowing of desire. Both are acceptable (because natural) and the daoist would follow an autodestructive strategy if he would prefer (desire) one of these two. The category of unnatural
desires would cease to exist for the daoist sage.

7. Turning back is how the way moves

Did we get anywhere? What have we learned?
A comparison of translations is interesting but doesnt go far. It is important to realise that all
of the above translations are correct. But the simplest translation of DDJ 1/3 seems to be the
best: no desire is to see constant dao (non-being), desire is to see not-constant dao
(being).
The general atmosphere of daoist philosophy is a basic disillusion with human life as it is
ordinarily lived. And yet, out out this disillusion has grown the most positive life-affirming
way of life the world has ever known.
Chinese mystics have concentrated on the transformation of body and mind, rather than on the
mystical experience itself45. Oneness or union with the Dao is the birthright of every being
and it becomes more natural as it is realized through practice. The longer and more intense the
practice, the more the experience gets integrated in life and being, and the less relevant the
experience becomes. The main difficulty is the pleasure-seeking nature of the ego-centered
self.
Without a body, no desire is possible. The reason we have great trouble is we have a body
(DDJ 13/30a). Daoists insist on the hermeneutics of the body the notion that our bodies
can be a repository of meaning and a medium of knowledge. This emphasis on embodiment
constitutes a profound challenge to Western academic intellectualism 46. This characteristic is
shared with most Indian yoga-systems. And yoga teaches us that conceptual paradoxes can be
resolved at an energetic level or are not perceived as paradoxes at all on this level.
For some, daoism seems to leave us without orienting theories47. But again master Ni:
[...] you can learn to enjoy your natural life and live it to its fullest. How then do you begin? Reflect a
moment on the following: Nothingness is somethingness. Though it sounds paradoxical, if you can
become attached to nothingness you can enjoy everything. When you become attached to particular
things, you limit the possibilities of your enjoyment. [Ni I,6]

Before human beings had developed much conceptually, daoism was unrecognizable from life
itself; it was just the plain path of life, nothing more and nothing less48. Daoism is certainly
45

See Kohn 1992, 10-12.

Miller 2003, 35. A good example of a bodily introduction to Daoism is Martelaere 2006 (see 153).
47
Martelaere, 167-177.
48
Ni, II, 7.
46

not a tool to reject life, but rather to start life over again, here and now. Daoists do not want to
get out of the world (breaking the cycles of reincarnation) and do not see life as a preparation
for a future life in some heavenly region. The qualities of a balanced and healthy person are:
gentleness, kindness, simplicity and easy-goingness.
The gentle motion of the watery way is the way of life: gradual, constant, subtle and gracefull.
Like water, inexhaustibly and persistently flowing toward the goal. The correct way to live is:
Take it easy.

Chinese summary
<>

()

<> (I.3.)
---
---

<><>

<>
()
()

--
--
<> (50.113.)

Sources (complete translations of Daodejing are marked with *)

*Blakney, R.B. : The Way of Life. Lao Tzu / A new translation of the Tao T Ching by R.B.
Blakney. New York : The New American Library, 1955. 134 p.
Chan, Alan : Laozi. In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2007 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.), forthcoming URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2007/entries/laozi/>.
[we used the Spring 2007 Edition]
*Chan, Wing-tsit : A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy / Translated and Compiled by Wingtsit Chan. New Jersey : Princeton University, 1973 [or. 1963]. xxv + 856 p. Translation
of Daodejing, 136-176.
*Chang, Chung-yuan : Tao: A New Way of Thinking / A Translation of the Tao T Ching with
Introd. and Commentaries by Chang Chung-yuan. New York : Harper & Row, 1977. xxx
+ 206 p.
Chang, Chung-yuan : Creativity and Taoism. A study of Chinese philosophy, art, & poetry.
New York : Harper & Row, 1970. 241 p.
Creel, Herrlee G[ ] : Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Ts-tung. New York : New
American Library, 1960 (cop. 1953). - 240 p. Chapter 6: The Mystical Skepticism of the
Taoists, 81-97.
Creel, Herrlee G[ ] : What Is Taoism? and Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History.
Chicago and London : University of Chicago, 1977. viii + 192 p.
*Duyvendak, J.J.L. : Tau-te-tsjing. Het boek van Weg en Deugd / Uit het Chinees vertaald en
toegelicht door J[an] J[ulius] L[odewijk] Duyvendak, nawoord van B.J. Mansvelt Beck.
Amsterdam : De Driehoek, 238 p. Derde dr. ongewijzigd naar de tweede dr. van 1950.
Eerste dr. 1942.
*Feng, Gia-fu : Lao Tsu. Tao Te Ching / A new transl. by Gia-fu Feng and Jane English.
New York : Vintage Books, 1972.
Hansen, Chad : Taoism. In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2007
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2007/entries/taoism/>.
*Henricks, Robert : Lao-tzu. Te-Tao Ching. A New Translation Based on the Recently
Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts / Transl., introd. and commentary by Robert G. Henricks.
London : The Bodley Head, 1990. xxxi + 282 p.
Kohn, Livia : Early Chinese Mysticism. Philosophy and Soteriology in the Taoist Tradition.
Princeton : Princeton University, 1992. ix + 218 p.
Kohn, Livia (ed.) : The Taoist Experience. An Anthology. Albany : State University of New
York, 1993. vii + 391 p.
*Lau, D.C. : Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching / Transl. with an Introd. by D.C. Lau. Harmondsworth :
Penguin Books, 1982 [transl. 1963]. 192 p.

*Legge, James : The Tao Teh King. Transl. by James Legge. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass,
1977 [or. 1891]. In: Part I of The Sacred Books of China. The Texts of Taoism, p. 47-124.
*Lin, Yutang : The Wisdom of China / Ed. by Lin Yutang. London : New English Library,
1963. With transl. of Laotse, The Book of Tao, p. 31-71.
*Liou, Kia-hway : Philosophes taostes. Lao-tseu, Tchouang-tseu, Lie-tseu / Avant-propos,
prface et bibliographie par tiemble. Textes traduits, prsents et annots par Liou Kia-hway
et Benedykt Grynpas. Relus par Paul Demiville, tiemble et Max Kaltenmark. Paris :
Gallimard, 1980.
Lu, Kuan Y (Charles Luk) : Taoist Yoga. Alchemy and Immortality. London : Rider, 1988.
xviii + 206 p. A translation, with introduction and notes, of The Secrets of Cultivating
Essential Nature and Eternal Life (Hsin Ming Fa Chueh Ming Chih) by the Taoist Master
Chao Pi Chen, born 1860.
Martelaere, Patricia de : Taosme. De weg om niet te volgen. Amsterdam : Ambo, 2006.
175 p.
Miller, James : Daoism. A Short Introduction. Oxford : Oneworld, 2003. xviii + 174 p.
Nagatomo, Shigenori : An Epistemic Turn in the Tao Te Ching: A Phenomenological
Reflection. International Philosophical Quarterly Vol. 23, No. 2 (June 1983), 173-189.
Ni, Hua Ching : 8,000 Years of Wisdom: Conversations with Taoist Master Ni, Hua Ching.
Book I. Includes Dietary Guidance ; Book II. Includes Sex & Pregnancy Guidance. Malibu,
California : The Shrine of the Eternal Breath of Tao, 1983. 236 p. ; 241 p.
Porter, Bill : Road to Heaven. Encounters with Chinese Hermits. San Francisco : Mercury
House, 1993. xi + 220 p.
Roth, Harold : Zhuangzi. In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2007
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2007/entries/zhuangzi/>
*Star, Jonathan : Tao Te Ching. The Definitive Edition. Lao Tzu / Transl. and Commentary by
Jonathan Star. New York : Jeremy P. Tarcher ; Penguin, 2003. 349 p.
*Strauss, Victor von : Lao-Tse. Tao T King / Aus dem Chinesischen bersetzt und
kommentiert von Victor von Strauss. Bearbeitung und Einleitung von W. Y. Tonn.
[Zrich?] : Manesse, [1950?]. 420 p. Erste deutsche bersetzung 1870.
*Waley, Arthur : The Way and Its Power. A Study of the TAO TE CHING and Its Place in
Chinese Thought / [Introd., transl. and commentary by] Arthur Waley. New York : Grove
Press, 1958. 262 p.
*Wang Pi : Commentary on the Lao Tzu / By Wang Pi [226-249], transl. by Ariane Rump in
collaboration with Wing-tsit Chan. [s.l.] : The University Press of Hawaii, 1979. xxxvii +
231 p. (Monographs of the Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy ; no. 6).

Watts, Alan : Tao: The Watercourse Way / With the collaboration [and foreword] of Al
Chung-liang Huang and additional calligraphy by Lee Chih-chang. London : Penguin
Arkana, 1992. xxvi + 134 p.
Welch, Holmes : Taoism. The Parting of the Way. Revised Edition. Beacon, 1966. viii +
196 p.
Welch, Holmes and Anna Seidel : Facets of Taoism. Essays in Chinese Religion. New
Haven and London : Yale University, 1979. 302 p.
*Welz, E.J. : Tao Te King / Vert. uit het Chineesch, Voorwoord, Inleiding en Toelichtingen
van E.J. Welz. Bussum : F.G. Kroonder, 1947. 118 p.
Internet
URL = <http://www.daoiststudies.org/>
- a very extensive site, academic throughout with a wealth of bibliographic information
and the web project of a complete pdf-version of the Daoist canon of the Ming
Zhengtong era
URL = <http://www.hku.hk/philodep/ch/>
- Chad Hansens Chinese philosophy pages with elements of an interpretive theory of
Classical Chinese philosophy that takes Daoism as the philosophical center; a
passionate defender of the philosophical integrity of Laozi and Zhuangzi
URL = < http://www.daoistcenter.org/Index.html>
- North American Center for Daoist Studies (CDS; Daoxue zhongxin ); check
out their list of common misconceptions under Contours of Practice
URL = <http://www.stanford.edu/~pregadio/taoist_studies.html>
- Taoist Studies in the World Wide Web; the site of Fabrizio Pregadio, lots of links
URL = <http://www.geocities.com/dao_house/index.html>
- the site of Dao house, a compendium of links to online Daoist resources;
- start with The Basics and enjoy some hidden surprises